Introduction

"The Age of Reason and Enlightenment" - this is how the great thinkers of the 18th century, heralds of new revolutionary ideas, spoke about their time. The 18th century entered the history of world culture as an epoch of great ideological and socio-historical shifts, the sharpest struggle against feudal-monarchical foundations and religious dogmatism. The spread of the materialistic worldview and the establishment of the spirit of love of freedom found a vivid reflection in philosophy, science, literature, educational activities major philosophers, scientists, writers of this time - Diderot and Holbach, Voltaire and Rousseau, Lessing, Goethe and Schiller, Lomonosov and Radishchev.

Russian culture is also entering a new period, having experienced a significant turning point at the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries. After a long period of forced cultural isolation due to three centuries of Mongol conquest, as well as the influence Orthodox Church, trying to protect Russia from everything "heretical", "Western" (including education, customs, forms of cultural life), Russian art embarks on the path of pan-European development and is gradually freed from the shackles of medieval scholasticism. This was the first century of the development of secular culture, the century of the decisive victory of the new, rationalistic worldview over the harsh, ascetic, dogmas of religious morality. "Secular" art acquires the right to public recognition and begins to play an increasingly important role in the system of civic education, in shaping the new foundations of the country's social life. And at the same time Russian culture XVIII century did not reject its past.

Joining the rich cultural heritage Europe, Russian leaders at the same time relied on indigenous domestic traditions accumulated over a long previous period of artistic and historical development, on the experience of ancient Russian art. It was precisely because of this deep continuity that Russia was able during the 18th century not only to take an active part in common process movement of world culture, but also to create their own national schools, firmly established in literature and poetry, in architecture and painting, in theater and music.

By the end of the century, Russian art achieves tremendous success.

General assessment of Russian culture of the 18th century

The significance of the shifts that have taken place in Russian culture is evidenced by the fact that for the first time in the 18th century, secular, non-church music leaves the realm of oral tradition and acquires the significance of high professional art.

The intensive growth of Russian culture in the 18th century was to a large extent due to major transformations in all areas of the life of Russian society, carried out in the era of Peter I.

Peter's reforms radically changed the whole structure of the cultural and social life of Russia. The old "domostroy" customs of the medieval ecclesiastical scholastic worldview are crumbling.

The political and cultural achievements of the Petrine era contributed to the strengthening of the people's feelings national pride, consciousness of the greatness and power of the Russian state.

An invaluable contribution to the development of Russian culture of the 18th century was made by Russian musicians - composers, performers, opera artists, who mostly came from the people's environment. They were faced with tasks of great difficulty, within a few decades they had to master the wealth of Western European music accumulated over the centuries.

In the general path of the historical development of the Russian Art XVIII century, there are three main periods:

The first quarter of the century, associated with the reforms of Peter;

The era of the 30-60s, marked by the further growth of national culture, major achievements in the field of science, literature, art, and at the same time the strengthening of class oppression;

The last third of the century (starting from the mid-1960s) was marked by great social changes, the aggravation of social contradictions, a noticeable democratization of Russian culture and the growth of Russian enlightenment.

Education

On the brink of the 19th century in Russia there were 550 educational institutions and 62 thousand students. These figures show the rise in literacy in Russia and, at the same time, its lagging behind in comparison with Western Europe: in England, in late XVIII in. counted in only Sunday schools more than 250 thousand students, and in France the number of primary schools in 1794 reached 8 thousand. In Russia, on average, only two people studied out of a thousand.

The social composition of students in general education schools was extremely diverse. The children of artisans, peasants, artisans, soldiers, sailors, etc. predominated in public schools. The age composition of students was also not the same - both kids and 22-year-old men studied in the same classes.

The common textbooks in schools were the alphabet, the book by F. Prokopovich "The First Teaching to the Young", "Arithmetic" by L. F. Magnitsky and "Grammar" by M. Smotrytsky, a book of hours and a psalter. Mandatory curricula was not, the term of study ranged from three to five years. Those who completed the course were able to read, write, know initial information from arithmetic and geometry.

A significant role in the development of education in Russia was played by the so-called soldiers' schools - general education schools for soldiers' children, successors and continuers of the digital schools of the time of Peter the Great. This is the earliest, most democratic in composition Primary School of that time, teaching not only reading, writing, arithmetic, but also geometry, fortification, artillery. It is no coincidence that in the second half of the XVIII century. a retired soldier, along with a deacon, becomes a literacy teacher both in the countryside and in the city - let us recall the retired sergeant Tsyfirkin, honest and disinterested, who tried in vain to teach Mitrofanushka "cyfir wisdom". Soldiers' children made up the bulk of the students of Moscow and St. Petersburg universities. The national military schools, opened in the second half of the 18th century, also belonged to the soldier type. in the North Caucasus (Kizlyar, Mozdok and Ekaterinograd).

The second type of schools in Russia in the 18th century are closed noble educational institutions: private boarding houses, gentry buildings, institutes for noble maidens, etc., more than 60 educational institutions, where about 4.5 thousand noble children studied. Although the gentry corps (Land, Naval, Artillery, Engineering) trained mainly officers for the army and navy, they provided a broad general education for that time. The first Russian actors, the Volkov brothers, and the playwright Sumarokov studied there; students participated in performances of the court theater. Class educational institutions were also noble boarding houses - private and state: the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens, the Noble Boarding School at Moscow University, etc. Well-educated noblemen who adopted the ideology of their class came out of them. These educational institutions enjoyed the greatest financial support from the government: 100 thousand rubles were allocated for one Smolny Institute. per year, while for all folk schools were given 10 thousand rubles. to the province, and this money went not only to public education, but also to the needs of "public charity" - hospitals, almshouses, etc.

The third type of educational institutions includes theological seminaries and schools. There were 66 of them, 20,393 people studied in them (meaning only Orthodox schools). These were also estate schools intended for the children of the clergy; commoners in them, as a rule, were not accepted. The main task of these schools was to train priests devoted to the church and the king, but students of seminaries also received a general education and often became literate guides in their parishes. A small number (about two dozen) of special schools (mining, medical, navigational, land surveying, commercial, etc.), as well as the Academy of Arts, founded in 1757, represented the fourth type of educational institutions. Although only about 1.5 thousand people studied in them, they played an important role in the training of specialists, in which Russia then especially needed.

Finally, the training of specialists was also carried out through universities - Academic, established in 1725 at the Academy of Sciences and existing until 1765, Moscow, founded in 1755 on the initiative of Lomonosov, and Vilensky, which was formally opened only in 1803, but actually acted as a university from the 80s of the XVIII century. Students of the philosophical, legal and medical faculties of Moscow University, in addition to science in their specialty, also studied Latin, foreign languages ​​and Russian literature.

Moscow University was large cultural center. He published the newspaper "Moskovskie Vedomosti", had his own printing house; various literary and scientific societies worked under him. D. I. Fonvizin, later A. S. Griboedov, P. Ya. Chaadaev, the future Decembrists N. I. Turgenev, I. D. Yakushkin, A. G. Kakhovskiy came out of the university.

It is necessary to soberly assess the results of the development of education in Russia in the 18th century. Noble Russia had an Academy of Sciences, a university, gymnasiums and other educational institutions, while the country's peasant and craftsmen remained largely illiterate. The school reform of 1786, so widely advertised by the government of Catherine II, was popular only in name, but in reality it was purely class in nature. We must not forget that the ideas of the Enlightenment were "the motto of tsarism in Europe." However, the genius of the people was able to manifest itself not thanks to the policy of "enlightened absolutism", but in spite of it. This is especially evident in the example of M. V. Lomonosov.

Russian science. M. V. Lomonosov.

There is no need to talk in detail about the life of M.V. Lomonosov: from school, everyone knows how this son of a Pomor fisherman secretly left his parents with a convoy to Moscow, suffered severe need and deprivation, but did not leave sciences, but became the first Russian academician, founded the Moscow University and, according to the apt definition of A.S. Pushkin, "itself was our first university." He was a scientist of encyclopedic knowledge, one of the founders of modern natural science, a physicist, chemist, astronomer, geologist, historian, poet and linguist.

The appearance of such a giant of science as Lomonosov in the conditions of serf Russia cannot be explained by mere chance, a whim of nature, a whim of fate. The previous development of Russian society prepared the great achievements of the 18th century, when Russian science, freeing itself from the fetters of the Middle Ages, experienced a kind of Renaissance. F. Engels characterized the Renaissance as an era "which needed titans and which gave rise to titans in the power of thought, passion and character, in versatility and scholarship." Russian science of the XVIII century. also needed such titans, and it is no coincidence that it was in the Russian Academy that the physicist and chemist Lomonosov, the mathematicians Euler and Bernoulli glorified their names with discoveries of world significance.

