The influence of culture on a person. The influence of culture on human personality, behavior and cognitive functions

The influence of culture on personality development.

Sveklin Andrey Petrovich, Sveklina Yulia Aleksandrovna

Culture never remains motionless: it arises, develops, degrades, it spreads from one country to another, and is transmitted from past generations to future ones. Culture describes changes or modifications in the characteristics of a society over time and space. This difficult process happening continuously. Let's look at the influence of culture on the development of a person's personality.

A little bit of history. Culture, inextricably linked with socialization, gave impetus to the development of humanity. Between 100,000 and 75,000 years ago, a more “modern” species of homo sapiens appeared, which evolved into homo sapiens sapiens by 40,000 years ago. The body and brain have not advanced significantly since then. Gestures and behavior, language and speech etiquette, forms of clothing covering the body, and hairstyles decorating the human head became more expressive. And these are just a few touches that indicate how far human culture has advanced since the very moment when man ceased to improve biologically.

Culture has greatly influenced the development of humanity, but it also had a noticeable influence on the development of a person’s personality, because culture and personality are inextricably linked. On the one hand, culture shapes one or another type of personality. A common historical past, historical memory, space-time concepts, group conscience, mythology, religious doctrines, generally accepted rituals - these are far from full list those factors that influence the formation of personality in culture. On the other hand, personality recreates, changes, discovers new things in culture and gives it dynamics.

Of course, culture is the engine of human development, but here its dual effect on a person’s personality is manifested. Thus, the famous Austrian psychologist and founder of psychoanalysis S. Freud said that a person suppresses the original principle within himself, observes laws, accepts moral norms and rules, and hides the signs of the unconscious within himself. Freud views culture as a repressive mechanism. Part inner world The super-ego with its strict limitations is the result of the cultural process, of those new prohibitions in the sphere of drives that are generated by the specifics of human society. People become neurotic as a result of pressure from cultural and moral norms. However, by generating restrictions, culture creates opportunities for the transformation of forbidden drives, which Freud calls sublimation, meaning sublimation, “sublimation,” putting desires rejected by culture into an acceptable, approved form. Such types of sublimation are religion and art.

K. Horney had a similar opinion. She pointed out that the living conditions in every culture give rise to some fears. She says that a person can be subject to fears, that they are imposed on every individual living in a given culture, and that no one can escape them. And also motivational forces and conflicts are not the same in different cultures Oh.

However, without culture it is difficult to imagine the full development of a person’s personality, since through the transfer of cultural experience a person’s socialization, mastery of language, behavioral patterns, etc. can be carried out. Thus, the great Russian psychologist L. S. Vygotsky said that in the process of his development, a child learns not only the content of cultural experience, but techniques and forms of cultural behavior, cultural ways of thinking. Cultural development consists in the assimilation of such methods of behavior that are based on the use and use of signs as means for carrying out one or another psychological operation; consists precisely in mastering such auxiliary means of behavior that humanity created in the process of its historical development, and such as language, writing, the number system and others.

Sociology examines the positive influence of culture. Atsociological approach culture is interpreted as a social institution that gives society a systemic quality, allowing it to be viewed as a stable integrity, distinct from nature. Here the functioning of public institutions and subsystems of culture (material, political, spiritual) is largely identified. Culture is considered from the point of view of its functioning in a specific system of social relations and institutions that determine the roles and norms of behavior of people in society.

A number of concepts emphasize the role of culture as a source of information in unity with its processing, interpretation and translation. Culture is also considered as a mechanism for the transmission of social experience, different from precultural.

It should be noted that cultural elements are actively used in providing psychological assistance, and fairy tale therapy can serve as an example. Even in ancient times, a fairy tale acted not only as a measure of readiness for initiation, but also as a kind of “career guidance test”: according to the reaction to certain stimuli contained in it, “divine affiliation” to a particular field of activity was revealed. Until now, fairy tales are a means of moral education, since they offer models of behavior that may be most appropriate at different stages of cultural development of society.

Let's look at everyone as an example of fairy tale therapy famous fairy tale“Kolobok” and get acquainted with its interpretation.

So, each of us has known the content of the fairy tale “Kolobok” since childhood. AND,Probably everyone has thought about its meaning at least once. And most often the thoughtstopped at what is on the surface, that is, on the moral side.The moral meaning of this tale is often used by children's educators. In suchinterpretations: Kolobok is a small child who wants to quickly learn the structure of life. His path in the forest along which he rolls is nothing more than a life path with trials. Most main lesson this fairy tale is that Kolobok, without askingpermission from adults, left home.For an older child, for example a primary school student, a new one is added to these first lessons. It lies in the fact that the time will come when you yourself will go to explore the world, and on the way you will meet different types of people. The fairy tale warns that there are hare people, wolf people, bear people, and then there are the most difficult ones - fox people. Be attentive, study people, take a closer look at them, change your positions when communicating with each of them, but keep your core, your zest within yourself.So,children will see the metaphorical plot of a fairy tale and feel the life of its main character; this is closer and clearer to them than just the words of an adult.

