The trait is more pronounced in Russian classicism. Memo "features of classicism

The definition of classicism (from Latin сlassicus - exemplary) is an artistic style and direction in the art of Europe in the 17th - 19th centuries. It is based on the ideas of rationalism, the main goal of which is to educate the public on the basis of a certain ideal, model, which is similar to modernism. The culture of the ancient world served as such an example. The rules, the canons of classicism were of paramount importance; they had to be observed by all artists working within the framework of this direction and style.

Definition of a classic

Classicism, as a style, has replaced the lush and pompous exterior. By the end of the 17th century, European society was imbued with the ideas of enlightenment, which was reflected in the culture of art. The attention of architects and sculptors was attracted by the rigor, simplicity, clarity and conciseness of ancient culture, in particular ancient Greek. , architecture became the subject of imitation and borrowing.

As a direction, classicism embraced all types of art: painting, music, literature, architecture.

The history of the emergence of the classical style: from antiquity to the Renaissance

Classicism, whose main goal is to educate the public on the basis of a certain ideal and compliance with all generally accepted canons, is completely opposite, which denied all rules and was a rebellion against any artistic tradition in any direction.

Provincial classicism in Russia

This direction is characteristic only for Russian architecture. Most of the historical buildings of St. Petersburg and Moscow, Yaroslavl, Pskov are made in provincial classicism. Its origin refers to the period of the Golden Age. Classical representatives of architecture structures made in the style of classicism: Kazan Cathedral, Nikolsky Cossack Cathedral, etc.

Periods: early, middle, late (high)

In its development, classicism went through 3 periods, which can be listed as follows:

1. Early (1760s - early 1780s) - the heyday of the direction, the adoption of the concept of a new style, the definition of reasons, and for what features the style will belong specifically to classicism;
2. Strict or medium (1780s - 1790s) - rooting of style, description in many literary and visual works, construction of buildings;
3. Late or high, named (first 30 years of the 19th century).

The photo shows the Arc de Triomphe in Paris - a vivid example of classicism.

Characteristics and features of the world style

Characteristics of the classics in all areas of creativity:

• clear geometric shapes
• high quality materials,
• noble finishes and restraint.

Majesty and harmony, grace and luxury - these are the main distinguishing features of classicism. These features were later displayed in interiors in style.

Characteristic features of classicism in a modern interior

Essential style features:

• smooth walls with soft floral motifs;
• elements of antiquity: palaces and columns;
• stucco;
• exquisite parquet;
• fabric wallpaper on the walls;
• elegant, graceful furniture.

Calm rectangular shapes, restrained and at the same time diverse decorative design, adjusted proportions, dignified appearance, harmony and taste became a feature of the Russian classicist style.

Exterior of the direction of the classics: buildings

External signs of classicism in architecture are pronounced, they can be identified at the first glance at the building.

1. Structures: stable, massive, rectangular and arched. The compositions are clearly planned, strict symmetry is observed.
2. Forms: clear geometry, volume and monumentality; statues, columns, niches, rotunda, hemispheres, pediments, friezes.
3. Lines: strict; regular planning system; bas-reliefs, medallions, flowing pattern.
4. Materials: stone, brick, wood, stucco.
5. Roof: complex, intricate shape.
6. Predominant colors: rich white, green, pink, purple, sky blue, gold.
7. Characteristic elements: discreet decor, columns, pilasters, antique ornaments, marble stairs, balconies.
8. Windows: semicircular, rectangular, elongated upwards, modestly decorated.
9. Doors: rectangular, paneled, often decorated with statues (lion, sphinx).
10. Decor: carving, gilding, bronze, mother-of-pearl, inlay.

Interior: signs of classicism and architectural genres

In the interior of the premises of the era of classicism there is nobility, restraint and harmony. Nevertheless, all interior items do not look like museum pieces, but only emphasize the delicate artistic taste and respectability of the owner.

The room has the correct shape, filled with an atmosphere of nobility, comfort, warmth, exquisite luxury; not overloaded with details.

The central place in interior decoration is occupied by natural materials, mainly precious woods, marble, stone, silk.

• Ceilings: light high, often multi-level, with stucco, ornaments.
• Walls: decorated with fabrics, light, but not bright, pilasters and columns, stucco or painting are possible.
• Floor covering: parquet made of valuable wood species (merbau, kamshi, teak, jatoba) or marble.
• Lighting: chandeliers made of crystal, stone or expensive glass; gilded chandeliers with plafonds in the form of candles.
• Mandatory attributes of the interior: mirrors, fireplaces, cozy low chairs, low tea tables, light handmade carpets, paintings with antique scenes, books, massive floor vases stylized as antiquity, tripod flower stands.

Antique motifs are often used in the decor of the room: meanders, festoons, laurel garlands, strings of pearls. Expensive textiles are used for decoration, including tapestries, taffeta and velvet.

Furniture

Furniture of the Classicism era is distinguished by good quality and respectability, made of expensive materials, mainly of valuable wood. It is noteworthy that the texture of wood acts not only as a material, but also as a decorative element. Furniture items are made by hand, decorated with carving, gilding, inlay, precious stones and metals. But the form is simple: strict lines, clear proportions. Dining room tables and chairs are made with elegant carved legs. Dishes - porcelain, thin, almost transparent, with a pattern, gilding. One of the most important attributes of furniture was considered a secretary with a cubic body on high legs.

Architecture: theatres, churches and other buildings

Classicism turned to the foundations of ancient architecture, using not only elements and motifs, but also patterns in construction. The basis of the architectural language is the order with its strict symmetry, the proportionality of the created composition, the regularity of the layout and the clarity of the three-dimensional form.

Classicism is the complete opposite with its pretentiousness and decorative excesses.

Unfortified palaces, garden and park ensembles were created, which became the basis of the French garden with its straightened alleys, trimmed lawns in the form of cones and balls. Typical details of classicism are accentuated stairs, classic antique decor, domes in public buildings.

Late classicism (Empire) acquires military symbols ("Arc de Triomphe" in France). In Russia, St. Petersburg can be called the canon of the architectural style of classicism, in Europe it is Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh.

Sculpture: ideas and development

In the era of classicism, public monuments embodying the military prowess and wisdom of statesmen became widespread. Moreover, the main solution for the sculptors was the model of depicting famous figures in the form of ancient gods (for example, Suvorov - in the form of Mars). It has become popular among private individuals to commission tombstones from sculptors to perpetuate their names. In general, the sculptures of the era are characterized by calmness, restraint of gestures, dispassionate expressions, and purity of lines.

Fashion: clothes of Europe and Russia

Interest in antiquity in clothing began to manifest itself in the 80s of the XVIII century. This was especially evident in the women's costume. A new ideal of beauty emerged in Europe, celebrating natural forms and beautiful feminine lines. The finest smooth fabrics of light colors, especially white, came into fashion.

Women's dresses lost their frames, padding and petticoats and took the form of long, draped tunics, cut at the sides and intercepted by a belt under the bust. They wore skin-colored tights. Sandals with ribbons served as shoes. Hairstyles have been copied from antiquity. Powder still remains in fashion, with which the face, hands, and décolleté were covered.

Among the accessories, either kisei turbans decorated with feathers, or Turkish scarves or Kashmiri shawls were used.

From the beginning of the 19th century, ceremonial dresses began to be sewn with trains and a deep neckline. And in everyday dresses, the neckline was covered with a lace scarf. Gradually, the hairstyle changes, and the powder goes out of use. Short-cropped hair, twisted into curls, tied with a gold ribbon or decorated with a crown of flowers, comes into fashion.

Men's fashion evolved under the influence of the British. The English cloth tailcoat, redingote (outerwear resembling a frock coat), jabot and cuffs are becoming popular. It was in the era of classicism that men's ties came into fashion.

Art

Painting and fine arts

In painting, classicism is also characterized by restraint and rigor. The main elements of the form are line and chiaroscuro. Local color emphasizes the plasticity of objects and figures, separates the spatial plan of the picture. The greatest master of the XVII century. – Lorrain Claude, famous for his “perfect landscapes”. Civil pathos and lyricism combined in the "decorative landscapes" of the French painter Jacques Louis David (XVIII century). Among Russian artists, one can single out Karl Bryullov, who combined classicism with (19th century).