Research by foreign scientists invited to the St. Petersburg Academy contributed to the development of Russian and world science. But Russian science was created not by their heaps and not by the efforts of the "enlightened monarch". It was created by the Russian people, people of "different rank and rank." The peasants M. V. Lomonosov and M. E. Golovin (mathematician), the soldiers’ children I. I. Lepekhin, S. P. Krasheninnikov and V. F. Zuev were among the first Russian academicians; turner of the navigation school A. K. Nartov, hydraulic engineer and builder Kalmyk M. I. Serdyukov, the first Russian heating engineer, creator of the “fire-acting machine”, soldier’s son I. I. Polzunov, “Nizhny Novgorod townsman”, mechanic of the Academy of Sciences I. P. Kulibin - these are the true creators of science and new technology in serf Russia.

The achievements of Russian scientific thought were significant, and among them the brilliant conjectures and discoveries of M. V. Lomonosov stand out. Relying on living practice, on experience, materialistically evaluating all the phenomena of the surrounding world, Lomonosov strove for deep theoretical generalizations, for knowledge of the secrets of nature. He developed the atomic-molecular hypothesis of the structure of matter and became one of the founders of chemical atomism and physical chemistry. The universal law of conservation of matter and motion, discovered by Lomonosov, is of great importance for the whole of natural science, as well as for materialistic philosophy. The works of Lomonosov in the field of geology gave a correct explanation of the causes of the rise of continents and mountain building, the secular oscillatory movements of the Earth; the scientist laid the foundations of the comparative-historical method in geology. From the deep bowels of the Earth, “where nature forbids hands and eyes to reach” and where one has to “penetrate the mind,” Lomonosov turns to distant stars; world space, "the vastness of immeasurable places" attracts him both as a scientist and as a poet. Lomonosov's discovery, one of the first, of the atmosphere on Venus led to the creation of a new science - astrophysics; the "night-sighting tube" invented by him has been used today in the world of marine binoculars and searchlight tubes.

MV Lomonosov also acted as an innovator in the field of social sciences. He was not a professional historian, but his historical writings rightfully occupy a prominent place in Russian science. He fought Bayer and Miller's theory of the Norman origin of Russia, based on a critical study historical sources created a generalizing work “Ancient Russian History”, in which he wrote that the history of our Motherland does not begin with the calling of the Varangians, but that the Russian people and language extend into “deep antiquity”. Russian history is given by Lomonosov against the background of universal history.

The reform of Russian versification, begun by V. K. Tredyakovsky, was completed by Lomonosov, who closely connected the questions of poetry with the development of the Russian language. He created textbooks on rhetoric and grammar, he prepared the reform of Russian stylistics, which was subsequently carried out by A. S. Pushkin. Lomonosov did a lot for the development of Russian art. He revived the forgotten since the XII century. the art of mosaic, contributed to the promotion of such prominent artists and sculptors as F. S. Rokotov and F. I. Shubin.

Lomonosov's works were far ahead of his time; all the greatness of the scientific feat of this "Arkhangelsk peasant" was fully realized much later. But even during the life of Lomonosov, his works gained fame abroad, he was elected a member of the Swedish and an honorary member of the Bologna Academy of Sciences. Great mathematician L. Euler called it " brilliant man who, with his knowledge, does as much credit to the academy as to all science.

Lomonosov was not alone. The discoveries of a number of Russian scientists have made a golden contribution of Russian science to the world. The founder of the Russian mineralogical school, the son of the court musician V. M. Severgin did a lot to develop Lomonosov's ideas in mineralogy and geology. The works of Russian scientists in the XVIII century. Siberia was explored. "Description of the Land of Kamchatka" by S.P. Krasheninnikov was translated into four European languages. The names of S. I. Chelyuskin and the Laptev brothers forever remained on geographical maps North of our country. The studies of the outstanding naturalist, traveler and ethnographer I. I. Lepekhin opened the wealth of the Volga region, the Urals and Siberia to Russian science. A brief but expressive characterization from his biography: "Uma was quick, firm in judgments, accurate in research, correct in observations."

In the 1960s and 1970s, the Academy of Sciences conducted five expeditions that explored vast territories. In order to more clearly imagine the activities of these expeditions and their significance for science, let us dwell on one of them, led by Academician I. I. Lepekhin. In 1768, the expedition went along the Volga to Astrakhan, surveyed the Orenburg steppes, turned north along the Ural ridge, penetrated the Vychegda region, the Northern Dvina and reached Arkhangelsk. Having passed along the coast of the ocean, she returned to St. Petersburg in December 1772 through the Olonets region.

The expedition kept careful notes, which formed the basis of Lepekhin's Day Notes. We find here a description of the animal and plant world, mines and factories, the sights of cities and villages, the customs and way of life of peoples. Lepekhin supplied his study with drawings. The name of Academician Lepekhin became famous not only in Russia, but also abroad. In 1767 he received a doctorate in medicine from the University of Strasbourg, in 1776 he became a member of the Berlin Society of Naturalists. Lepekhin's "Notes" were, unlike many other scientific writings of that time, written in Russian, and not in Latin or German. Lepekhin was also engaged in pedagogical activities. For 16 years he was an inspector of the academic gymnasium and devoted a lot of time and effort to caring for her students. Developing the materials of his expedition, Lepekhin at the same time performed a number of other duties at the Academy of Sciences: he was a member of the commission for publishing translations, led the academic edition of Lomonosov's works, and participated in compiling an etymological dictionary.

In the second half of the XVIII century. the foundations of scientific biology are being laid in Russia. In 1793, the first medical journal in Russia was published - "St. Petersburg Medical Gazette".

Second quarter of the 18th century is the time of the formation of historical science in our country. The collection and publication of historical sources begins. The largest noble historian of this time, V. N. Tatishchev, is working on his Russian History, in which he makes an attempt to coherently present the events of Russian history from a noble point of view. The work of Tatishchev was used in the already mentioned "Ancient Russian History" by M.V. Lomonosov, M.M. Shcherbatov also proceeded from it, creating in the 70s of the XVIII century. his "History of Russia from ancient times." Shcherbatov's "History" is imbued with the desire to exalt the nobility, to justify serfdom and noble privileges. Frightened by the Peasant War led by E. I. Pugachev, the author condemns popular movements, although he understands their inevitability. Another noble historian, I. N. Boltin, a thoughtful and insightful scientist and critic, studied the history of not only the nobility, but also the merchants, clergy, and artisans. In his writings, he exalted the feudal system, the autocratic power of the tsar and the power of the landowners over the serfs.

Science in Russia in the 18th century. developed as part of world science. Russian scientists not only creatively perceived the achievements of Western European scientists, but also exerted an ever-increasing influence on world scientific thought. The general level of development of science in Russia was lower than in Western Europe, but each new achievement acquires all the more significance. The publications of the Russian Academy of Sciences were known to scientists from other countries. Overseas closely followed scientific life Petersburg. When the Russian physicist G. V. Richman died tragically, from a lightning strike, responses to his death appeared in Germany, England and France, describing the experiments of the deceased.

Outstanding figures of foreign science were elected honorary members of the St. Petersburg Academy - the materialist philosopher D. Diderot, the French naturalist J. Buffon, the American scientist and revolutionary W. Franklin.

However, the successes of Russian education and science did not become the property of the working masses. The masses were cut off from the achievements of culture, lived by interests far removed from it. The autocracy was afraid of the dissemination of knowledge. “Cherny should not be educated, since she will know as much as you and I, she will not obey us to the extent that she obeys now,” Catherine II wrote to Field Marshal PS Saltykov.

The people expressed their socio-political views and artistic ideas in oral art and applied arts.

Music of the 18th century

The Petrine Epoch laid the foundation for the development of a new type of secular music. The creativity of this time is still very insignificant: it is limited mainly to the simplest genres of applied music - military, table, dance.

On the streets of the new capital - Petersburg - military bands play; assemblies with dances are held in the palace; music sounds both at solemn celebrations, and at a military parade, and at theater stage. The construction of the new "Russian state" persistently demanded new, special, specific forms of music-making.

The new function of musical art was especially fully manifested in the genres of ceremonial, solemn music.

In honor of Peter I and his commanders, specially composed chants were sung, bearing the names of "panegyric" or "viat" cants.

From a musical and poetic point of view, the panegyric cantes were a typical expression of the heroic-patriotic sentiments of the Petrine era.

They gave birth to a special style of solemnly magnificent, hymnical choral music, a style that received its highest completion in choral concertos, cantatas and oratorios of the end of the century.