To summarize, we can say that culture has a huge impact, both on society as a whole and on the individual person. It is important to note that culture can provide us with resources for solving problems, in particular psychological ones. However, there is a question about the correctness of their use. Culture is also a mirror of the human soul, reflecting all his activities, all the good and all the bad. A good example this could be a novelOscar Wilde's "The Picture of Dorian Gray". Where the cultural embodiment of the human soul is a portrait young man, which reflects all his actions. Taking all this into account, to make the world a better place, what needs to be impacted: the individual, the culture, or both?

Literature

Berdnikova A, psychologist - Magazine “Mom and Baby” No. 11, 2006.

Vachkov I.V. Introduction to fairy tale therapy. – M. Genesis, 2011

Vygotsky L. S. The problem of the cultural development of the child (1928) // Vestn. Moscow un-ta. Ser. 14, Psychology. 1991.N4. P. 5-18

Kravchenko A.I. Culturology: Textbook for universities. – 3rd ed. M.: Academic Project, 2002.- 496 p.

Culturology: Textbook / Ed. Prof. G.V. Dracha. – M. – Alfa-M, 2003, - 432 p.

Horney K. Neurotic personality of our time. – M., 1993.

Culture shapes the personalities of members of society, thereby largely regulating their behavior.

Social anthropologist Clifford Geertz calls culture a system of regulatory mechanisms, including plans, recipes, rules, instructions that serve to control behavior. He believes that without culture, people would be completely disoriented: human behavior not determined by cultural models would become practically uncontrollable, it would be reduced to spontaneous, meaningless actions and uncontrollable emotions. In his works, Geertz argued that cultural institutions such as ritual, myth and art should be considered not as a reflection of social structure, but as separate symbolic systems. He approaches culture as a system of symbols, the meanings of which guide and regulate the social behavior of people. For example, a marital status symbol is wedding ring- signals to other people about a person’s marital status and thereby forces them to take this fact into account in the development of social relations.

What elements of culture give the researcher the opportunity to penetrate into its integrity? Geertz believes that in every culture there are key words-symbols, the meaning of which opens access to an understanding of the whole.

Each human society has its own specific culture, or sociocultural system, which to some extent coincides with other systems. The differences between sociocultural systems are related to physical conditions and resources; the range of possibilities inherent in different areas of activity, the type of language, rituals and traditions, the manufacture and use of tools; degree of social development of society. An individual's attitudes, values, ideals and beliefs are greatly influenced by the culture in which he lives, and of course an individual may live or move within several different cultures.

What elements can be identified as part of culture?

Culture is usually divided into tangible and intangible. Material culture includes physical objects created by man (artifacts) - cars, books, houses, etc. Artifacts have symbolic meaning, perform a specific function and represent a certain value to a group or society.

IN intangible culture includes rules, patterns, models and norms of behavior, laws, values, ceremonies, rituals, symbols, myths, ideas, customs, traditions, language. These are also artifacts, but they exist in the mind and are supported by human communication.

The basic elements of spiritual culture include myths, customs, morals, laws and values. Customs, mores and laws form a normative system of culture, prescribing norms of social behavior to members of society. Values ​​complement a normative cultural system by indicating (but not prescribing) what should be preserved and honored in a culture.

Myth - the main component of human culture. Myth can be defined as imaginative (formalized) symbolic narrative about the origin and end of the world, life and death, in the center of which are gods, heroes or events.

Custom- a traditionally established order of behavior, fixed by collective habits (hospitality, celebration of Christmas and New Year, respect for elders). Manners- customs that acquire moral significance (the most respected and sanctified customs).

Law- a normative act adopted supreme body state power in a constitutional manner.

Values- socially approved and shared by most people beliefs about what goodness, justice, beauty, etc. are.

A. Kroeber and K. Kluckhohn wrote: culture consists of external and internal norms that determine behavior, mastered and mediated through symbols, it arises as a result of the activities of groups of people. The essential core of culture consists of traditional (historically established) ideas, primarily those to which special value is attributed. Cultural systems can be considered, on the one hand, as the results of human activity, and on the other, as its regulators 1 .

Is there a difference between social and cultural?

American explorer, Talcott Parsons made a very clear distinction between the social and the cultural. Under social he understood real social life - processes, events, facts, and cultural, by in his opinion, this is how people imagine social life, or ideas about reality. Analyzing cultural processes, Parsons introduced the concept of generalized value - dominant ideological ideas. In modern Western society these are “freedom”, “democracy”, “personality”.