Classicism in music is associated with such great names as Mozart, Beethoven and Haydn, who determined the further development of musical art.

Literature: heroes and personality in works

The literature of the era of classicism promoted the mind that conquered the senses. The conflict between duty and passion is the basis of the plot of a literary work, where a person is constantly in tension and must choose which decision to make. The language was reformed in many countries and the foundations of poetic art were laid. Leading representatives of the direction - Francois Malherbe, Corneille, Racine. The main compositional principle of the work is the unity of time, place and action.

In Russia, classicism develops under the auspices of the Enlightenment, the main ideas of which were equality and justice. The brightest author of the literature of the era of Russian classicism is M. Lomonosov, who laid the foundations of versification. The main genre was comedy and satire. Fonvizin and Kantemir worked in this vein.

The “golden age” is considered the era of classicism for theatrical art, which developed very dynamically and improved. The theater was quite professional, and the actor on stage did not just play, but lived, experienced, while remaining himself. The theatrical style was proclaimed the art of recitation.

• Jacques-Ange Gabriel, Piranesi, Jacques-Germain Soufflot, Bazhenov, Carl Rossi, Andrey Voronikhin, (architecture);
• Antonio Canova, Thorvaldsen, Fedot Shubin, Boris Orlovsky, Mikhail Kozlovsky (sculpture);
• Nicolas Poussin, Lebrun, Ingres (painting);
• Voltaire, Samuel Johnson, Derzhavin, Sumarokov, Chemnitzer (literature).

Video: traditions and culture, distinctive features, music

Conclusion

The ideas of the classicism era are successfully used in modern design. It preserves nobility and elegance, beauty and grandeur. The main features are wall painting, drapery, stucco, natural wood furniture. There are few decorations, but they are all luxurious: mirrors, paintings, massive chandeliers. In general, the style even now characterizes the owner as a respectable, far from poor person.

Later, it still appears, which marked the arrival of a new era - this. was the combination of several modern styles, which include not only classical, but also baroque (in painting), ancient culture, and the Renaissance.

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In the 60s of the 18th century, Russia, like other European countries, embarked on a consistent path of changing styles and trends in art. The lush baroque was replaced by the strict and rational style of classicism. By this time, the main features of the worldview that contributed to the development of this style had developed in Russian society: rationalistic philosophy, the idea of ​​​​a reasonable organization of the world, and interest in antiquity.

Another important prerequisite for the emergence of a new style is the formation of an absolutist state, an enlightened monarchy in Russia.
Freed from compulsory service under the “Decree on the Liberty of the Nobility”, the nobles settled outside the city, and as a result flourished type of suburban building. Builds up type of palace located in the middle of the park. In cities in this era, primarily in St. Petersburg and Moscow, grandiose complexes of state and cultural appointments will be erected.
Periodization of Russian classicism.

1. early classicism - 1760-1780
2. strict classicism - 1780-1800
3. high classicism and empire style - 1800-1840

The architects are foreigners who fulfilled the “whim” of Empress Catherine II by building classical buildings in St. Petersburg and its suburbs:

• Antonio Rinaldi (1709 - 1794)
• Giuseppe Quarenghi (1744 - 1817)
• Vincenzo Brenna (1745-1820)
• J.-B. Wallin-Delamot (1729-1800)
• Georg (Yuri) Felten (1730-1801) and many others

The founders of Russian classicism in Russia:
V. I. Bazhenov (1738 - 1799)
M.F. Kazakov (1738 - 1812)
I.E. Starov (1748 - 1808)
At an early stage in the development of Russian classicism, J. Vallin-Delamot and A.F. Kokorinov associated with the Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg.
Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg (1764 - 1788)

The Academy occupies a whole block of the embankment on Vasilyevsky Island.

In the plan - a clear square with a circle inscribed in it - a courtyard for walking.

Outwardly, the volume is elongated and calm. A very small dome recessed into the base. Four floors are grouped in pairs: 1 and 2 - heavy, 3 and 4 - lightweight. The middle part is interesting, reminiscent of baroque times: convex and concave elements, columns and statues. But on the facade itself, the columns are replaced by pilasters, and the columns themselves are not yet assembled into six and eight-column porticos with a pediment, but are dispersed throughout the facade.
In the same years, the Neva "dressed in granite." The Palace embankment became restrained and strict, and it was necessary to change the frame of the Summer Garden accordingly.

In 1771-1786 the famous lattice of the Summer Garden.Architects - Felten and Egorov.

Felten Yuri Matveevich, artist Christinek Carl Ludwig

The color scheme, as in the Baroque era, is black and gold, but if the baroque lattice is curved, its pattern resembles living shoots of greenery, the completion is woven into a pattern, then the lattice of the Summer Garden is clearly geometric: vertical peaks cross the rectangular frames elongated upwards. The basis of the lattice is made up of cylindrical, column-like pillars alternating at certain intervals, completed with flowerpots.
Architect Antonio Rinaldi built the Marble Palace in St. Petersburg, 1768-1785).

The architect decided that the Marble Palace would attract attention not only with its size, nobility of shapes and proportions, but also with the beauty of stone facings made from Russian marbles that he loved, which were mined in quarries near Lake Ladoga and Onega. The noble sulfur range of the Marble Palace with the pink color of the pilasters is perfectly combined with the leaden waters of the Neva, on the embankment of which it stands.

V. I. Bazhenov (1735 - 1799)

Bazhenov Vasily Ivanovich

The son of a poor psalmist, who entered Moscow as an apprentice to a painter, Bazhenov joined the Ukhtomsky school, graduated from the gymnasium at Moscow University, then from the Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg. Retired Academy sent abroad, where for the creation of projects and models of architectural structures became professor at the Roman, then Bologna and Florence academies He returned to his homeland, where difficulties awaited him.

Chevakinsky, Kokorinov, Delamotte and Rastrelli taught at the Bazhenov Academy. Of these teachers, only Delamotte stood on the positions of classicism.
Abroad, he met with developed classicism. In 1767, Bazhenov was sent from St. Petersburg to Moscow, where he spent 25 years. It was the era of redevelopment of Russian cities in the spirit of modern times. It was during these years that Bazhenov conceived his grandiose project of the Grand Kremlin Palace in Moscow with redevelopment of essentially the entire Kremlin ensemble.

Catherine II, having ascended the throne, played herself an enlightened empress. She supported the idea of ​​turning the Kremlin into an ancient Roman Forum, a place of expression of the people's will. This continued until the Pugachev uprising, after which Bazhenov had to curtail all work. Only the drawings and the project have survived, but they also had a huge impact on the entire Russian architecture. Among Bazhenov's associates were Kazakov and other Moscow architects. Even in the model created by Bazhenov, the Palace strikes the imagination: here are facades of grandiose length, either going in a straight line, or bending around the Kremlin hill, and magnificent colonnades on very high rusticated plinths. But the main thing is that the Palace was conceived as the center of the square, where the architect was going to arrange the buildings of the Collegiums, the Arsenal, the Theater, and stands for public meetings. Thus, the ideas of citizenship, the models of Rome and Athens, were to be clearly embodied. The death of this idea was the first tragedy of the architect.
At this time in Europe in art there is some passion for gothic- a harbinger of the Romantic era. Bazhenov found his way here too. His task is to make Gothic not a toy - a hobby, but a deep, original direction, the essence of which is to feel the antiquity. It was the red and white decor of the Moscow towers that Bazhenov called Russian Gothic. Thus the idea arose Tsaritsyno complex (1795 - 1785).