Dance genres were especially popular.

The dances of Peter's assemblies - the minuet, the polonaise, the anglaise - were firmly rooted in Russian soil, and some of them, primarily the minuet, became a favorite among noble society.

The musical repertoire of the Petrine assemblies was quite diverse.

AT last years During the reign of Peter, musical entertainment at the court takes on a different character.

Gradually, the most educated representatives of the Russian aristocracy began to join the music. Some of them were well versed in the art of playing the clavichord, violin and flute. At court, gallant songs of love-lyrical content ("arias"), performed to the accompaniment of a harpsichord, flute or violin, come into fashion.

Music also occupied a prominent place in the theatre. The first years of the reign of Peter I laid the foundation for the active development of theatrical life in Russia. For the first time, the herd theater is accessible to a relatively wide range of spectators. Instrumental music was a constant participant in all performances. To arrange theatrical productions, apparently, a rather large group of musicians was required.

Having begun its existence in the early years of the reign of Peter I, the Russian theater continued to grow and develop throughout the entire 18th century. The theater becomes an important center musical life in the post-Petrine era, when art is gaining more and more public recognition.

The era of the 30-60s of the XVIII century was marked by the growth of national self-consciousness and the strengthening of national cultural traditions. The activity of Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov, the first Russian scientist of world scale, was of great importance. Russian literature grew and grew stronger; the poetry of Russian classicism flourished, represented in the works of the same Lomonosov and his closest contemporaries V. K. Trediakovsky and A. P. Sumarokov. The successes of Russian art were clearly manifested in the work of the famous architect V. V. Rastrelli, in the portraiture of A. P. Losenko, A. P. Antropov and I. P. Argunov.

In the period of the 1930s and 1940s, music gradually moved out of the sphere of applied art and onto an independent path of development. Complex musical genres are mastered: opera, cantata, sonata, suite. Musical instruments, including the clavichord, violin and harp, are becoming more and more widespread in the life of the nobility. Chamber concerts are held at the court and in the houses of nobles. Choral chapels, orchestras and opera companies are being formed, Russian musicians are mastering the art of performing. Thus, the developing traditions of everyday and concert music-making prepared the ground for the subsequent emergence of the Russian school of composers.

Opera was the main genre characterizing the development of the musical art of the 18th century in Russia. It is not surprising that it was precisely in the opera genre that the creative potential of Russian composers of the 18th century manifested itself most clearly.

Along with operatic art gaining popularity in Russia various genres chamber music. In the middle of the 18th century, chamber concerts at court became commonplace.

Chamber music-making enjoyed great success in aristocratic amateur circles. By this time, the role of the court orchestra had grown noticeably.

In the early 60s, the orchestra was divided into two independent groups of musicians - performers of opera and symphony and ballroom music. Such differentiation was an undoubted sign of the growth of performing forces.

It is no coincidence that such gifted Russian composers as V.A. Pashkevich and I.A. Khandoshkin.

The last third of the 18th century is characterized by a significant democratization of musical and social life. Theatrical life goes far beyond the court, aristocratic life. Music education, music printing and music publishing are developing. Music becomes the property of wider circles of Russian society: home music-making is spreading in the small local and urban philistine environment.

The leading role in the musical life of Russia still belongs to the opera house. However, development musical theater by this time it was taking on a new direction: both the operatic repertoire and the composition of the audience were changing.

The successes of the domestic drama theater were of great importance for the development of the opera genre in Russia. Theatrical life reached a great upsurge in the period of 1770 - 1780s, in the era of the activities of the leading Russian playwrights Fonvizin, Nikolaev, Knyazhin, Kapnist. In 1776, the opening of the Petrovsky Theater took place in Moscow, on the basis of which the Bolshoi Theater subsequently arose.

Along with the city "free" theaters at the end of the 18th century, a network of serf theaters scattered throughout Russia was widely deployed.

The theaters of Count N. P. Sheremetev in his Kuskovo and Ostankino estates near Moscow were especially famous.

The Sheremetyev Theater was primarily an opera theater, and the basis of the repertoire was the latest theatrical "novelties" - comic operas by French and Italian composers. Walked on this stage the best works Paisiello, Piccini, Grétry and Monsini.

And the famous "first singer" of the Sheremetev Theater Praskovya Ivanovna Kovaleva (on the stage - Parasha Zhemchugova, 1768-1803) shone in the main roles, whose name entered into folk legends and was fanned with legendary glory.

Widely popular in the life of feudal Russia enjoyed special kind performing - music of horn orchestras.

At the end of the 18th century, horn orchestras also performed a fairly wide concert repertoire classical music(including the symphonies of Haydn and Mozart) and even participated in opera performances.

By the end of the 18th century, concert life was becoming more and more systematic.

Oratorio, choral concerts enjoyed great success with the public. Solo concerts were also organized at the same time.

The performances of the harpsichordists and organists V. Palshau, I. Gessler, A. Sartori, who are also known in Russia for their teaching activities, enjoyed great success.

successes music education and theater and concert life

created a solid foundation for further growth musical culture. If at the beginning of the century home music-making flourished only in a narrow circle of the Russian aristocracy and was largely a tribute to "foreign taste", now it has become a necessity.

Increasingly broad sections of the population are drawn to the art of music, despite class restrictions, and even representatives of the serf class now constitute almost the main group of professional musicians. By the end of the 18th century, one can speak of well-established, stable national traditions in the field of musical performance, opera house, concert life.

Opera XVIII century.

Among the various genres of professional music of the late 18th century, opera occupies the first place. It is the opera in this era that becomes the most developed, the most professional and at the same time the most mass form. musical creativity. The opera attracts both a wide audience and the best creative forces. The opera evokes lively responses in public opinion, in poetry, literature and criticism. With great immediacy and completeness, she reflects the progressive, democratic tendencies of Russian art.

In the opera, as in the comedy, the most acute, fundamental problems of Russian reality were touched upon, and above all the question of social inequality, the difficult, disenfranchised position of the serfs.

Russian opera of the 18th century is, first of all, a realistic opera-comedy household plan closely connected with the whole way of Russian public life.

At the end of the 18th century, a gallery of typical characters appeared on the opera stage, long familiar to the viewer from the comedies of that time.

The opera, in its own way, aptly ridiculed the backward morals of Russian society, scourged the vices of brutes and simpletons.

The critical, accusatory orientation determines the main, main trend of the realistic opera-comedy of the 18th century, which entered the circle of the most significant, progressive phenomena of Russian art of the Radishchev era.

The young art of opera in the 18th century clearly testifies to the amazing diversity of the development paths of the Russian school of composers.

Opera, with all the complexity and variety of its forms, nourished the entire Russian professional music contributed to the development of other genres.

The foundations of both Russian symphonism and Russian choral classics were rooted in it. Closely adjoining to the folk song and domestic romance, she also had an impact on professional vocal lyrics.

The active development of opera dramaturgy in the 18th century largely determined in advance the important role that the opera genre was destined to play in the work of classical composers.

Folk art of the 18th century

Rebellious poetic creativity invariably accompanies the people throughout its history, being an artistic response to the major events of reality. In different eras, folk art took different forms. For the 18th century characteristic is the emergence of new themes and images brought to life by changed historical conditions.

The central place in the oral folk art of the XVIII century. occupy songs and legends about Pugachev. No wonder A. S. Pushkin appreciated in them "the seal of living modernity." These songs were created during the battles of the rebels with the Tsarist troops. The people see in Pugachev not a “state thief, a monster, a villain and an impostor,” as the tsarist manifestos called him, but a people’s tsar, a peasant defender and avenger. AT folk tales Pugachev is a hero, a hero-commander who is closely connected with the people and opposes the nobility; he became the leader of the rebels, who

Thought it was right

The cause is right, I think honestly:

We are the noblemen of the lords - on the ropes,

We are deacons and yaryg - on collars,

We are breeders - on birches.

The people did not even believe the death of Pugachev - so great was the confidence in his strength. Pugachev's feat was praised not only by Russians: the Bashkirs, Mordovians, Tatars, Udmurts saw in him the spokesman of the people's aspirations. Together with Pugachev, his colleague Salavat Yulaev is glorified in Bashkir songs.

In addition to songs about Pugachev, in the XVIII century. previously created songs about Razin, about " good fellows, free people. Takova famous song"Don't make noise, mother green oak tree."

In the XVIII century. continued to thrive traditional genres folk art- epics, fairy tales, proverbs, sayings, everyday songs, etc. It cannot be considered an accident that in the 18th century. proverbs were written down, reflecting the idea of ​​​​freedom: “the will is for the master, but the bondage is for the serf”, “the will does not want bondage”, “the will is in the field”.