According to Parsons, production and social relations perform a male function in society - they destabilize, destroy stereotypes, move society forward, and culture performs a female function, ensuring transmission, inheritance, stability, and conservation of social relations.

Sociologists have also revealed that only at certain stages of civilizational development does the material dominate, determining the culture and way of life of society as a whole; in more highly developed societies culture dominates.

What sociocultural supersystems does P. Sorokin identify?

In his work “Social and Cultural Dynamics” P. Sorokin, having carefully analyzed various aspects of human culture - art, education, ethics, legislation, military affairs, proposed dividing it into two opposite, mutually incompatible types. According to him, each type of culture has its own mentality; own system of knowledge, philosophy and worldview; one’s religion and standards of “holiness”; own ideas about what is right and wrong; form of art and literature; own morals, laws, norms of behavior; dominant forms of social relations; own economic and political organization; and finally, your own type of human personality with a special mentality and behavior. Sorokin identifies two opposing cultural types - speculative and sensual. This ideal types, which cannot be found in their pure form in any era. The intermediate form is designated as “idealistic”.

Speculative culture characterized by the following features: 1) reality is spiritual in nature, immaterial, hidden behind sensory manifestations (for example, God, nirvana, Tao, Brahma), it is eternal and unchanging; 2) the needs and goals of people are mainly spiritual (saving the soul, serving the Lord, fulfilling a sacred duty, moral duties); 3) to satisfy these goals, efforts are made to free the individual from sensual temptations and everyday earthly worries. At least two conclusions follow from this: truth is comprehended only through internal experience (revelation, meditation, ecstasy, divine inspiration), therefore it is absolute and eternal; the idea of ​​good is rooted in the immaterial, internal, spiritual, in supersensible values ​​(eternal life, merger with Brahma).

Sensual culture is characterized by directly opposite features: 1) reality is material in nature, accessible to the senses, it moves and constantly changes: “Becoming, process, change, flow, evolution, progress, transformation”; 2) the needs and goals of people are purely carnal, or sensual (hunger and thirst, sex, shelter, comfort); 3) to satisfy these goals it is necessary to use the external environment. Two conclusions also follow from this: truth can only be found in sensory experience, therefore it is temporary and relative in nature, the idea of ​​good is rooted in sensory, empirical, material values ​​(pleasure, enjoyment, happiness, utility), therefore moral principles are flexible, relative and depend on the circumstances.

Intermediate, idealistic culture represents a balanced combination of speculative and sensory elements. It recognizes that reality is both material and supernatural, and that people's needs and goals are both physical and spiritual; Satisfaction of goals requires both improvement of oneself and transformation of the environment. In short, "recognizing perfect world supreme, it does not declare the sensory world to be a mere illusion or a negative value; on the contrary, since the feelings are in harmony with the ideal, they have a positive value.”

Based on this typology, Sorokin proposed a periodization of the historical process (see table). The principle of periodization is the change of dominant types of cultural mentality and cultural systems: a repeating sequence of speculative, idealistic and sensual cultures.

How do cultures interact?

Sociologists directly connect the existence of culture and society, therefore the analysis of cultural systems should be carried out taking into account the same stratification differences as for society. Thus, we can distinguish cultures:

1) civilizational (relating to metasocieties that, during certain periods of their development, gave rise to unique cultural paradigms for the development of many ethnic and national cultures);

2) regional (related to metasociums, different societies united by natural and territorial proximity of living conditions);

3) national (related to multi-ethnic countries in the industrial and later stages of development);

4) group (related to certain social strata and substrates, i.e. communities and sub-communities in the structure of society);

5) family (related to different types of family).

These cultures are characterized by complex hierarchical and horizontal interactions. Their interpenetration, coexistence, or various dramas of rejection are possible at all levels: from interfamily (“Montagues” and “Capulets”) to interethnic and civilizational (the notorious “Americanization”).

According to X. Ortega y Gasset, interactions between cultures can, in principle, be:

1) neutral, when they coexist, do not interfere with each other and do not mix;

2) alternative, or countercultural, when cultures actively push each other, as each expansively strives to occupy a dominant position and impose its values ​​and standards in the community;

3) competitive, competitive, when in the process of self-development and the struggle for proselytes (attracted new adherents), cultures can shift into the area of ​​alternativeness and conflict relations.

American sociologist, ethnographer, social psychologist, historian Margaret Mead, in the course of studying cultural selection during the clash of cultures (mainly primitive and modern), analyzed the processes of assimilation (cultural absorption), accommodation (forced adaptive mastery of the language of another culture) and cultural selection (selective voluntary assimilation of values another culture). As a result of the research, she found out that the perception of a new culture occurs only if both cultures had a common prototype; otherwise assimilation or cultural selection is impossible.