Catherine bought the Tsaritsyn estate from Kantemir, the estate was located on a high steep bank of a pond.
White decor stone and red brick are traditional Russian colors. It was in this range that the complex was decided. Lancet arches, figured window openings, entrance portals, thin columns, forked battlements - all these details are transformed by the master's architecture. He managed to see them in the architecture of the Kremlin. But there are many mysteries in the Tsaritsy complex, connected primarily with Masonic symbols, which richly decorate the walls of buildings. This or something else became the cause of the Empress's displeasure, but, having visited the construction site, Catherine asked: "What is it: a palace or a prison?" The fate of the complex was sealed. It was partially rebuilt later by Kazakov. But the work on the Tsaritsyno complex was not in vain for Kazakov either. When constructing the Petrovsky Palace on the Petersburg Highway, Kazakov will design it in the style of Bazhenov's Tsaritsyn.
Bazhenov's most famous building is Pashkov's house in Moscow on Vagankovsky Hill opposite the Kremlin (1784 - 1786)

Striking in its power, originality, perfection of execution, this building is a true decoration of Moscow. It faced the street with its facade, was located in the back on a hill and was separated from the street by a small garden (it was a completely new solution). The entrance and courtyard of the house are located on the reverse side and open with solemn gates. Remarkable are the balustrade with vases, the ornament, the pilasters of the order system, the rustication with the arches of the basement. The richly decorated round dome with paired columns is beautiful. The architecture of the side wings shows the influence of the ancient tradition: they are designed as a portico with a pediment.
Order solutions for different floors, outbuildings and the main building are varied. The interweaving of baroque picturesqueness and classical austerity makes this building uniquely beautiful.
Other buildings of Bazhenov: a church in the village of Stoyanov and in the village of Bykovo, in the villages of Vinogradov, Mikhalkov.

Church of Our Lady of Vladimir in Bykovo near Moscow

wonderful Yushkov's house on the corner of Myasnitskaya street in Moscow: its semicircular rotunda facing the street is original.

In the 19th century this building will be located School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture, which will have a huge impact on Russian art. Pavel the First found a retired architect, and Bazhenov took part in the work on the Mikhailovsky Castle in St. Petersburg. He designed the entrance wings from Sadovaya Street. Pavel gave the architect the Glazovo estate near Pavlovsk, where the architect died the year Pushkin was born. His grave was lost.
M.F. Kazakov (1738 - 1812)

Kazakov Matvei Fyodorovich

The brightest exponent of the ideas of Moscow classicism . He studied only at the Ukhtomsky school, worked as an assistant to Bazhenov on the construction of the Kremlin complex, where he went through an excellent school with the great architect. Kazakov did not graduate from either the Academy or the University, but later he founded the first architectural school himself.
The largest buildings of Kazakov:

Senate building in the Kremlin (1776 - 1787)

Church of Metropolitan Philip (1777 - 1788)

Building of the Noble Assembly (80s)

Golitsyn Hospital (1796 - 1801)

Old university building (burnt down)

Petrovsky entrance palace on the Petersburg highway.

In total, Kazakov built about 100 buildings.

Senate building in the Kremlin
The triangular shape is inscribed in the complex of already existing buildings of the Kremlin.

The top of the triangle became a round hall with a huge dome (24 meters in diameter and 28 meters high). The dome is oriented towards Red Square, defining the center of the entire square. The extended façade is evenly dissected by large details of the order. The portal is decorated in the form of a portico with double columns and a triangular pediment. The combination of a portico with a pediment and a round dome will become traditional for Russian classicism.
Golitsyn Hospital (First Gradskaya) on Kaluzhskaya Street.

The building of the hospital and the church are connected. The side wings of the building are not processed in any way, and in the center there is a powerful Doric colonnade, a triangular pediment, above which the drum of the church dome rises.

In the building of the Noble Assembly (Noble Assembly) the most original is the Hall of Columns. It is wide and tall. This is the main room of the interior. The appearance of the hall is determined by the Corinthian colonnade, repeating the outlines of the hall. It highlights the central space intended for balls and receptions. The columns are made of artificial white marble, which shines with whiteness. This gives the hall a joyful character.
Petrovsky Palace

In the solution of this palace, the Cossacks embodied their searches in the Moorish-Gothic style, begun by Bazhenov. The appearance of this building is determined by the red color of the bricks and the white decor in oriental style.
The name of M.F. Kazakov is strongly associated with classic Moscow, because it was his best buildings that created the image of the city of the Catherine's era - aristocratic, "pre-fire".

The most famous Cossack estates were the house on Gorokhovaya Street of the wealthy breeder Ivan Demidov, which preserved the magnificent gilded carving of the front interiors, the house of the breeder M.I. Gubin on Petrovka, the Baryshnikovs' estate on Myasnitskaya.

Kazakovskaya city estate - a large, massive, almost devoid of decor building with a columned portico- a house that dominates the rest of the outbuildings and outbuildings. Usually it was located in the depths of a vast courtyard, and outbuildings and fences overlooked the red line of the street.

I. E. Starov (1745 - 1808)

Together with Bazhenov, Ivan Starov came to St. Petersburg from Moscow to the academy. Following Bazhenov, he went to Italy. Then he returned and worked in St. Petersburg.
This was the era of the "golden age" of the nobility. The idea of ​​a representative monarchy collapsed, and the construction of country estates, palaces, and mansions is becoming increasingly important.
The most famous building of Starov is the Tauride Palace on Shpalernaya Street in St. Petersburg (1783 - 1789).

Type of three-pavilion residential building. It consists of the main building and side wings. This scheme will become the basis for the construction of educational institutions and royal palaces from the time of classicism.
The facade of the palace is severe and strict. A simple Doric colonnade of a six-column portico (columns without flutes), the portico is crowned with a dome, the metopes are empty. This austerity contrasts with the luxury of the interior.
From the rectangular vestibule through the solemn "gates" the viewer got into the octagonal hall, then into the transversely oriented huge gallery with rounded ends, the gallery, surrounded by a double row of columns. Behind the palace was a garden.

Cathedral of the Holy Trinity in the Alexander Nevsky Lavra

The single-domed temple with two two-tiered bell towers is designed in the forms of early classicism. The inner space of the cathedral, cruciform in plan, is divided into three naves by massive pylons that support the vaults. The cathedral is crowned with a dome on a high drum. The overall composition includes two monumental bell towers rising on the sides of the main entrance loggia, decorated with a portico of 6 columns. Roman Doric order. The facades are finished with pilasters and shallow panels.

Prince Vladimir Cathedral

Under the guidance of architect I. E. Starov, who made changes to the design facades the temple was rebuilt. October 1, 1789 the new cathedral was consecrated in honor ofHoly Prince Vladimir .

Temple - architectural monument in a style transitional from baroque to classicism. The main volume of the cathedral is crowned with a powerful five-domed, the interior is divided by pylons into three naves, the walls are dissected by pilasters Doric order .
Architecture of the end of the 18th century in Russia.
By the end of the 18th century, classicism remained the dominant style in Russian architecture. At this time, strict classicism was formed, the brightest representative of which was Giacomo Quarenghi.
Giacomo Quarenghi (1744 - 1817)

He came to Russia in the 80s. At home, in Italy, Quarenghi was a fan of Roman antiquity, the ideas of urban mansions and private estates. Quarenghi acted not only as the creator of remarkable architectural works, but also as a theorist of architecture.

Its main principles are as follows:
1. The three-part scheme of a residential or administrative building includes a central building and two symmetrical outbuildings connected to the central building by straight or rounded galleries.
2. The central building is marked by a portico. Such is the building of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg, built by Quarenghi, a new building for the Institute of Noble Maidens - the Smolny Institute next to the old monastery by Rastrelli.

Academy of Sciences

Smolny Institute

3. The building is a parallelepiped, most often three floors.

4. There are no richly decorated corner compositions, the borders of the facade are simple corners, the edges of the volume are smooth, undecorated planes, rectangular or three-part windows, window openings without frames, sometimes crowned with strict triangular pediments - sandriks.

5. Against the background of a smooth, clean surface - a portico of a large or gigantic order, embracing the entire height of the building. It looks like the only decoration. The portico is crowned with a pediment, the extreme points of which are sometimes accentuated by vertical statues.