In handwritten democratic literature XVIII in. works of folk art penetrated, which could not be printed due to censorship slingshots. Such is the “Lament of Serfs”, which reveals with expressive comparisons the “ferocity” of the bar and the servitude of the serfs. “Wherever you turn, gentlemen are everywhere,” the unknown author of Lament exclaims woefully; death is the only escape from a difficult fate. The difficult life of the starving courtyards was reflected in the peasant Tale of the Pakhrin village of Kamkin. Now a complaint, now bitter laughter through tears is heard in handwritten parodies of official documents. In The Deaf Passport, the author bitterly speaks of the impossibility of a fugitive peasant finding work; poverty pushes him onto the path of robbery and robbery. The difficult soldier's service is vividly described in hand-written stories of soldier origin - in a parody petition to God and in the "Sorrowful Tale". Folk satire also penetrates popular prints - such is the picture “The bull did not want to be a bull”, where the people's dreams of social justice are expressed in an allegorical form.

The main motives of the oral folk drama are the sharp denunciation of the villainous tsar (the drama "Tsar Maximilian"), the servant's mockery of the ruined nobleman ("The Imaginary Master"), calls for reprisals against the nobles ("The Boat"). This genre of oral folk art reflected the class contradictions of that time in an intelligible playful way.

Russian democratic theater of the XVIII century. he also showed the nobles and churchmen in their true unsightly form, satirically exposed the stupidity of a judicial official, the greed and ignorance of a foreign charlatan doctor, the stupidity and arrogance of a parasite master. The folk theater is characterized by a sharp grotesque in the depiction of characters, expressiveness of gesture and dialogue, frequent improvisation of the text using general political and local everyday themes. These folk performances served as one of the national foundations of Russian everyday and satirical drama in the second half of the 18th century.

The artistic tastes of the working people are vividly embodied in works of applied art. In creations folk craftsmen there are images of folk life, satirical sketches of representatives of the ruling classes, fairy-tale images, floral and geometric ornaments.

Distaffs, looms, etc. were decorated with carvings or paintings. Painted children's toys of the 18th century. in a grotesque form, they ridicule a cutesy, pampered lady, a self-satisfied merchant, a fashionable nobleman. Images of animals and birds (rooster, falcon, horse, swan, etc.) can be found on all kinds of household items, furniture, gingerbread boards, etc. The peasant’s dishes were poor, but how lovingly painted clay and wooden bowls and ladles what fine carvings birch bark tuesas and wooden caskets are covered with, how much strict taste is invested in patterned fabrics, fine lace and colorful embroideries!

culture of the nobility.

Classicism

Russian culture of the second half of the 18th century. reflects the features of a rising nation. The social role of fiction is growing, which is gradually losing its former anonymous and handwritten character. Leading writers are active fighters for the ideas of enlightenment; the first literary journals appeared.

Although Russian writers and artists turned to the experience of Western European classicism, which was ahead of them in development, they sought to give this trend features national identity. Lomonosov said well about this: “In order not to introduce anything objectionable, but not leave anything good, one must look at who and in what it is better to follow.”

Unlike Western European classicism, in Russian classicism, full of the pathos of citizenship, enlightening tendencies and a sharp accusatory satirical stream were strong.

In literature, Russian classicism is represented by the works of A. D. Kantemir, V. K. Tredyakovsky, M. V. Lomonosov, A. P. Sumarokov. A. D. Kantemir was the founder of Russian classicism, the founder of the most vital real-satirical direction in it - these are his well-known satires. V. K. Tredyakovsky, with his theoretical works, contributed to the establishment of classicism, but in his poetic works the new ideological content did not find an appropriate artistic form. This was achieved in the genre of a solemn and philosophical ode by M. V. Lomonosov, for whom both this form and the appeal to the monarch were an occasion to promote the idea of ​​a nationwide cultural progress.

The traditions of Russian classicism manifested themselves in a different way in the works of A. P. Sumarokov and his school (M. M. Kheraskov, V. I. Maikov, Ya. Sumarokov laid the foundation for the dramatic system of classicism. In tragedies, under the influence of the reality of that time, he often refers to the theme of the uprising against tsarism, for example, in the political tragedy "Dmitry the Pretender". In his work, Sumarokov pursued social and educational goals, preaching high civic feelings and noble deeds; “The property of comedy is a mockery of the right,” wrote A. P. Sumarokov.

From the 70s of the XVIII century. Russian classicism in literature is in crisis; the aggravation of social contradictions and class struggle leads to the penetration of new themes and moods into literature. Thus, republican motifs appeared in Ya. B. Knyazhnin's tragedy Vadim Novgorodsky. But at the same time, the civil theme is pushed aside by love lyrics. From the leading literary trend, classicism becomes the literature of narrow reactionary feudal circles.

Classicism is gaining a dominant position in architecture and fine arts. He determined the appearance of St. Petersburg, where V. I. Bazhenov, A. D. Zakharov, A. N. Voronikhin, as well as foreign architects - G. Cameron, D. Quarenghi and others, built. Russian architects successfully solved the most important tasks of urban planning; their buildings are distinguished by clarity and logical design: rigor and laconism were combined in their work with the desire for monumental solemn images. Of particular note is the old building of the V. I. Lenin Library (the former house of P. E. Pashkov) in Moscow - the highest achievement of Bazhenov's work, a brilliant example of classicism, perfect in architectural image and ingenuity in decoration. Ensembles and public buildings created by Russian architects of the second half of the 18th century, such as the Senate building in the Moscow Kremlin (M. F. Kazakov), the Tauride Palace in St. Petersburg (I. E. Starev), are imbued with patriotic pride, ideas of triumph and power of Russia. The majestic simplicity and originality of the composition are combined in them with the compactness of volumes, light coloring, richness of the decoration of the facade of the building and the fence.

A characteristic feature of Russian classicism in sculpture was warmth and humanity. It is enough to look at the tombstone of N. M. Golitsyna in the Donskoy Monastery by F. G. Gordeev to feel the sublime sadness and wise restraint of quiet sorrow, expressed with the greatest sincerity. Russian craftsmen created samples monumental sculpture, distinguished by a majestic character, humanism of images, conciseness and generalization. One of the most remarkable monuments of this era is the monument to Peter I by E.-M. Falcone. He was a foreigner, but the monument he created should be considered within the framework of Russian culture, which predetermined the assessment of Peter I and the interpretation of his sculptural image. The figure of Peter, who stretched his hand forward, is rhythmically connected with the horse, and the whole statue is connected with a powerful pedestal, a stone rock weighing 80,000 pounds. Depth of thought, heroic interpretation of the image, pathos artistic intent make The Bronze Horseman the poetry of history, a symbol of Russia's great historical vocation.

Classicism was also reflected in historical painting. The paintings by A. P. Losenko “Vladimir and Rogneda” and “Farewell of Hector to Andromache”, the painting by G. I. Ugryumov “Testing the Strength of Jan Usmar” draw attention to themselves. However, in painting, the limitations of classicism affected more - the abstract ideal nature of the images, the conventionality of color, the imitation of the postures and gestures of ancient samples.

Russian theatrical classicism, which had developed by the middle of the 18th century, was laid down by the dramaturgy of Lomonosov and Sumarokov, who established the national-patriotic theme and the educational direction in the theater. The spread of classicism in theatrical art associated with the emergence in St. Petersburg in 1756 of the state public professional theater headed by the Russian actor F. G. Volkov. The largest actors of the Russian theatrical classicism there were also I. A. Dmitrevsky, P. A. Plavilshchikov, T. M. Troepolskaya. Their playing was notable for its subtle mastery in revealing passions and thoughts, and for the expressiveness of its declamation. A master of great stage temperament, F. G. Volkov left behind the memory of an inspired artist in the heroic images of the freedom-loving characters of the Sumarokov tragedy, who did not leave the stage at that time.

Sentimentalism

Classicism was not the only current of noble culture in the Age of Enlightenment. It was replaced by sentimentalism. He brought with him attention to the feelings and interests of the common man, predominantly from the "middle" class. The tragedy was replaced by a "tearful philistine drama" and a comic opera. The sublime language of the tragic heroes ceases to excite the listeners, who enthusiastically meet the “mixture of fun with sorrow in the actions” and shed tears over sensitive stories. The creator of the genre of sentimental story and sentimental journey in Russian literature, N. M. Karamzin sought to convey the subtle and deep experiences of ordinary people. However, in his works, in a conservative spirit, he painted idyllic relations between landowners and peasants. N. M. Karamzin was afraid of the performance of the peasants, the ghost of the French bourgeois revolution of the 18th century. and therefore reconciled with feudal reality.