This conclusion leads to thoughts about the ways of sociocultural transformation of modern Russian society. At the same time, we must remember that Russian society is of a mobilization type. For ^revival, he needs national values ​​and social ideology, and “Proletarians of all countries...” or “Autocracy, Orthodoxy and nationality” are no longer very suitable (to historical “realities,” as the leaders now colloquially put it).

Social culture is about values. Ideology is values ​​that collect, consolidate and mobilize for action, allowing one to get out of a state of confusion and vacillation and gain a common real perspective. Russian society is going through “troubled” times of social fragmentation and self-survival. Development of a new state ideology will become the starting point for the beginning of a stable, meaningful, purposeful and responsible social development of society, when the governing elite will be able to tell the people (as in historically distant, but still memorable times): “The goals are clear, the tasks are defined. Let's get to work, comrades!

Concept of culture- a phenomenon that is extremely diverse both in nature and in the forms of its expression and functioning. It covers the totality of society’s achievements in material and spiritual life, reflects the level of intellectual development of man and humanity, the system of values ​​and norms governing social activities, state of morals, etc. Such a variety of cultural manifestations could not but affect the nature of the definition of this phenomenon.

The concept of culture is used to describe historical eras (for example, ancient or medieval culture), nationalities (Inca culture), nations, specific spheres of life or activity (work culture), etc.

From here various concepts culture, and therefore its definitions, which to one degree or another reflect a specific object of knowledge, correlated with the “carrier” of the cultural element. For example, culture of communication, language, lifestyle, etc.

So, one of the concepts of culture is a historically certain level of development of society and man, expressed in specific types and forms of organization of life and activity, as well as in the material and spiritual values ​​created by people.

There are material and spiritual cultures. However, this distinction is relative, possible only in abstraction, since material culture, unlike natural phenomena, is the work of human hands and minds, and therefore contains spiritual, moral, and aesthetic elements.

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Posted on http://allbest.ru

1. Definition of culturologists

Culturology (from Latin cultura - cultivation, husbandry, education) is a set of studies of culture as a structural integrity.

Already in the 1st century. BC. Cicero applied the concept of “culture” to man, after which culture began to be understood as the upbringing and education of a person, an ideal citizen. At the same time, the signs of a cultured person were considered to be his voluntary self-restraint, submission to legal, religious, moral and other norms. The concept of “culture” extended to society as a whole, and this order was meant things, which opposed the natural state with its spontaneous actions. This is how the classical understanding of culture as the upbringing and education of a person was formed, and the term “culture” began to be used to designate the general process of intellectual, spiritual, aesthetic development man and society, separating the world created by man from the natural world.

The word "culture" is often used to mean culture different nations in certain historical eras, the specifics of the mode of existence or way of life of a society, group of people or a certain historical period, to characterize the way of life of individual social groups or areas of activity. Thus, on the pages of textbooks the phrases “culture of Ancient Egypt”, “culture of the Renaissance”, “Russian culture”, “youth culture”, “family culture”, “village culture”, “urban culture”, “work culture” are often used. , “culture of leisure”, etc.

In everyday consciousness, the concept of “culture” is mainly associated with works of literature and art, theaters, museums, archives - everything that is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Culture (or a similar institution) in any country. Therefore, this term denotes the forms and products of intellectual and artistic activity, the entire area of ​​spiritual culture.

In everyday life, the word “culture” expresses approval, is understood as the presence of an ideal or an ideal state with which we implicitly compare the facts or phenomena being evaluated. For example, they talk about a high professional culture, a culture of doing something. People's behavior is assessed from the same positions. But when a person is assessed as cultured or uncultured, they mean well-educated or poorly educated people. Entire societies are sometimes assessed in the same way if they are based on law, order, and gentleness of morals as opposed to a state of barbarism.

This is what has led to the emergence of many definitions of culture, the number of which is constantly growing. Thus, in 1952, American cultural scientists A. Kroeber and K. Kluckhohn, systematizing the definitions of culture known to them, counted 164 definitions. In the 1970s the number of definitions reached 300 in the 1990s. exceeded 500. Currently there are about 1000 of them, which is not surprising, since everything created by man, the entire human world, is culture. It is possible to classify existing definitions by highlighting several important groups.

The philosophical approach provides the broadest panorama of the vision of culture, suggesting the study of the fundamental foundations of human existence, the depths of the self-awareness of the people. The task of this approach is not just to provide a description or enumeration of cultural phenomena, but to penetrate into their essence. As a rule, the essence of culture is seen in conscious human activity but the transformation of the world around us and the people themselves.

Within the framework of the philosophical approach today, several positions are distinguished that express different shades and semantic meanings of the concept “culture”. Firstly, it is emphasized that culture is a “second nature”, an artificial world, consciously and purposefully created by man, and the mediator between these two worlds is human activity, which is viewed extremely broadly as technology and the production of culture, as the production of not only material environment, but also the entire social existence of a person. Secondly, culture is interpreted as a way of development and self-development of a person as a tribal being, i.e. conscious, creative, amateur. Of course, these attempts deserve attention, but they emphasize only certain aspects, narrowing the concept of culture.