6. The columns are resolutely moved away from the wall for a large passage and a ramp smoothly rising to it.

7. The columns are devoid of flutes, the impact power is enhanced. Sometimes the colonnade is self-sufficient. This is the colonnade of the Alexander Palace in Tsarskoye Selo

Quarenghi implemented these principles in his buildings in the city and its environs.
Vincenzo Brenna (1745-1820)

Decorator and architect, Italian by origin. In Russia he worked in 1783-1802. Participated in the construction and decoration of palaces in Pavlovsk and Gatchina (Great Gatchina Palace), the Mikhailovsky Castle in St. Petersburg (together with V. I. Bazhenov). He was the architect of the Rumyantsev obelisk on the Field of Mars, now on Vasilyevsky Island.

Mikhailovsky (Engineering) Castle

In plan, the castle is a square with rounded corners, inside of which a central octagonal front courtyard is inscribed. The main entrance to the castle is from the south. Three angled bridges connected the building with the square in front of it. A wooden drawbridge was thrown over the moat that surrounded the Connetable Square with a monument to Peter I in the center, on both sides of which there were cannons. Behind the monument there is a moat and three bridges, and the middle bridge was intended only for the imperial family and foreign ambassadors and led to the main entrance. “The Russian emperor, when thinking about its construction, was based on the scheme common in European capitals for building a rectangular castle with a rectangular courtyard and round corner towers”
Charles Cameron (1740 - 1812)

In 1779 he was invited to Russia. Cameron knew how to combine architecture and nature, the harmony of the whole and the miniature detail. He showed himself in suburban construction, the creation of palace ensembles, small pavilions, and in the art of interior design.
In Tsarskoye Selo, to the palace already created by Rastrelli, he adds a complex of the so-called Cameron Gallery, Agate Rooms, Hanging Garden, which leads to a special ramp of great length, cold baths on the ground floor. All this together creates a corner of antiquity on Russian soil, a haven of inspiration for a refined, enlightened nature.

Cameron Gallery and Agate Rooms in the distance

In the building of the Cameron Gallery, the wide-spaced thin columns of the Ionic order are interesting, they give an extraordinary lightness to the top, elevated on heavy arcades, lined with gray Pudozh stone. The basis of the image is the contrast of the rough surface of the cladding and the pale pale tone of the walls, white panels (thin boards in the frame) and medallions - the contrast of strength and fragility. In the interior of the Grand Palace, Cameron was the first to use the Greek order in Russia, which would have an effect already in the 19th century.

The other side of Cameron's activity is Pavlovsky Ensemble.

The palace is a square with a round hall in the center, galleries cover the space of the courtyard. The palace is set on a high hill above the Slavyanka river. Quarenghi took as a basis a common type of Italian villa with a flat dome, but rethought the idea in the spirit of a Russian country estate. The palace was created together with the English park. The park is crossed by the slow waters of the Slavyanka river. Bridges are thrown over the river. The dark crowns of willows lean along the banks, the banks are overgrown with reeds. Deciduous and coniferous species create a new range of colors at any time of the year, and special places give room for a variety of species. Marble and bronze sculptures decorating the park, a number of wonderful pavilions, among which a special place is occupied by "Temple of Friendship" and the pavilion "Three Graces".

Temple of Friendship

18th century literature

1) Literature of Petrovsky time

2) Formation of new literature. Russian classicism (A.D. Kantemir, V.K. Trediakovsky, M.V. Lomonosov, A.P. Sumarokov and others).

3) Literature of the Enlightenment (N.I. Novikov, D.I. Fonvizin, G.R. Derzhavin, I.A. Krylov, etc.).

The first period is Preclassicism, or the literature of the time of Peter the Great. The name was proposed by Professor P.A. Orlov, this period begins in 1700 and continues until the early 30s.

Russian literature was born along with the Petrine reforms.

“Our literature suddenly appeared in the 18th century…” wrote A.S. Pushkin, while the writer, of course, knew that the origins of Russian literature go back to ancient times. In this phrase, the key word is "suddenly". With this word, Pushkin emphasized that literature, formed in the dynamics of Russia's development, rapidly went from infancy to maturity ("suddenly" - not even in a century, but in 70 years). "Young Russia" "married with the genius of Peter" (Pushkin).

Main feature- an intensive process of secularization (secularization).

New concept of man: to be a citizen of the Fatherland. This concept becomes the main moral value for Peter's contemporaries. It was during this period that the word of Greek origin appeared in Russian - patriot. That is, the son of the Fatherland. A person is no longer perceived as a source of sinfulness, as was the case in ancient Russian literature, but becomes an active person. Not wealth, not a noble origin, but intelligence, education, courage, public benefit - this is what elevates a person to the high rungs of the social ladder. That is why among the ascetics of the sovereign there are people of humble origin: the first governor of St. Petersburg Menshchikov, diplomat Yaguzhinsky, senator Nesterov, and the wife of Peter I herself, the future empress, did not differ in the nobility of the family.

A brief description of the period: the ideological pathos of the literature of those years - support for the reforms of Peter the Great, hence the publicism of the works; the artistic consciousness is characterized by a thirst for novelty and at the same time an attraction to centuries-old traditions, hence eclecticism, the absence of a single aesthetic system, a single literary trend.

Among the new undertakings of the time of Peter the Great, the following should be especially noted:

1) The creation of the first newspaper - Vedomosti - which began to appear in December 1702. Peter himself took part in the publication of the newspaper: he selected material for publications, edited them, and often spoke on its pages himself.

2) The opening of a public (not court!) Theater in 1702 in Moscow. It existed until 1707. One of the main reasons for its short existence was the lack of a national repertoire that would meet the urgent needs of the time (by the way: the director and actor Johann Kunst, invited from Germany, headed the theater. The main roles were played by German actors). School theaters worked more successfully at that time (in Moscow, Kyiv, Novgorod, Tver, Astrakhan, Rostov and other cities).

3) The transformation of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy in Moscow into a State institution, instead of the boyar Duma - the Senate, instead of the patriarch - the Synod, the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg, the introduction of a civil font, more books were published in 25 years of the 18th century than in the previous two centuries.

4) The development of Russian journalism.

One of the famous writers of the time of Peter the Great was Feofan Prokopovich (1681 - 1736) - literary theorist, playwright, orator.

He grew up in a relatively democratic environment - he was the son of a Kyiv merchant. After the death of his father, he lived with his mother in extreme poverty. He brilliantly graduated from the Kiev-Mohyla Academy, was tonsured a monk, went to Rome for 3 years, where he was prophesied a career as a brilliant preacher, because. was gifted with oratory. But in his way of thinking, he differed from the priests in a critical warehouse, understood the significance of Peter's reforms and, in Peter's struggle with the churchmen, sided with the sovereign, which caused the curse of the orthodox clergy. A prominent place in his literary activity is occupied by sermons. He gives a new sound to this traditional church genre: he tells about topical political tasks, the activities of the sovereign, about the benefits of education, travel. This form of communication between the priest and the flock exists to this day. Any church service in the temple ends with the appeal of the priest to the faithful.

According to Professor P.A. Orlov, the author of the textbook "The History of Russian Literature", Feofan Prokopovich "became known as a playwright: for the school theater at the Kiev-Mohyla Academy, he wrote the play "Vladimir" in 1705. The author defined the genre of his play as a tragicomedy. The content was the adoption of Christianity in 988 by Prince Vladimir of Kyiv. The plot is based on the struggle of Vladimir with the defenders of the old faith - the pagans - the priests Zherivol, Kuroyad, Piyar. The novelty is that the plot is based not on a biblical event, as it used to be in ancient Russian literature, but on a historical one. This made it possible to give the play a topical character. The opposition of the prince to the pagan priests reminded Feofan Prokopovich's contemporaries of the struggle of Peter I with the reactionary clergy. The play ended with the approval of the new - that is, Christianity and the overthrow of pagan idols. So, at the beginning of the 18th century, a writer in the robes of an archbishop gave Russian literature a special feature - the ability to speak on topical topics, using events of ancient times or insignificant events. This feature of Russian literature would become a tradition in the 19th and 20th centuries.

Throughout his life, Feofan Prokopovich composed verses in the syllabic system of versification characteristic of the 18th century, but only 22 poems have come down to us.