The influence of sentimentalism was also reflected in architecture, especially park architecture, with various "grottoes of solitude", mysterious gazebos hidden in the twilight, in the stylization of "wild" nature. One of the works of the agronomist and noble memoirist A. T. Bolotov is called “Some General Notes on Gentle Melancholy Gardens”. Most of the estates of the XVIII century. was created with the participation or projects of serf architects and gardeners.

In painting, sentimentalism was reflected in "sensitive" subjects, in the sugary-sugary interpretation of peasant images, in the pastoral depiction of nature. In M. M. Ivanov’s painting “Milking a Cow”, all the artist’s attention is focused not on peasants (his images do not look like them!), but on meek sheep, on an idyllic picture of peaceful rural life. Looking at this canvas, one cannot think that it was written in 1772 - on the eve of the Peasants' War. Sentimental themes are also strong in the work of the landscape painter S. F. Shchedrin, who painted traditional “landscapes with cattle”, peasant huts of fantastic architecture and idyllic “rural amusements” of shepherds and shepherdesses.

One of the prominent sentimentalists in portraiture was V. L. Borovikovsky. Created by him female images(for example, the portrait of M. I. Lopukhina) are full of tender elegiac feelings and idyllic moods.

The founder of sentimentalism in the Russian theater is the actor V. II. Pomerantsev. Theater of the 70-80s of the XVIII century. often turned to pastoral operas and comedies. Such is Maykov's "Village Holiday", at which the tender peasants sing in chorus: "We have a lot in the field and live according to our will, you are our master and father! »

Such are the “tearful dramas” of Kheraskov with heartbreaking scenes and an idyllic end, with the reward of virtue and the denunciation of vice.

Sentimental-idyllic "sensibility" penetrated into the music. The romance “The Dove Dove is Moaning” (words by I. I. Dmitriev, music by F. M. Dubyansky) outlived its creators for a long time, continuing into the 19th century. disturb the hearts of merchants and petty bourgeoises.

Sentimentalism in Russian culture arose during the period of the formation of new, bourgeois relations in the depths of the feudal-serf system, and its struggle with classicism was a reflection of deep socio-economic processes. Therefore, for all the political limitations of sentimentalism, it was a progressive trend for its time.

Conclusion

The eighteenth century in the field of culture and life of Russia is a century of deep social contrasts, the rise of education and science.

The 18th century was significant for Russia with noticeable changes and significant achievements in the field of art. Have changed it genre structure, content, nature, means artistic expression. And in architecture, and in sculpture, and in painting, and in graphics, Russian art entered the pan-European path of development. Back in the bowels of the 17th century, in the time of Peter the Great, the process of “secularization” of Russian culture took place. In the formation and development of a secular culture of a pan-European type, it was impossible to rely on the old artistic cadres, for whom the new tasks were beyond their capacity. Foreign masters invited to the Russian service not only helped to create new art, but also were teachers of the Russian people. Another no less important way of obtaining professional training was sending Russian masters to study in Western Europe. So many Russian masters received high training in France, Holland, Italy, England, Germany.

Russian art, as we shall see below, continuing to develop in the 18th century on new European principles, still remained expressed as a national phenomenon with its own specific face, and this fact in itself is very significant.

However, unlike the previous period of time, the culture was greatly influenced by the nobility, and the dominance of foreigners also continued.

During this period, Russian science and education continued to develop, although serfdom and autocracy greatly hindered this. Nevertheless, the tsarist government had to take some measures to spread education - this was required by the era.

In the development of education in Russia in the second half of the XVIII century. two trends are clearly visible. The first of them manifested itself in a significant expansion of the network of educational institutions; the second was expressed in the strengthening of the influence of the principle of class on the formulation of education.

The development of science is closely connected with the spread of education. The need to know the laws of nature and the increased interest in the study of the country's resources were caused by economic needs.

List of used literature

1. "Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Russian Artist." Pedagogy. 1983

2. A. N. Petrov. "Russian architecture of the first half of the 18th century." 1954.

3. Large Soviet Encyclopedia, - M.: 1975. Volumes 18,19,20,21.

4. V.V. Mavrodin "The Birth of a New Russia.", - M., 1998.

5. Essays on Russian culture. Higher School of Moscow State University 1990 B.A. Rybakov.

6. History of Russian music. T. 1. From ancient times to the middle of the 19th century. 1973. O. Levasheva, Yu. Keldysh, A. Kandinsky.

7. Russian lira. "Essays on Musical Russia". 1971. Mironov A.G.

8. About Russian art. Collected works vol. 24. M., 1953. Gorky A.M.

9. At the origins of the Russian theater. Kuzmin A.I. M. 1984.

10. Rybakova B. A. History of the USSR from ancient times to the end of the XVIII century. M.: Higher school. 1983.

11. Krivorotov V. Milestones. Ups and downs of Russia's special path // Knowledge is power. No. 8, 9. 1990

12. Anisimov E.V. Birth of an empire // book. History of the Fatherland: people, ideas, solutions. Essays on the history of Russia in the 9th - early 20th centuries. Moscow: Politizdat. 1991.

K. Marx and F. Engels. Works, vol. 22, p. 24.

K. Marx and F. Engels. Works, vol. 20, p. 346.

M. V. Lomonosov . complete collection works, vol. 6. M.-L., 1952, p. 178.

At the end of the 18th century, the development of Russian culture entered a new stage of development. Formed national culture, the centuries-old process of accumulation of knowledge is entering the stage of the formation of sciences, the literary Russian language is taking shape, national literature is appearing, the number of printed publications is increasing, masterpieces of architecture are being built, painting and sculpture are developing.

The old church and class schools have ceased to satisfy the need for the quantity and quality of educated citizens. Since the 1980s, the government began to create general educational institutions. In 1786, according to the "Charter of Public Schools", the main public schools were established with four classes in provincial cities, and in county towns- small public schools with two classes. The number of estate schools for the education of nobles increased. An outstanding figure in the field of education was I.I. Betsky. In addition to public schools, he created a school at the Academy of Arts, a Commercial School, a nursing department at the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens.

main center scientific activity was the Academy of Sciences. In order to develop higher education in Russia, on January 12, 1755, Moscow University was opened with two gymnasiums, which became the center of Russian education. Unlike European universities, education in it was free for all classes (except for serfs). In 1773, the Mining School was opened in St. Petersburg. The creation of a network of higher educational institutions required the publication of new textbooks. They were developed by the Academy of Sciences and Moscow University. An outstanding role in the development of domestic science was played by M.V. Lomonosov is a multi-talented scientist, poet, historian and naturalist.

Special development in the 18th century. received the natural sciences. In the 20-50s. 18th century The Academy of Sciences organized the Great Northern Expedition to explore the northeast of Asia, the Arctic Ocean, and the northwest of America.

In the 60-80s. a comprehensive study of the North of the European part of Russia was carried out. The most important geographical discoveries were made by S.I. Chelyuskin, S.G. Mapygin, Laptev brothers. V. Bering and A.I. Chirikov passed between Chukotka and Alaska, opening the strait between America and Asia.

In the second half of the 18th century there is a rise in technical thought. I.P. Kulibin created a project for a single-arch bridge across the Neva, invented a searchlight, an elevator, and prostheses for the disabled. I.I. Polzunov was the first to develop a project for a universal steam engine.

The literature of this period is represented by three directions. Classicism represents the work of A.P. Sumarokov (tragedy "Dmitry the Pretender", comedy "Guardian"). N.M. writes in a romantic style. Karamzin (" Poor Lisa"). The artistic and realistic direction is represented by D.I. Fonvizin (comedies "Brigadier" and "Undergrowth").

In 1790, A.N. Radishchev "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow", which contained a protest against serfdom.

The architecture was dominated by the Russian baroque style, which was distinguished by special luxury. It was a fusion of European classicism and domestic architectural traditions. culture russia scientific julian

The largest architects of this direction were V.V. Rastrelli in St. Petersburg and D.V. Ukhtomsky in Moscow. The style of classicism in St. Petersburg was represented by D. Quarenghi, N.A. Lvov and C. Cameron. In Moscow, in the style of classicism, V.I. Bazhenov and M.F. Kazakov.

Russian painting is being improved in traditional portraitism (works by F.S. Rokotov, D.G. Levitsky, V.L. Borovikovsky). M. Shibanov laid the foundation for genre painting. The founders of landscape painting - S.F. Shchedrin and F.Ya. Alekseev. The first paintings in the historical genre were created by A.P. Losenko.