The essence of the anthropological approach is the recognition of the intrinsic value of the culture of each people, which underlies the way of life of both individuals and entire societies. In other words, culture is a way of human existence through numerous local cultures. This extremely broad approach equates culture and history of the entire society. The specificity of the anthropological approach lies in the focus of the study on the holistic knowledge of man in the context of a specific culture.

In general, the anthropological approach is distinguished by its specificity, orientation towards the study of “intermediate” layers and levels of culture, when the researcher tries to identify specific forms or units of culture with the help of which human life is decomposed into rationally constructed elements. As a result, the concept of cultural traits emerged - indivisible units of culture (material products, works of art, or patterns of behavior). Among them, there are both universal features inherent in all cultures (cultural universals) and specific ones, characteristic of one or several peoples.

Cultural universals express generic principles in a culture. This -- common features, characteristics or components of culture inherent in all countries and peoples, regardless of their geographical and socio-economic situation. Thus, in 1965, J. Murdoch identified over 60 universals of culture, including the manufacture of tools, the institution of marriage, property rights, religious rites, sports, body decoration, joint labor, dancing, education, funeral rituals, hospitality, games , prohibitions of incest, rules of hygiene, language, etc. It can be assumed that cultural universals are based on corresponding biological needs, for example, the helplessness of infants and the need for their care and education are recognized in cultures of all types.

The sociological approach understands culture as a factor in the formation and organization of social life. The organizing principle is considered to be the value system of each society. Cultural values ​​are created by society itself, but they then determine the development of this society. What begins to dominate a person is what he himself created.

In sociology, as in social or cultural anthropology, three interrelated approaches to the study of culture exist and compete with each other:

Subject-based, studying the content of culture as a system of values, norms and values ​​or meanings, i.e. ways to regulate life in society;

Functional, identifying ways to satisfy human needs or ways of development essential forces a person in the process of his conscious activity;

Institutional, exploring typical units or stable forms of organizing joint activities of people.

Within the framework of the sociological approach, the structure and functions of culture are studied, but when analyzing the external organizing factors of culture, sociologists pay little attention to the internal content of cultural phenomena.

2. Culture and civilization

Civilization arises where culture dies. Oswald Spengler's modern concept of "culture" as a civilization was mainly formed in the 18th - early 19th centuries. Western Europe. Subsequently, this concept, on the one hand, began to include differences between different groups people in Europe itself, and on the other hand, the differences between the metropolises and their colonies around the world. Hence the fact that in this case the concept of “culture” is the equivalent of “civilization”, that is, the antipode of the concept of “nature”. Using this definition, one can easily classify individual people and even entire countries according to their level of civilization. Some authors even define culture simply as “all the best things in the world that have been created and said” (Matthew Arnold), and everything that does not fall into this definition is chaos and anarchy. From this point of view, culture is closely related to social development and progress in society. Arnold consistently uses his definition: “...culture is the result of constant improvement arising from the processes of acquiring knowledge about everything that concerns us, it consists of all the best that has been said and thought” (Arnold, 1882). In practice, the concept of culture refers to all the best products and actions, including in the field of art and classical music. From this point of view, the concept of “cultural” includes people who are in some way connected with these areas. At the same time, people involved in classical music are, by definition, at a higher high level than rap lovers from working-class neighborhoods or Australian aborigines leading a traditional lifestyle.

However, within the framework of this worldview, there is a current - where less “cultured” people are seen, in many ways, as more “natural”, and the suppression of “human nature” is attributed to “high” culture. This point of view is found in the works of many authors since the 18th century. They emphasize, for example, that folk music (as created by ordinary people) more honestly expresses the natural way of life, while classical music appears superficial and decadent. Following this view, people outside of “Western civilization” are “noble savages”, uncorrupted by Western capitalism.

Today, most researchers reject both extremes. They do not accept either the concept of the “only correct” culture or its complete opposition to nature. In this case, it is recognized that the “non-elite” can have the same high culture as the “elite”, and “non-Western” residents can be just as cultured, it’s just that their culture is expressed in different ways. However, this concept makes a distinction between “high” culture, as the culture of the elite, and “mass” culture, which refers to goods and works aimed at the needs of ordinary people. It should also be noted that in some works both types of culture, “high” and “low”, simply refer to different subcultures. The German representative of the philosophy of life, Oswald Spengler, presented a view of culture as a multitude of independent organisms (different peoples), which go through their own evolutionary cycle, lasting several hundred years, and, dying, are reborn into their opposite - civilization. Civilization is opposed to culture as a successive stage of development, where the creative potential of the individual is not in demand and dead, inhuman technicalism is dominant.