The second period - the formation of Russian classicism. It covers the 1730s - 60s of the 18th century. These are the first steps of Russian classicism, which are carried out by the "chicks of Petrov's nest" - Kantemir, Trediakovsky, Lomonosov, Sumarokov.

Russian classicism

Classicism(Latin classicus - exemplary) - an artistic method and aesthetic trend in art and literature of the 17th-19th centuries.

The origins of world classicism- France of the 17th century; the views that belonged to the outstanding French playwrights Corneille and Moliere and the literary theorist N. Boileau.

Characteristic features of Russian classicism:

1. Focuses on the forms of antiquity, especially the heroic classics.

2. Proclaims the primacy of state interests over personal ones, the predominance of civil, patriotic motives, the cult of moral duty.

3. Establishment in the aesthetics of the severity of artistic forms: compositional unity, normative style and plots.

The process of nation formation, the rise of statehood and the flourishing of secular culture, unprecedented for Russia, were the historical and ideological soil that nourished the patriotic pathos of Russian classicism.

1. The idea of ​​the natural equality of people became the ideological basis of Russian classicism, in literature led to an appeal to the development of the ethical essence of man.

2. The artistic form of expressing this problem has become emphasized presence of the author (relationship to the depicted). In Russian classicism, genres that imply an obligatory author's assessment of historical reality were greatly developed: satire (A.P. Kantemir), fable (A.P. Sumarokov, V.I. Maikov, I.I. Khemnitser), ode (M.V. Lomonosov, G.R. Derzhavin).

3. The theme of tragedy was dominated by national history stories.

4. The characteristic features of Russian classicism are close connection with modernity and accusatory orientation. Russian classicists allowed themselves to teach and educate the autocrats, defining their duties in relation to their subjects (ode “On the day of the accession to the throne of Elizabeth Petrovna, 1947” by Lomonosov, “Felitsa” by Derzhavin, etc.)

5. Classicism literature contributed the formation of the Russian literary language and the transformation of versification . The new content of the works of the classicists - the glorification of civil and social ideals - required a new form of literary works. The classicists were the first in Russian literature to use such genres as ode (M.V. Lomonosov “On the day of the accession to the throne of Elizabeth Petrovna”, G.R. Derzhavin “To the rulers and judges”), tragedy (A.P. Sumarokov “Dmitry the impostor” ), satire (A.D. Kantemir “To your mind”, “On nobility”), comedy ((D.I. Fonvizin “Foreman”, “Undergrowth”), fable (I.A. Krylov).

Features of the comedy of classicism:

1) Heroes are divided into positive and negative , the author's assessment is clearly expressed. Each hero is the bearer of some trait (virtue or vice), which is reflected in "speaking names" (Skotinin, Prostakov, Milon, Pravdin, Starodum at Fonvizin).

2) Classical plays are characterized by "role system" .

Role- a stereotype of character that passes from play to play. For example, the role of classic comedy is perfect heroine, lover Hero, second lover(Jonah); reasoner- a hero who almost does not take part in the intrigue, but expresses the author's assessment of what is happening; soubrette- a cheerful maid, who, on the contrary, is actively involved in the intrigue. Þ

The plot is usually based on "love triangle" : the heroine - the hero-lover - the second lover.

At the end of a classic comedy, vice is always punished and virtue triumphs.

3) Principle three unities follows from the requirement to imitate nature:

- unity of time: the action develops no more than a day;

- unity of action: one storyline, the number of characters is limited (5 - 10), all characters must be related to the story, i.e. no side effects, characters.

4) Requirements for a classic composition: in a play, as a rule, 4 acts - in the 3rd culmination, in the 4th denouement. Features of the exposition: the play is opened by secondary characters who introduce the viewer to the main characters and tell the background. The action is slowed down by long monologues of the main characters.