Remarkable creations are created by sculptors F.I. Shubin is a master of sculptural portrait and M.I. Kozlovsky, who became the founder of Russian classicism in sculpture.

In the era of Peter I, all traditional ideas about the way of life were broken. Russian society. The tsar, by order, introduced barbering, European clothes, and the obligatory wearing of uniforms for military and civil officials. The behavior of young nobles in society was regulated by Western European norms.

An important innovation of the Petrine era was the adoption in Russia julian calendar. Since 1700, the beginning of the year began to be considered not September 1, but January 1, and the years began to be counted from the Nativity of Christ, and not from the Creation of the world, as was previously customary in Russia.

Catherine II, considering herself an "enlightened monarch", decided to create a "new breed of people." Based on the ideas of the French enlighteners, in those days it was believed that a child isolated from the family and placed in the care of educators could grow up as an ideal person.

The project was the creation of closed educational institutions of the boarding type, accepting children at the age of 5-6 and releasing them into life by the age of 18-20.

Results of the development of Russian culture in the 18th century.

• The culture of Russia developed under the influence of the Peter the Great Reformation and the ideas of the Enlightenment, in this era it was of a secular nature.
• Cultural development reached a high level.
• The culture of Russia was distinguished by democracy and humanism.
• During this era, the foundations were laid modern system enlightenment.

ALL-RUSSIAN CORRESPONDENCE FINANCIAL AND ECONOMIC

INSTITUTE

DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY OF ECONOMY, POLITICS AND CULTURE

TEST

in the discipline "Culturology"

"Features and main achievements of Russian culture of the XVIII century"

Executor:

speciality

record book number

Teacher:

Plan

1. Introduction……………………………………………………………………… 3

2. Features and main achievements of Russian culture of the XVIII century ..…… 3

3. Conclusion…………………………………………………………………... 12

4. List of used literature………………………………………. 13

Introduction

In the 18th century, Russian culture entered a new period of its development. After a long period of forcible cultural isolation due to the three centuries of Mongol conquest, as well as the influence of the Orthodox Church, which tried to protect Russia from everything "heretical", "Western", Russian art embarks on the path of pan-European development and is gradually freed from the shackles of medieval scholasticism. This was the first century of the development of secular culture, the century of the decisive victory of the new, rationalistic worldview over the harsh, ascetic, dogmas of religious morality. "Secular" art acquires the right to public recognition and begins to play an increasingly important role in the system of civic education, in shaping the new foundations of the country's social life. At the same time, Russian culture of the 18th century did not reject its past. Joining the rich cultural heritage of Europe, Russian figures at the same time relied on the indigenous domestic traditions accumulated over a long previous period of artistic and historical development, on the experience of ancient Russian art.

Features and main achievements of Russian culture of the XVIII century.

Peter's reforms contributed to the economic and political rise of the state. Enlightenment has advanced a lot, which had an impact on the further development of culture.

From January 1, 1700, it was introduced new chronology - from the Nativity of Christ. In 1719, the first natural history museum in Russia was created - Kunstkamera.

For the first time under Peter 1, education became a state policy, general and special schools were opened, conditions were prepared for the founding of the Academy of Sciences. Young people began to be sent abroad to learn a craft - ship and maritime business, as well as science and art.

In 1701, a school of mathematical and navigational sciences was opened in Moscow - navigation school – the first secular state educational institution. Under the Ambassadorial Order, a school was created for teaching foreign languages, and later - the school of clerical employees. A number of vocational schools were created in Moscow and other cities - Artillery, Engineering, Medical, at the Ural factories - mining schools. At first, along with children, nobles and children of commoners were admitted to schools, but gradually schools began to turn into closed educational institutions only for noble children.

In the first quarter of the 18th century, the so-called digital schools - state primary general education schools for boys of all classes, except for peasants. Those who did not have a certificate of graduation from the digital school were not even allowed to marry. In 1786 was published Charter of public schools - the first legislative act in the field of education. For the first time, unified curricula, a class-lesson system were introduced

The organization of secondary higher education was closely connected with the creation Academy of Sciences (officially since 1724). At first, there were only foreigners among the academicians. Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov (1711-1765) became the first Russian academician, a scientist of world significance. He was also the largest Russian poet who laid the foundations of the modern Russian literary language. Lomonosov did a lot for the development of Russian science and the organization of education.

In 1755, on the initiative of M.V. Lomonosov, University of Moscow, became a major cultural center. He had philosophical, legal, medical faculties.

At the end of the XVIII century in Russia there were 550 educational institutions and 62 thousand students. The book publishing business has grown significantly. In 1708-1710. a font reform was carried out, simplifying the complex Cyrillic alphabet. Were introduced civil (as opposed to church) alphabet and civil seal, which contributed to the increase in the publication of secular, civil books, including textbooks.

The first Russian printed newspaper was Vedomosti (1702-1727), published by decree of Peter 1. In 1703-1704. 39 numbers came out. Since 1710 The newspaper was printed in civil type.

Extensive book publishing activities greatly accelerated the development of literature. The introduction of civil type helped to strengthen secular language, although Church Slavonic was still widely spoken.

At that time, poetic works were popular - satires, odes, fables, epigrams of the Russian poet and educator Antioch Cantemira (1708-1744).

The founder of Russian dramaturgy was A.P. Sumarokov(1717-1777), poet, author of the first comedies and tragedies, director of the Russian Theater in St. Petersburg.

The last quarter of the 18th century was the heyday of the work of a major poet of that time Gabriel Romanovich Derzhavin(1743-1816). The main genre of his works was Oh yeah. In them, he gave a broad picture of his contemporary life: landscape and everyday sketches, philosophical reflections, satire on the nobles. His famous ode "Felitsa" imbued with the idea of ​​a strong state power.

Russian manners and customs expressed in his social comedies "Foreman" and "Undergrowth" Denis Ivanovich Fonvizin (1744/45-1792), who denounced ignorance and tyranny.

founder Russian sentimentalism ((from French - feeling), a trend in literature and art at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries, proclaiming the cult of feelings and nature) became Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin(1766-1826), novelist "Poor Liza", "Village", "Natalya, the boyar's daughter".

In the Petrine era, innovations were introduced both in architecture and in construction, due to the requirements of the government to express the strength, power and greatness of the Russian Empire in architectural structures.

The most notable buildings of that time in Moscow were Khamovny yard, Cloth yard, Big stone bridge, Arsenal in the Kremlin, as well as a three-story building Main pharmacy, where the first Russian university was located at the beginning.

An outstanding architect of Moscow in the 50s of the XVIII century was Dmitry Vasilievich Ukhtomsky(1719-1774). He not only headed the "architectural supervision" of construction in Moscow, but also developed an intensified architectural activity. According to his design, the triumphal Red Gates were replaced in 1753 with stone ones.

The most interesting and significant work of Ukhtomsky was bell tower of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra.

In 1749 Ukhtomsky organized in Moscow the first in Russia architectural school, in which, under his leadership, such outstanding Russian architects as V.P. Bazhenov, M.F. Kazakov, I.E. Starov and others.

The Petrine era is characterized, first of all, by the construction of a new capital - Petersburg(since 1703), for which foreign architects were invited Trezzini, Rastrelli.

Among the public buildings of St. Petersburg stood out Gostiny Dvor, Exchange, Admiralty.

Simultaneously with Petersburg were built country palaces with famous park ensembles. Peterhof was conceived as a country residence of Peter I, which he wanted to liken to Versailles.

Decisive for the dawn of the Russian Baroque style was the activity of Rastrelli's father and son. Bartolomeo Carlo Rastrelli (1675-1744), Italian sculptor, worked in St. Petersburg from 1716. He took part in the decoration of Peterhof, made sculptural portraits of Peter I and Empress Anna Ioannovna with a black child.

His son- Bartolomeo Rastrelli(1700-1771) - in Russia they called Bartholomew Varfolomeevich, he was already a Russian architect. The style of his architecture is Russian baroque, which absorbed Western and Russian traditions. He is the author Smolny Monastery and Winter Palace In Petersburg, Grand Palace in Peterhof, Catherine Palace in Tsarskoye Selo, etc. Rastrelli loved scope, splendor, bright colors, used rich sculptural decoration, intricate ornament.

In the 60s of the XVIII century, Russian baroque in architecture was replaced by Russian classicism which reached its peak at the beginning of the 19th century. Architects V.P. Bazhenov, M.F. Kazakov and I.E. Starov.

A talented Russian architect was Vasily Petrovich Bazhenov(1737/38-1799), he built: palace and park ensemble in Tsaritsyno, Pashkov House- most beautiful building XVIII century in Moscow, Mikhailovsky Castle In Petersburg.