3. Culture structure

At the same time, the very existence of culture acts as a single process that can be divided into two spheres: material and spiritual. Material culture is divided into:

Industrial and technological culture, which represents the material results of material production and methods of technological activity of a social person;

Reproduction of the human race, which includes the entire sphere of intimate relationships between a man and a woman. It should be noted that material culture is understood not so much as the creation of the objective world of people, but rather the activity of shaping the “conditions of human existence.” The essence of material culture is the embodiment of various human needs, allowing people to adapt to biological and social conditions life. The concept of spiritual culture:

Contains all areas of spiritual production (art, philosophy, science, etc.),

Shows the socio-political processes occurring in society (we are talking about power structures of management, legal and moral norms, leadership styles, etc.).

The ancient Greeks formed the classic triad of the spiritual culture of mankind: truth - goodness - beauty. Accordingly, three most important value absolutes of human spirituality were identified:

Theoreticism, with an orientation towards truth and the creation of a special essential being, opposite to the ordinary phenomena of life;

This subordinates all other human aspirations to the moral content of life;

Aestheticism that achieves the maximum fullness of life based on emotional and sensory experience. The above-mentioned aspects of spiritual culture have found their embodiment in various spheres of human activity: in science, philosophy, politics, art, law, etc. They largely determine the level of intellectual, moral, political, aesthetic, and legal development of society today. Spiritual culture involves activities aimed at spiritual development person and society, and also presents the results of this activity. Thus, all human activity becomes the content of culture. Human society stood out from nature thanks to such a specific form of interaction with the surrounding world as human activity. Activity is a form of socio-cultural activity aimed at transforming reality. There are two types of activities:

Practical (i.e. material-transformative, aimed at changing the nature and existence of a person, and social-transformative, changing social reality, including the person himself);

Spiritual (the content of which is a change in people’s consciousness). Depending on the direction of human activity, sociocultural activity can be:

Creative (i.e., aimed at the formation of a “second nature”, the human environment, tools, machines and mechanisms, etc.);

Destructive (associated with various wars, revolutions, ethnic conflicts, destruction of nature, etc.). There are certain guidelines in human activity. They are called values. Value is what is significant for a person, what is dear and important to him, what he focuses on in his activities. Society builds a certain system cultural values, which grows out of the ideals and needs of its members. It may include:

Main life values ​​(ideas about the purpose and meaning of life, happiness);

Values interpersonal communication(honesty, goodwill);

Democratic values ​​(human rights, freedom of speech, conscience, parties); -- pragmatic values ​​(personal success, entrepreneurship, desire for material wealth);

Worldview, moral, aesthetic and other values. Among the most important values ​​for a person, the one that largely determines is the problem of the meaning of his life; a person’s view of the problem of the meaning of life is formed through his awareness of the finitude of his existence. Man is the only living creature who understands the inevitability of his death. Regarding the problem of the meaning of human life, two dissimilar points of view have emerged.

The first is atheistic. It has a long tradition and dates back, in particular, to Epicureanism. Its essence is that if a person is a mortal being, then the meaning of life is in life itself. Epicurus denied the significance of the phenomenon of death for a person, arguing that it simply does not exist, because while a person is alive, it does not exist, and when he dies, he is no longer able to realize the very fact of his death. Appointing life itself as the meaning of life, the Epicureans taught that the ideal of human existence is ataraxia, or avoidance of suffering, a calm and measured life, consisting of spiritual and physical pleasures given in moderation. The end of this process means the end of human existence. Materialistic philosophy, which continues the ancient tradition of Epicureanism, in all its manifestations proceeds from the denial of the afterlife and orients a person towards the fullest possible realization of himself in the existing reality. However, this does not exhaust the entire content of this concept.

Another point of view on the problem of the meaning of life is religious. Religion solves this problem quite simply, affirming the fact of human existence after death. In its various modifications, religion teaches that earthly, human existence is only a preparation for death and the acquisition of eternal life. This is a necessary stage for the purification and salvation of the soul. The highest form of human activity is creativity. Creativity is a human activity that creates qualitatively new material and spiritual values ​​that have never existed before. Almost all types of human activity include elements of creativity. However, they are most clearly manifested in science, art and technology. There is also a special science - heuristics (gr. heurisko - I find), with the help of which you can not only study creative activity, but also create various models creative process. The process of creating something new brings the creator a sense of satisfaction, stimulates his inspiration and moves him towards a new creation.