5) A clear division into high and low genres.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/167959950_437147135.pdf-img/167959950_437147135.pdf-1.jpg" alt="(!LANG:>Monuments of Russian Classicism">!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/167959950_437147135.pdf-img/167959950_437147135.pdf-2.jpg" alt="(!LANG:>Classicism as an artistic movement The origin of classicism. Classicism (from Latin clasicus"> Классицизм как художественное направление Происхождение классицизма. Классицизм (от латинского clasicus - образцовый) – художественное направление в искусстве и литературе 17 -начала 19 в. Классицизм зародился и достиг своего расцвета во Франции в 17 веке: в драматургии, поэзии, живописи, архитектуре. В 1674 году Буало создал развернутую эстетическую теорию классицизма, оказавшую огромное воздействие на формирование классицизма в других странах. Классицизм в России. В России классицизм зародился во второй четверти 18 в. Создавало его поколение европейски образованных молодых писателей, родившихся в эпоху Петровских реформ и сочувствующих им. В результате настойчивой работы было создано художественное направление, располагавшее собственной программой, творческим методом, стройной системой жанров. Главное в идеологии классицизма – гражданский пафос, а художественное творчество мыслилось как строгое следование «разумным» правилам. Произведения классицистов были представлены четко противопоставленными другу «высокими» (ода, трагедия, эпическая поэма) и « низкими » (комедия, басня, сатира) жанрами. Персонажи делились строго на положительных и отрицательных героев. В высоких жанрах изображались «образцовые» герои – монархи, полководцы, которые могли служить примером для подражания. В низких жанрах выводились персонажи, охваченные той или иной страстью. В драматических произведениях должно было соблюдаться правило трех единств – места, времени, действия. В соответствии с требованиями классицизма произошли значительные изменения в изобразительном искусстве, в первую очередь в живописи. «Высшим» жанром, достойнейшим занятием для художника считалась живопись историческая, рассказывающая о героических поступках, великих людях древности, а «низшим» являлся портрет. Влияние классицизма в архитектуре продолжается и в 19 веке. Так в первой половине 19 в. были созданы величайшие по своему значению архитектурные сооружения в Санкт – Петербурге, ставшие не только памятниками русского классицизма, но и визитной карточкой северной столицы. Такими сооружениями являются Казанский собор, здание Адмиралтейства.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/167959950_437147135.pdf-img/167959950_437147135.pdf-3.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> Characteristic features of Classicism architecture: Ø Focus on the best achievements of ancient"> Характерные черты архитектуры классицизма: Ø Ориентация на лучшие достижения античной культуры – греческую ордерную систему, строгую симметрию, чёткую соразмерность частей и их подчиненность общему замыслу. Ø Господство простых и ясных форм. Ø Спокойная гармония пропорций Ø Предпочтение отдается прямым линиям. Ø Простота и благородство отделки. Ø Практичность и целесообразность.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/167959950_437147135.pdf-img/167959950_437147135.pdf-4.jpg" alt="(!LANG:>Russian classicist architects Vasily Ivanovich Bazhenov (1738"> Русские архитекторы классицизма Василий Иванович Баженов (1738 -1799). Русский архитектор, художник, теоретик архитектуры и педагог, представитель классицизма. Член Российской академии!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/167959950_437147135.pdf-img/167959950_437147135.pdf-5.jpg" alt="(!LANG:>Palace ensemble in Tsaritsyno. 1775 - 1785 Moscow.">!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/167959950_437147135.pdf-img/167959950_437147135.pdf-6.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> Pashkov house. 1784 - 1788 Moscow. one of the most famous"> Пашков дом. 1784 – 1788 гг. Москва. одно из самых знаменитых классицистических зданий Москвы, ныне принадлежащее Российской!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/167959950_437147135.pdf-img/167959950_437147135.pdf-7.jpg" alt="(!LANG:>Matvei Fedorovich Kazakov (1738- 1812) - Moscow"> Матвей Федорович Казаков (1738- 1812) - московский архитектор, который в годы правления Екатерины II перестроил центр Москвы.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/167959950_437147135.pdf-img/167959950_437147135.pdf-8.jpg" alt="(!LANG:>The Senate building in the Kremlin. 1783">!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/167959950_437147135.pdf-img/167959950_437147135.pdf-9.jpg" alt="(!LANG:>Petrovsky Palace. 1775 – 1782 Moscow.">!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/167959950_437147135.pdf-img/167959950_437147135.pdf-10.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> Russian-Turkish"> Дворец также называли подъездным. Выстроен он был в память о победе в русско-турецкой войне 1768 -1774 годов. Сейчас- Дом приемов Правительства Москвы!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/167959950_437147135.pdf-img/167959950_437147135.pdf-11.jpg" alt="(!LANG:>Karl Ivanovich Rossi (1775- 1849) - Russian"> Карл Иванович Росси (1775- 1849) - российский архитектор итальянского происхождения, автор многих зданий и архитектурных ансамблей в Санкт-Петербурге и его окрестностях.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/167959950_437147135.pdf-img/167959950_437147135.pdf-12.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> Mikhailovsky Palace. St. Petersburg. 1817 -1825 Now - Russian Museum">!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/167959950_437147135.pdf-img/167959950_437147135.pdf-13.jpg" alt="(!LANG:>Alexandrinsky Theatre. St. Petersburg. 1832">!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/167959950_437147135.pdf-img/167959950_437147135.pdf-14.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> General Staff building. St. Petersburg 1819 -1829.">!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/167959950_437147135.pdf-img/167959950_437147135.pdf-15.jpg" alt="(!LANG:>Henri Louis Augu st Ric r de Montferrat n (1786-"> Анри Луи Огю ст Рика р де Монферра н (1786- 1858) - архитектор. На русский манер называли Августович Монферран и Август Антонович Монферран.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/167959950_437147135.pdf-img/167959950_437147135.pdf-16.jpg" alt="(!LANG:>Alexander Column. St. Petersburg. Palace Square. 1834.">!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/167959950_437147135.pdf-img/167959950_437147135.pdf-17.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> Column pedestal, front side (facing the Winter Palace)."> Пьедестал колонны, лицевая сторона (обращённая к Зимнему Дворцу). На барельефе - две крылатые женские фигуры держат доску с надписью: « Александру I благодарная Россия» , под ними доспехи русских витязей, по обеим сторонам от доспехов - фигуры, олицетворяющие реки Вислу и Неман!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/167959950_437147135.pdf-img/167959950_437147135.pdf-18.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> Angel on the Alexander Column.">!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/167959950_437147135.pdf-img/167959950_437147135.pdf-19.jpg" alt="(!LANG:>Classicism of Petersburg architecture ¬A. N. Voronikhin. Kazan Cathedral. ¬AD Zakharov, Admiralty building.">!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/167959950_437147135.pdf-img/167959950_437147135.pdf-20.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> A. N. Voronikhin. Kazan Cathedral Especially increased"> А. Н. Воронихин. Казанский собор Особенно возросло значение собора после Отечественной войны 1812 года. Торжественная архитектура здания оказалась созвучной пафосу победы над врагом. Из Казанского собора после торжественного молебна отправился в действующую армию М. И. Кутузов, который здесь же и похоронен. Около его гробницы висят ключи от неприятельских городов, взятых под командованием полководца. Органично Казанский собор по требованию Павла 1 должен был и вписываются в ансамбль площади размером и внешним видом напоминать собор святого Павла в и собора памятники М. И. Кутузову Риме. Это и обусловило наличие колоннады, отдаленно и М. Б. Барклаю де Толли. напоминающей колоннаду римского прототипа. Казанский собор обладает Андрей Никифорович Воронихин, архитектор собора, дает простотой и ясностью колоннаде характер полуокружности. Колоннады не пропорций, соразмерностью форм изолированы, а раскрывают пространство площади, дают и сдержанностью выражения, что главному проспекту города расшириться, разлиться. делает его одним из своеобразнейших архитектурных Собор имеет в плане форму вытянутого с запада на восток классицистических сооружений. «латинского креста» , увенчан куполом.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/167959950_437147135.pdf-img/167959950_437147135.pdf-21.jpg" alt="(!LANG:>A. D. Zakharov. The Admiralty Building recreate the building"> А. Д. Захаров. Здание Адмиралтейства Архитектору Андрею Дмитриевичу Захарову предстояло воссоздать здание протяжением в 400 метров, сохранив при этом его соразмерность и связанность с городом. Захаров использует принцип соподчинения частей. Архитектор применяет трехъярусную композицию. Тяжелое и устойчивое основание с аркой –первый ярус, из которого вырастает легкая ионическая колоннада, несущая антаблемент со скульптурами – второй ярус. Над колоннадой возвышается стена с куполом третьего яруса, увенчанного 72 – метровым золоченым шпилем с парусным кораблем на острие. Архитекторская находка А. Захарова заключалась в дерзком и слитном единстве классических форм здания, завершающегося башней со шпилем, имеющего совсем иной характер. Мощная золотая горизонталь. образуя световое пятно, всего лишь утверждает идеальный организующий центр. 28 скульптур Адмиралтейства не выглядят как нечто привнесенное. Адмиралтейство обросло скульптурой так же естественно, как дерево обрастает листвой. Архитекторская смелость зодчего, кристаллическая строгость форм, величавая красота – все это придает зданию необыкновенную выразительность архитектурного образа.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/167959950_437147135.pdf-img/167959950_437147135.pdf-22.jpg" alt="(!LANG:>Classicism in Russian painting of the 18th century ¬ Historical genre A. P Losenko."> Классицизм в русской живописи 18 в. ¬ Исторический жанр А. П. Лосенко. Владимир и Рогнеда. ¬ Портретная живопись Ф. С. Рокотова. Портрет Струйской. ¬ Портретная живопись Д. Г. Левицкого. 1. Портрет П. А. Демидова. 2. Портрет Екатерины II в виде законодательницы в храме богини Правосудия. 3. Портреты смолянок.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/167959950_437147135.pdf-img/167959950_437147135.pdf-23.jpg" alt="(!LANG:>Vladimir and Rogneda. In 1770, A.P. Losenko for the first time refers to"> Владимир и Рогнеда. В 1770 году А. П. Лосенко впервые обращается к древней истории Отечества в русском искусстве, написав картину «Владимир и Рогнеда» . В основе сюжета - сватовство новгородского князя Владимира к полоцкой княжне Рогнеде, которое было ею отвергнуто. Лосенко создает классицистическую композицию, построенную на единстве трех планов, цветов, иерархии действующих лиц. Главные герои, Владимир и Рогнеда, изображаются в духе театрального классицизма. Они общаются языком жестов, лица озарены патетическими чувствами. Дополнительные персонажи сопереживают происходящему и передают определенные эмоции. Служанка на первом плане – это сама совесть, она с укором смотрит на Владимира и Рогнеду. За спиной Рогнеды – фигура плачущей служанки, это – горе, оплакивающее убитых полоцких граждан. За спиной Владимира – его воеводы, принимающие сторону князя. Это одно из первых исторических обращений к русской теме, возникшее на подъеме национального самосознания интелллегенции. Хотя, по словам А. Бенуа, «через все просвечивала безличная мертвечина гипсового класса» .!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/167959950_437147135.pdf-img/167959950_437147135.pdf-24.jpg" alt="(!LANG:>Portrait of Struyskaya Heroes of F. S. Rokotov's portraits stand before eternity, look"> Портрет Струйской Герои портретов Ф. С. Рокотова стоят перед вечностью, глядятся в нее. Костюм и фон едва намечены, они только аккомпанируют лицу, будто возникающему из блеклого, сумрачного фона. Женским портретам художника присуще особенное обаяние, говорят даже об особом «рокотовском типе» женской красоты. Один из самых известных портретов – портрет Струйской. Из общего золотистого сияния возникает вполоборота лицо героини. Она обернулась к живописцу, позируя ему естественно, как перед зеркалом. Лицо как бы высвечивается на общем фоне полотна. Лишь более холодные цвета выделяют его и светлый ореол вокруг головы. Глаза героини – самые темные тона внутри портрета. Они притягивают, манят, завораживают… В уголках губ затаилась едва заметная полуулыбка – полунамек. И только черный вьющийся локон спокойно ниспадает на правое плечо. Мягкий воздушный мазок, дымчатые тлеющие тона создают впечатление трепетности, загадочности живописного образа, поражающего своей поэтичностью.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/167959950_437147135.pdf-img/167959950_437147135.pdf-25.jpg" alt="(!LANG:>Portrait of P. A. Demidov By 1769 D. G. Levitsky appears as"> Портрет П. А. Демидова К 1769 году Д. Г. Левицкий выступает как художник – композитор, умеющий писать програм м ный портрет, составленный как текст о социальном и имущественном положении портретируемого. Хотя на портрете изображается одно лицо, в композиции он рассказывает целую историю, связанную с окружением фигуры. Вот известный богач П. Демидов, изображенный в полный рост, на большом холсте, на фоне величавой архитектуры в пышных складках алого одеяния. Только это складки не мантии, а домашнего халата. И опирается он не на саблю, а всего лишь на садовую лейку. Торжественно – снисходительный жест его руки указывает не на дым сражения, а на цветы, выращенные в знаменитой демидовской галерее. И уж совсем нет ничего величественного в его хитроватом и немолодом лице, любезном и скаредном одновременно. Художник трезво смотрит на своих героев, его интересует разнообразие характеров. Эффектность композиции, насыщенность колорита, выразительность позы и жеста не вытесняют тонкий психологизм в работах живописца.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/167959950_437147135.pdf-img/167959950_437147135.pdf-26.jpg" alt="(!LANG:>Portrait of Catherine II as a legislator The pinnacle of portrait art"> Портрет Екатерины II в виде законодательницы Вершиной портретного искусства считается творчество Д. Г. Левицкого (1735 – 1822). Живописец в своих произведениях выступает мастером парадного портрета. Самым знаменитым является портрет Екатерины 2 в виде мудрой законодательницы. Левицкий изобразил ее в храме богини правосудия, сжигающей цветы мака на алтаре. Композиция картины, образ государыни, символические атрибуты разработаны в системе классицизма: на голове императрицы – лавровый венок, на груди – орден св. Владимира, у ног на книгах восседает орел – аллегорическое изображение Российского государства. Все указывает на радение императрицы о благе Отечества. Картина имела большой успех и вдохновила Г. Р. Державина на оду «Видение мурзы» .!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/167959950_437147135.pdf-img/167959950_437147135.pdf-27.jpg" alt="(!LANG:>Portraits The most famous cycle of works by D. G. Levitsky - Smolyanok"> Портреты Наиболее знаменитый цикл произведений Д. Г. Левицкого – смолянок «Смолянки» (серия из 7 портретов воспитанниц Смольного института). Каждая девушка представлена или на фоне природы в маскарадном костюме, разыгрывающей сценку из какой – либо пасторали, или в интерьере в окружении предметов, указывающих на ее талант или увлечение. Сочность колорита голубых, розовых, зеленоватых тонов, фактура мазка сделали живописные образы Левицкого осязаемыми, жизненными. Художник – портретист сумел передать и очарование юности, и обаяние девушек, и в некоторой степени характер, и утонченную игру во взрослых дам. «Это истинный 18 век во всем его жеманстве и кокетливой простоте» , -писал о портретах смолянок А. Бенуа.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/167959950_437147135.pdf-img/167959950_437147135.pdf-28.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> The originality of Russian classicism In classicism of the 18th and 19th centuries"> Своеобразие русского классицизма В классицизме 18 -19 веков русский гений проявил себя едва ли не с большей силой и блеском, чем это было в других странах Европы. Поражает спокойная, сдержанная сила классической архитектуры Петербурга конца 18 -начала 19 века. Ее своеобразие раскрывается не только во внешних формах, в цветовой гамме, синтезе со скульптурой, но и в особом чувстве ансамбля. Возведение зданий Адмиралтейства, Казанского собора, Биржи помогло связать в единый узел весь центр города, образуя ансамбль такого широкого пространственного звучания. Для русских портретистов второй половины 18 в. характерно не только внешнее сходство портрета с оригиналом, но и стремление передать внутренний мир человека, его характер. Несмотря на то, что портрет в эпоху классицизма считали жанром «низким» , именно в нем создало искусство того времени свои лучшие произведения. Творениям русского классицизма в архитектуре, живописи, литературе нет анологий. Своеобразие его состоит также в том, что в эпоху становления он соединил в себе пафос служения государству с идеями раннего европейского Просвещения!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/167959950_437147135.pdf-img/167959950_437147135.pdf-29.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> Sources of information 1. Alpatov M.V. Unfading heritage. – M., 1990."> Источники информации 1. Алпатов М. В. Немеркнущее наследие. – М. , 1990. 2. Глинка Н. И. «Строгий, стройный вид…» . – М. , 1992. 3. Емохонова Л. Г. Мировая художественная культура. – М. , 2001.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/167959950_437147135.pdf-img/167959950_437147135.pdf-30.jpg" alt="(!LANG:>Presentation author Ksenia Vladimirovna Malysheva">!}