Also famous is the name Matvey Fedorovich Kazakov(1738-1812), who developed types of city houses and public buildings in Moscow. According to his projects built: Senate in the Moscow Kremlin, Moscow University, Golitsyn Hospital(now the First City), Petrovsky Palace, erected in pseudo-Gothic style, Nobility Assembly with great hall of columns. Kazakov supervised the drawing up of the master plan of Moscow, organized the School of Architecture.

Ivan Egorovich Starov(1745-1808) - the author of a number of remarkable architectural creations in St. Petersburg: Trinity Cathedral of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra and the Tauride Palace- a monument to the victory in the Russian-Turkish war.

The surviving buildings of the 18th century are still not only an adornment of Russian cities, but also masterpieces of world significance.

In the 18th century, it undergoes changes and art- painting, sculpture, etc. This is the heyday portrait painting.

The most famous artists of that time - Andrey Matveev(1701-1739) and Ivan Nikitin(c. 1690-1742) - the founders of Russian secular painting. They studied painting skills abroad. Andrei Matveev owns the first in Russian art "Self-portrait with wife". In portraits "Outdoor Hetman" "Peter I on his deathbed" Ivan Nikitin was far ahead of his contemporaries in terms of depth and form of artistic expression.

By the end of the 1920s, there was a turning point to the courtier direction in painting. The best portrait painters of the 18th century - A.P. Antropov, F.S. Rokotov, D.T. Levitsky, V.L. Borovikovsky, sculptors - F.I. Shubin and M.I. Kozlovsky. It was a time of intensive development of personality, which was reflected in the portraits of artists.

The greatest portraitist was Dmitry Levitsky(1735-1822). He created a rich series of ceremonial portraits - from a portrait of Catherine II to portraits of Moscow merchants. In his works, solemnity is combined with colorful richness. His portraits of women are distinguished by the vitality of the images, especially the "Smolyanka", pupils of the Smolny Institute.

The classical direction was represented Mikhail Kozlovsky(1753-1802) - sculptor and draftsman. His work is imbued with the ideas of the Enlightenment, sublime humanism, and vivid emotionality. This was especially pronounced in the statue for the cascade in Peterhof. "Samson Ripping the Lion's Mouth"- an allegorical figure personifying the victory of Russia over Sweden. His monument to A.V. Suvorov in Petersburg.

At the end of the 18th century, one of the richest art collections in the world was formed - Hermitage . The Hermitage (from the French ermitage - a place of solitude) is one of the world's largest art and history museums. Hermitage buildings - the Winter Palace (1754-1762, architect V.V. Rastrelli), the Small Hermitage (1764-1767, architect J.B. Valen-Delamot), the Old Hermitage (1771-1787, architect Y.M. Felten), New Hermitage (1839-1852, architect L. Von Klenze), Hermitage Theater (1783-1787, architect G. Quarenghi). It is based on a private collection of paintings by Western European masters (since 1764) of Catherine II. Opened to the public in 1852.

The fine arts of the 18th century made a significant step forward in the development of the secular trend.

The development of the theater continued in the 18th century. In 1702, at the behest of Peter I, a public public theater intended for the general public. Especially for him, a building was built on Red Square in Moscow - the Comedy Temple. In 1706, the theater ceased to exist, as it did not receive subsidies.

In the middle of the 18th century, foreign acting groups - French, German and others - performed in many cities. But among the public, interest in the Russian theater grew, associated with a general rise in national self-consciousness. In 1750, performances of the first public theater began in Yaroslavl with Russian actors, artists, and musicians. His repertoire also included Russian plays. The theater was headed by the first famous Russian actor Fedor Grigorievich Volkov(1729-1763). Tsarina Elizaveta Petrovna ordered Fyodor Volkov and the entire troupe to court, and in 1752 the theater moved to St. Petersburg. On the basis of this troupe, in 1756, by decree of the Empress, a theater was created "for the presentation of tragedies and comedies." Sumarokov became its director, and the first court actor was Fyodor Volkov, who became famous for playing the main roles in the tragedies of A.P. Sumarokov. Thus, the first permanent professional state public theater was created under the name Russian theater (since 1832 - Alexandrinsky).

In 1779, a private theater was created on the Tsaritsyn meadow (Field of Mars), which was directed by a famous Russian actor I.A. Dmitrievsky(1734-1821), who played in the theater of F. Volkov in Yaroslavl. In this theater, the plays of D.I. Fonvizin, but in 1783, by decree of Catherine II, the theater was closed.

In 1780 in Moscow was opened Petrovsky Theater where drama, opera and ballet performances were staged.

Ballet in Russia it originated as separate dance numbers in intermissions, first in drama, then in opera performances. Gradually, ballet troupes began to take shape.

With the accession to the Russian throne in 1741, the daughter of Peter I, Elizabeth, a decree was issued on the establishment in St. Russian ballet troupe.

The first Russian ballet librettist was A.P. Sumarokov.

Timofey Bublikov became the first dancer in St. Petersburg, received the court rank and the title of dance master of the court. In Moscow, famous ballet dancers were: Ivan Eropkin, Vasily Balashov, Gavrila Raikov. The first Russian choreographers were Balashov and Raikov, who staged comic ballets and divertissement in Moscow. Arina Sobakina became the leading Moscow dancer.

There was also fortress theater- These were noble theaters with a troupe of serfs. Basically, such theaters were created in Moscow and the Moscow region (the theaters of the Sheremetevs, Yusupovs and others). The history of the theater includes the names of serf actors: Praskovya Zhemchugova, Tatyana Shlykova-Granatova.

Fortress theaters became the basis of the Russian provincial stage.

In the 18th century, secular musical art began to spread widely.

In 1802 in St. Petersburg was created Philharmonic Society which performed ancient and classical music. In the last third of the 18th century, the composer school, the first Russian composers appear - authors of opera, choral, instrumental, chamber music. A major achievement of the Russian musical culture of that time was the musical melodrama "Orpheus" composer E.I. Fomina (1761-1800). He was also the creator of a song opera based on a national Russian plot. "Coachman on a base", operas "Americans" and other works. During this time he created operas and D.S. Bortnyansky (1751-1825) – "Falcon", "Rival Son" and others. Bortnyansky is the author of about 200 pieces of music.

At the turn of the 18th-19th centuries, the genre of chamber lyrical song appeared - Russian romance to the verses of Russian poets. One of the creators of the Russian romance was O.A. Kozlovsky(1754-1831), who wrote "Russian songs" heroic-patriotic polonaises. One of them to the words of G.R. Derzhavin "Thunder of Victory Evolve" has long been the Russian national anthem.

Conclusion .

The results of the historical and cultural development of Russia in the 18th century are very significant. The development of Russian national traditions in all types of art continued. At the same time, the strengthening of ties with foreign countries contributed to the penetration of Western influence on Russian culture. Strengthening the power of the Russian state, which became one of the largest states in the world, contributed to the formation of the Russian nation and the single Russian language, which became the greatest cultural wealth of the Russian people. All areas of culture were developed - education, printing, literature, architecture, fine arts. There was a secularization, secularization of culture, the penetration of the ideas of the Enlightenment into Russia. This contributed to the emergence of new types of culture - the first literary magazines, fiction, public theater, secular music. There is a formation of Russian classicism. The sphere of spiritual activity of the Russian people has significantly expanded.

List of used literature:

1. History of world culture: Textbook for universities / Ed. prof. A.N. Markova. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: Culture and sport, UNITI, 1998. - 600 p.: ill. color

2. V.V. Mavrodin The birth of a new Russia - M .: 1998

3. Lecture notes (lecturer - Aysina Faina Osmanovna).

Science, education, publishing have reached, many educational institutions and libraries have been opened. Outstanding works of culture have been created in architecture, sculpture, painting, theater, literature, etc. Numerous figures of science and culture have glorified Russia throughout the world.

For Russia, as well as for Western European countries, the XVIII century. was the age of the Enlightenment. culture higher strata Russian society, secular at its core, differed significantly from the traditional culture of peasants and city dwellers. However, there was no impassable abyss between them. Works of literature, works of painting, sculpture and architecture became public property. The enlightened part of society was more and more imbued with the idea of ​​improving the life of the entire Russian people.

The main events and periods of culture of the 18th century in Russia:

• until 1725 - cm.Culture under Peter I .
• 1762 - the creation of the "Commission on the stone structure."
• 1764 - the opening of the Institute for Noble Maidens and the Educational House.
• 1769 - the beginning of the publication of the journals "Vsakaaya Vsyachina" and others.
• 1782 - the opening of the monument to Peter I on the Senate Square in St. Petersburg.
• 1783 - opening of the Russian Academy 1786 - opening of public schools.
• 1795 - the opening of the first Public Library.