Elite or high culture is created by a privileged part of society, or at its request by professional creators. It includes fine art, classical music and literature. High culture, for example, the painting of Picasso or the music of Schoenberg, is difficult for an unprepared person to understand. As a rule, it is decades ahead of the level of perception of an averagely educated person. The circle of its consumers is a highly educated part of society: critics, literary scholars, regulars of museums and exhibitions, theatergoers, artists, writers, musicians. When the level of education of the population increases, the circle of consumers of high culture expands. Its varieties include secular art and salon music. Formula E.K. -- "art for art's sake." High culture refers to the preferences and habits of townspeople, aristocrats, the rich, and the ruling elite, while mass culture refers to the culture of the lower classes. The same types of art can belong to high and mass culture: classical music is high and popular music is mass, Fellini's films are high and action films are mass, Picasso's paintings are high and popular prints are mass. However, there are such genres of literature, in particular science fiction, detective stories and comics, which are always classified as popular or mass culture, but never as high. The same thing happens with specific works of art. Bach's organ mass belongs to high culture, but if it is used as musical accompaniment in figure skating competitions, it is automatically included in the category of mass culture, without losing its belonging to high culture. Numerous orchestrations of Bach's works in the style of light music, jazz or rock do not at all compromise high culture. The same applies to the Mona Lisa on the packaging of toilet soap or a computer reproduction of it hanging in the back office. E.K. is created not by the entire people, but by the educated part of society - writers, artists, philosophers, scientists, in short, humanists. As a rule, high culture is initially experimental or avant-garde in nature. It tries out those artistic techniques that will be perceived and correctly understood by wide layers of non-professionals many years later. Experts sometimes give exact dates - 50 years. With such a delay, examples of the highest artistry are ahead of their time.

Folk culture consists of two types - popular and folk culture. When a group of tipsy friends sings Alla Pugacheva’s songs or “The Reeds rustled,” we are talking about popular culture, and when an ethnographic expedition from the depths of Russia brings material about carol holidays or Russian lamentations, we are talking about folklore culture. As a result, popular culture describes the current way of life, morals, customs, songs, dances of the people, and folk culture describes its past. Legends, fairy tales and other genres of folklore were created in the past, and today they exist as historical heritage. Some of this heritage is still performed today, which means that part of the folklore culture has entered popular culture, which, in addition to historical legends is constantly updated with new formations, for example, modern urban folklore. Thus, in folk culture, in turn, two levels can be distinguished - high, associated with folklore and including folk legends, fairy tales, epics, ancient dances, etc., and reduced, limited to the so-called pop culture. The authors of folk works (tales, laments, epics) are often unknown, but these are highly artistic works. Myths, legends, tales, epics, fairy tales, songs and dances belong to the highest creations folk culture. They cannot be classified as elite culture not only because they were created by anonymous folk creators: “Folk culture arose in ancient times. Its subject is the entire people, and not individual professionals. Therefore, the functioning of folk culture is inseparable from the work and life of people. Its authors are often anonymous; works usually exist in many versions and are passed down orally from generation to generation. In this regard, we can talk about folk art ( folk songs, fairy tales, legends), folk medicine ( medicinal herbs, conspiracies), folk pedagogy, the essence of which is often expressed in proverbs and sayings.” In terms of execution, elements of folk culture can be individual (statement of a legend), group (performing a dance or song), or mass (carnival processions). The audience of folk culture is always the majority of society. This was the case in traditional and industrial societies. The situation changes only in post-industrial society.

Mass culture does not express the refined tastes or spiritual quest of the people. The time of its appearance is the middle of the 20th century, when the media (radio, print, television) penetrated into most countries of the world and became available to representatives of all social strata. Mass culture can be international and national. Pop music -- shining example This: it is understandable and accessible to all ages, all segments of the population, regardless of level of education. Mass culture, as a rule, has less artistic value than elite or popular culture. But it has the widest audience and is original. It satisfies the immediate needs of people, reacts to and reflects any new event. Therefore, its samples, in particular hits, quickly lose relevance, become obsolete, and go out of fashion. This does not happen with works of elite and popular culture. High culture refers to the preferences and habits of townspeople, aristocrats, the rich, and the ruling elite, while mass culture refers to the culture of the lower classes. The same types of art can belong to high and mass culture: classical music is high and popular music is mass, Fellini's films are high and action films are mass, Picasso's paintings are high and popular prints are mass. However, there are genres of literature (fiction, detective stories and comics) that are always classified as popular or mass culture, but never as high. The same thing happens with specific works of art.

TYPOLOGY OF CULTURES (Greek typos - imprint, form, sample, and logos - science, teaching, cultura - cultivation, education) is a classification of cultures based on a number of indicators that seem most significant for their characteristics.