The content of the article

CLASSICISM, one of the most important areas of art of the past, an artistic style based on normative aesthetics, requiring strict adherence to a number of rules, canons, unities. The rules of classicism are of paramount importance as a means to ensure the main goal - to enlighten and instruct the public, referring it to sublime examples. The aesthetics of classicism reflected the desire for the idealization of reality, due to the rejection of the image of a complex and multifaceted reality. In theatrical art, this direction has established itself in the work, first of all, of French authors: Corneille, Racine, Voltaire, Molière. Classicism had a great influence on the Russian national theater (A.P. Sumarokov, V.A. Ozerov, D.I. Fonvizin and others).

Historical roots of classicism.

The history of classicism begins in Western Europe at the end of the 16th century. In the 17th century reaches its highest development, associated with the flowering of the absolute monarchy of Louis XIV in France and the highest rise of theatrical art in the country. Classicism continues to fruitfully exist in the 18th - early 19th centuries, until it was replaced by sentimentalism and romanticism.

As an artistic system, classicism finally took shape in the 17th century, although the very concept of classicism was born later, in the 19th century, when an irreconcilable war of romance was declared on it.

"Classicism" (from the Latin "classicus", i.e. "exemplary") assumed a stable orientation of the new art to the antique way, which did not at all mean a simple copying of antique samples. Classicism carries out continuity with the aesthetic concepts of the Renaissance, which were oriented towards antiquity.

Having studied the poetics of Aristotle and the practice of the Greek theater, the French classics proposed the rules of construction in their works, based on the foundations of rationalistic thinking of the 17th century. First of all, this is strict observance of the laws of the genre, the division into higher genres - ode, tragedy, epic and lower ones - comedy, satire.

The laws of classicism were most characteristically expressed in the rules for constructing a tragedy. From the author of the play, first of all, it was required that the plot of the tragedy, as well as the passions of the characters, be believable. But the classicists have their own understanding of plausibility: not just the similarity of what is depicted on the stage with reality, but the consistency of what is happening with the requirements of reason, with a certain moral and ethical norm.

The concept of a reasonable predominance of duty over human feelings and passions is the basis of classicism aesthetics, which differs significantly from the concept of a hero adopted in the Renaissance, when complete freedom of the individual was proclaimed, and man was declared the “crown of the universe”. However, the course of historical events disproved these ideas. Overwhelmed by passions, a person could not decide, find support. And only in serving society, a single state, the monarch, who embodied the strength and unity of his state, could a person express himself, assert himself, even at the cost of abandoning his own feelings. A tragic collision was born on a wave of colossal tension: ardent passion collided with an inexorable duty (in contrast to the Greek tragedy of fatal predestination, when the will of a person turned out to be powerless). In the tragedies of classicism, reason and will were decisive and suppressed spontaneous, poorly controlled feelings.

Hero in the tragedies of classicism.

The classicists saw the veracity of the characters' characters in strict subordination to internal logic. The unity of the character of the hero is the most important condition for the aesthetics of classicism. Summarizing the laws of this direction, the French author N. Boileau-Depreo in his poetic treatise poetic art, claims:

Let your hero be carefully thought out,

Let him always be himself.