Art of the 18th century in Russia by period

Art of the 18th century in Russia by industry

• Painting of the 18th century in Russia. material from the site

Russian literature of the 18th century

The influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment, popular uprisings and, finally, the French Revolution led to the fact that many poets and writers of the second half of the 18th century began to devote their works to topical social problems. In Russian literature of the 18th century, three names can be noted - G. R. Derzhavin, D. I. Fonvizin and A. N. Radishchev.

Music of the 18th century

Among the musicians of the reign of Catherine II, Dmitry Stepanovich Bortnyansky (1751-1825) was especially distinguished. He was born in Ukraine. He studied singing and music theory at the Court Singing Chapel in St. Petersburg. For ten years he lived in Italy, where he perfected himself in the art of music. Here his first operas were staged. In 1779 Bortnyansky returned to Russia. His writings, presented to Empress Catherine II, made a sensation. Bortnyansky was awarded the title of composer of the Court Chapel and was awarded a monetary award, and in 1796 he was appointed director of the Court Choir. Bortnyansky entered the history of Russian music primarily as the author of spiritual choral compositions.

• Peasant life (cf.

Peter's reforms contributed to the economic and political rise of the state. Enlightenment has advanced a lot, which had a great influence on the further development of culture.

On January 1, 1700, a new chronology was introduced - from the Nativity of Christ. In 1719, the first natural history museum in Russia, the Kunstkamera, was established.

Under Peter 1, education became a state policy, since educated people were needed to implement reforms. Under Peter 1, general and special schools were opened, conditions were prepared for the founding of the Academy of Sciences.

In 1701, the Navigation School was opened in Moscow - the first secular state educational institution, a number of professional schools were created - Artillery, Engineering, Medical. In the first quarter of the 18th century digital schools, parochial schools, and theological seminaries began to open. The organization of secondary and higher education is closely connected with the creation of the Academy of Sciences (1724). It included the Academy, the University and the gymnasium. Mikhail Lomonosov became the first Russian academician. In 1755, on the initiative of M.V. Lomonosov, Moscow University was established, which became a major cultural center. In the printing house organized under him, the newspaper "Moscow News" was published.

Vocational art schools appeared. In St. Petersburg - the Dance School, in Moscow - the Ballet School and the Academy of Arts.

Typography. The book publishing business has grown significantly. In 1708, a font reform was carried out, civil and civil printing was introduced, which contributed to the increase in secular and civil books and magazines. Libraries were organized, bookstores were opened.

A major Russian thinker of the 18th century. was Feofan Prokopovich, a contemporary and associate of Peter. In his works (“The Word of the Power and Honor of the Tsar”, “The Truth of the Will of the Monarchs”, etc.), he develops the Russian version of the concept of enlightened absolutism. The works of V.N. Tatishchev - the first major Russian historian who wrote "Russian History from the Most Ancient Times". In it, he traces the history of Russia from Rurik to Peter I. N. Radishchev, a writer and philosopher, occupies a special place in the spiritual life of Russia.

Literature. Extensive book publishing activities greatly accelerated the development of literature. The introduction of the civil language contributed to the strengthening of the secular language. At this time, poetic works were very popular - odes, fables, epigrams of the Russian poet and educator Antioch Cantemir (1708-1744).

The poet VK Trediakovsky (1703-1768) became a reformer of the Russian language and versification.

A.P. Sumarokov (1717-1777), poet, author of the first comedies and tragedies, director of the Russian Theater in St. Petersburg, became the founder of Russian dramaturgy. He wrote in different genres: lyrical songs, odes, epigrams, satires, fables. The works of these writers reflected the ideas of Russian classicism.

Last quarter of the 18th century became the heyday of the great poet G.R. Derzhavin (1743-1816). The main genre of his works was ode.

Russian manners and customs were expressed in his social comedies "Brigadier" and "Undergrowth" by D.I. Fonvizin. His comedies marked the beginning of the accusatory-realistic trend in literature.

The founder of Russian sentimentalism was N.M. Karamzin (1766-1826), the author of the stories "Poor Lisa", "The Village" and others. Karamzin's main work is "The History of the Russian State".

Architecture. In the Petrine era, innovations were introduced in architecture and construction, due to the requirements of the government to express the strength, power and greatness of the Russian Empire in architectural structures.

With the political and economic development of the country, they are presented to civil construction. The most notable buildings of that time in Moscow were the Bolshoi Kamenny Bridge, the Arsenal in the Kremlin, etc. In 1749, Ukhtomsky organized the first Architectural School in Moscow in Moscow, where V.P. Bazhenov and M.F. Kazakov studied under his leadership.

The Petrine era is characterized by the construction of a new capital - St. Petersburg (since 1703), for which foreign architects Trezzini and Rastrelli were invited. New capital was conceived as a regular city, with long radial avenues, with urban ensembles of quarters and streets, squares. Trezzini acted as the author of residential buildings of three categories: for "eminent" citizens - stone, for "wealthy" and "ordinary" people - hut. Trezzini's public buildings were distinguished by their simplicity of style - the building of the Twelve Collegia (now the University). The most significant building was the Peter and Paul Cathedral of the Peter and Paul Fortress.

Among the public buildings stood out Gostiny Dvor, Exchange, Admiralty. Simultaneously with Petersburg, country palaces with famous park ensembles were built - Peterhof and others.

A huge contribution to the style of Russian baroque was the activity of the father and son of Rastrelli. Father (an Italian sculptor) participated in the decoration of Peterhof. The son (already a Russian architect) was the author of the Smolny Monastery and the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg, the Grand Palace in Peterhof, the Catherine Palace in Tsarskoye Selo, and others. 19th century The representatives of classicism in Russia were the architects V.P. Bazhenov, M.F. Kazakov and I.E. Starov.

Bazhenov and Kazakov worked in Moscow and St. Petersburg - the palace and park ensemble in Tsaritsyno, the Senate in the Moscow Kremlin, the Nobility Assembly with the magnificent Column Hall, the Mikhailovsky Castle. Starov - the author of the Trinity Cathedral of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra of the Tauride Palace - a monument to victory in Russian-Turkish war. The main value of classicism is the ensemble, the organization of the ensemble: strict symmetry, straight lines, straight rows of columns. A vivid example is the Palace Square of the architect K.I. Rossi. The surviving buildings of the 18th century. and today they are not only an adornment of Russian cities, but also masterpieces of world significance.

Art. This is the heyday of portraiture. Most famous artists Peter the Great - Andrei Matveev (1701-1739) and Ivan Nikitin (1690-1742) - the founders of Russian secular painting. By the end of the 1920s, there was a turning point towards the court direction of painting. The best portrait painters of the 18th century - A.P. Antropov, F.S. Rokotov, D.T. Levitsky, V.L. Borovikovsky. The classical direction in sculpture was represented by Fedor Shubin, Mikhail Kozlovsky.

At the end of the 18th century one of the richest art collections in the world, the Hermitage, is being formed. It is based on a private collection of paintings by Catherine II.

In the 18th century continued development of the theater. New theaters were opened, performances were staged based on plays by Russian authors - Sumarokov, Fonvizin.

Ballet in Russia originated as separate dance numbers in the intermissions of dramatic and opera performances. In 1741, by decree of Peter's daughter Elizabeth, a Russian ballet troupe was established.

The fortress theater also continued to develop. The history of the theater includes the names of serf actors Praskovya Zhemchugova, Mikhail Shchepkin, and others. In the 18th century, the theater gained immense popularity and became the property of the masses.

Music. In the 18th century secular musical art begins to spread. The Philharmonic Society is created, in which ancient and classical music is performed, a composer school is formed, Russian composers appear - authors of opera and chamber music. Opera becomes the leading musical genre. The leading opera composer of that time was D.S. Bortnyansky - the author of about 200 works. At the end of the century, a genre of chamber lyrical song appeared - a Russian romance based on verses by Russian poets.

The results of the historical and cultural development of the 18th century. are very significant. The development of Russian national traditions in all types of art continued. At the same time, the strengthening of ties with foreign countries contributed to the penetration of Western influence on Russian culture. All directions of all areas of culture have been developed - education, printing, literature, architecture, fine arts. There were new literary magazines, fiction, public theater, secular music. There is a formation of Russian classicism. The development of culture in the 18th century prepared the brilliant flourishing of Russian culture of the 19th century, which became an integral part of world culture.