The one-sidedness, the inner static nature of the hero does not, however, exclude the manifestation of living human feelings on his part. But in different genres, these feelings manifest themselves in different ways, strictly according to the chosen scale - tragic or comic. N. Boileau says about the tragic hero:

The hero, in whom everything is small, is only suitable for a novel,

May he be brave, noble,

But still, without weaknesses, he is not nice to anyone ...

He cries from resentment - a useful detail,

So that we believe in its plausibility ...

So that we crown you with enthusiastic praise,

We should be excited and touched by your hero.

From unworthy feelings let him be free

And even in weaknesses he is mighty and noble.

To reveal the human character in the understanding of the classicists means to show the nature of the action of eternal passions, unchanged in their essence, their influence on the fate of people.

Basic rules of classicism.

Both high genres and low ones were obliged to instruct the public, to elevate its morals, to enlighten feelings. In tragedy, the theater taught the spectator resilience in the struggle of life, the example of a positive hero served as a model of moral behavior. The hero, as a rule, a king or a mythological character was the main character. The conflict between duty and passion or selfish desires was necessarily resolved in favor of duty, even if the hero died in an unequal struggle.

In the 17th century the idea became dominant that only in serving the state does a person acquire the possibility of self-affirmation. The flowering of classicism was due to the assertion of absolute power in France, and later in Russia.

The most important norms of classicism - the unity of action, place and time - follow from those substantive premises that were discussed above. In order to more accurately convey the idea to the viewer and inspire selfless feelings, the author did not have to complicate anything. The main intrigue should be simple enough so as not to confuse the viewer and not deprive the picture of integrity. The demand for unity of time was closely connected with the unity of action, and many diverse events did not occur in the tragedy. The unity of place has also been interpreted in different ways. It could be the space of one palace, one room, one city, and even the distance that the hero could cover within twenty-four hours. Particularly bold reformers decided to stretch the action for thirty hours. The tragedy must have five acts and be written in Alexandrian verse (iambic six-foot).

Excites the visible more than the story,

But what can be tolerated by the ear, sometimes cannot be tolerated by the eye.

The authors.

The pinnacle of classicism in tragedy was the works of French poets P. Corneille ( Sid,Horace, nycomedes), who was called the father of French classical tragedy and J. Racine ( Andromache,Iphigenia,Phaedra,Athalia). With their work, these authors during their lifetime caused heated debate about the incomplete observance of the rules regulated by classicism, but perhaps it was the digressions that made the works of Corneille and Racine immortal. About French classicism in its best examples, A.I. Herzen wrote: “... a world that has its limits, its limitations, but also has its own strength, its own energy and high grace ...”.

Tragedy, as a demonstration of the norm of a person's moral struggle in the process of self-affirmation of the personality, and comedy, as an image of deviation from the norm, showing the absurd and therefore ridiculous aspects of life - these are the two poles of the artistic understanding of the world in the theater of classicism.

About the other pole of classicism, comedy, N. Boileau wrote:

If you want to become famous in comedy,

Choose nature as your teacher...

Know the townspeople, study the courtiers;

Between them consciously look for characters.

In comedies, observance of the same canons was required. In the hierarchically ordered system of dramatic genres of classicism, comedy occupied the place of a low genre, being the antipode of tragedy. It was addressed to that sphere of human manifestations, where reduced situations operated, the world of everyday life, self-interest, human and social vices reigned. The comedies of J-B. Molière are the pinnacle of comedies of classicism.

If the pre-Moliere comedy sought mainly to amuse the viewer, introducing him to the elegant salon style, then the Moliere comedy, absorbing carnival and laughter, at the same time contained the truth of life and the typical authenticity of the characters. However, the theoretician of classicism N. Boileau, paying tribute to the great French comedian as the creator of "high comedy", at the same time blamed him for turning to farcical and carnival traditions. The practice of the immortal classicists again turned out to be broader and richer than theory. Otherwise, Moliere is faithful to the laws of classicism - the character of the hero, as a rule, is focused on one passion. Encyclopedist Denis Diderot credited Molière with stingy and Tartuffe the playwright “recreated all the mean and tartuffes of the world. The most common, most characteristic features are expressed here, but this is not a portrait of any of them, so none of them recognize themselves. From the point of view of realists, such a character is one-sided, devoid of volume. Comparing the works of Molière and Shakespeare, A.S. Pushkin wrote: “Moliere's miser is mean and nothing more; in Shakespeare, Shylock is stingy, quick-witted, vindictive, child-loving, witty.

For Molière, the essence of comedy consisted mainly in the criticism of socially harmful vices and in the optimistic belief in the triumph of human reason ( Tartuffe,Stingy,Misanthrope,Georges Danden).

Classicism in Russia.

During its existence, classicism has evolved from the courtly-aristocratic stage, represented by the work of Corneille and Racine, to the enlightenment period, already enriched by the practice of sentimentalism (Voltaire). A new take-off of classicism, revolutionary classicism, occurred during the period of the French Revolution. This direction was most clearly expressed in the work of F.M. Talma, as well as the great French actress E. Rachel.

A.P. Sumarokov is considered to be the creator of the canon of Russian classical tragedy and comedy. Frequent visits to the performances of European troupes, which toured in the capital in the 1730s, contributed to the formation of Sumarokov's aesthetic taste, his interest in the theater. Sumarokov's dramatic experience was not a direct imitation of French models. Sumarokov's perception of the experience of European drama occurred at the moment when in France classicism entered the last, enlightening stage of its development. Sumarokov followed, basically, Voltaire. Infinitely devoted to the theatre, Sumarokov laid the foundations for the repertoire of the Russian stage of the 18th century, creating the first samples of the leading genres of Russian classic dramaturgy. He wrote nine tragedies and twelve comedies. The laws of classicism are also observed by Sumarokov's comedy. “To laugh without reason is the gift of a vile soul,” said Sumarokov. He became the founder of the social comedy of manners with its inherent moralizing didacticism.

The pinnacle of Russian classicism is the work of D.I. Fonvizin ( Brigadier,undergrowth), the creator of a truly original national comedy, who laid the foundations of critical realism within this system.

Theatrical school of classicism.

One of the reasons for the popularity of the comedy genre is a closer connection with life than in tragedy. “Choose nature as your mentor,” N. Boileau instructs the author of the comedy. Therefore, the canon of the stage embodiment of tragedy and comedy within the framework of the artistic system of classicism is as different as these genres themselves.

In the tragedy, depicting lofty feelings and passions and affirming the ideal hero, appropriate expressive means were assumed. It is a beautiful solemn pose, as in a painting or sculpture; enlarged, ideally completed gestures depicting generalized high feelings: love Passion, Hatred, Suffering, Triumph, etc. The sublime plasticity corresponded to the melodious recitation, percussive accents. But the external aspects should not obscure, according to the theoreticians and practitioners of classicism, the content side, showing the clash of thoughts and passions of the heroes of the tragedy. During the heyday of classicism, a coincidence of external form and content took place on the stage. When the crisis of this system came, it turned out that within the framework of classicism it was impossible to show a person's life in all its complexity. And a certain stamp was established on the stage, prompting the actor to frozen gestures, postures, cold recitations.

In Russia, where classicism appeared much later than in Europe, outwardly formal clichés became obsolete much faster. Along with the flourishing of the theater of "gestures", recitation and "singing", the direction is actively asserting itself, calling for the words of the realist actor Shchepkin - "to take samples from life."

The last surge of interest in the tragedy of classicism on the Russian stage occurred during the Patriotic War of 1812. The playwright V. Ozerov created a number of tragedies on this topic, using mythological plots. They were successful due to their consonance with modernity, reflecting the colossal patriotic upsurge of society, and also thanks to the brilliant play of the tragic actors of St. Petersburg E.A. Semenova and A.S. Yakovlev.

In the future, the Russian theater focused mainly on comedy, enriching it with elements of realism, deepening the characters, expanding the scope of the normative aesthetics of classicism. A great realistic comedy by A.S. Griboyedov was born from the bowels of classicism Woe from Wit (1824).

Ekaterina Yudina