Basis of classification:

1) diachronic divisions, correlated with the world historical process, and synchronic (spatial) structures, expressing the internal richness of culture, allowing us to highlight material and spiritual culture;

2) differentiation according to the principle of religion (Christian, Confucian-Taoist, Hindu-Buddhist, Islamic types of culture); race and ethnicity; social basis (culture of castes, estates, classes); type of settlement (urban, rural, township culture), etc.;

3) according to sociobiological characteristics (masculine and feminine): matriarchy and patriarchy as structure-forming factors of traditional cultures; stage culture life cycle person (children, youth, elderly);

4) by historical periods - the culture of the Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages (according to archaeological periodization), the culture of the period of the great civilizations of antiquity - the culture of the period of axial civilizations (according to the criterion of “axial time” by K. Jaspers); the culture of pre-capitalist societies - the culture of capitalism (in the formation theory of K. Marx; the culture of the slave system - the culture of feudalism - the culture of capitalism - the culture of socialism (in historical materialism); culture traditional society-- the culture of modern society (in various theories of “modernization”).

4. The role of culture in human life

This role of culture is realized through a number of functions:

Educational function. We can say that it is culture that makes a person a person. An individual becomes a member of society, a personality, as he socializes, i.e., masters knowledge, language, symbols, values, norms, customs, traditions of his people, his social group and all humanity. The level of a person's culture is determined by his socialization - familiarization with the cultural heritage, as well as the degree of development of individual abilities. Personality culture is usually associated with developed creative abilities, erudition, understanding of works of art, fluency in native and foreign languages, accuracy, politeness, self-control, high morality, etc. All this is achieved in the process of upbringing and education.

Integrative and disintegrative functions of culture. E. Durkheim paid special attention to these functions in his research. According to E. Durkheim, the development of culture creates in people - members of a particular community - a sense of community, belonging to one nation, people, religion, group, etc. Thus, culture unites people, integrates them, and ensures the integrity of the community. But while uniting some on the basis of some subculture, it contrasts them with others, separating wider communities and communities. Cultural conflicts may arise within these broader communities and communities. Thus, culture can and often does perform a disintegrating function.

Regulatory function of culture. As noted earlier, during socialization, values, ideals, norms and patterns of behavior become part of the individual’s self-awareness. They shape and regulate her behavior. We can say that culture as a whole determines the framework within which a person can and should act. Culture regulates human behavior in the family, school, at work, in everyday life, etc., putting forward a system of regulations and prohibitions. Violation of these regulations and prohibitions triggers certain sanctions that are established by the community and supported by the power of public opinion and various forms of institutional coercion.

The function of broadcasting (transferring) social experience is often called the function of historical continuity, or information. Culture, which is a complex sign system, transmits social experience from generation to generation, from era to era. Apart from culture, society does not have other mechanisms for concentrating the entire wealth of experience that has been accumulated by people. Therefore, it is no coincidence that culture is considered the social memory of humanity.

The cognitive (epistemological) function is closely related to the function of transmitting social experience and, in a certain sense, follows from it. Culture, concentrating the best social experience of many generations of people, acquires the ability to accumulate rich knowledge about the world and thereby create favorable opportunities for its knowledge and development. It can be argued that a society is intellectual to the extent that it fully utilizes the wealth of knowledge contained in the cultural gene pool of humanity. All types of society that live on Earth today differ significantly primarily in this regard.

The regulatory (normative) function is primarily associated with the determination (regulation) of various aspects, types of public and personal activities of people. In the sphere of work, life, interpersonal relationships culture, one way or another, influences people’s behavior and regulates their actions and even the choice of certain material and spiritual values. The regulatory function of culture is supported by such normative systems as morality and law.

The sign function is the most important in the cultural system. Representing a certain sign system, culture presupposes knowledge and mastery of it. Without studying the corresponding sign systems, it is impossible to master the achievements of culture. Thus, language (oral or written) is a means of communication between people. Literary language acts as the most important means of mastering national culture. Specific languages ​​are needed to understand the world of music, painting, and theater. Natural sciences also have their own sign systems.

The value, or axiological, function reflects the most important qualitative state of culture. Culture as a certain value system forms very specific value needs and orientations in a person. By their level and quality, people most often judge the degree of culture of a person. Moral and intellectual content, as a rule, acts as a criterion for appropriate assessment.

Social functions of culture

The social functions that culture performs allow people to carry out collective activities, optimally satisfying their needs. The main functions of culture include:

Social integration - ensuring the unity of humanity, a common worldview (with the help of myth, religion, philosophy);

Organization and regulation of the joint life activities of people through law, politics, morality, customs, ideology, etc.;

Providing the means of human life (such as cognition, communication, accumulation and transfer of knowledge, upbringing, education, stimulation of innovation, selection of values, etc.);

Regulation of certain spheres of human activity (life culture, leisure culture, work culture, nutrition culture, etc.).

Thus, the cultural system is not only complex and diverse, but also very mobile. Culture is an integral part of the life of both society as a whole and its closely interconnected subjects: individuals, social communities, social institutions.

The complex and multi-level structure of culture determines the diversity of its functions in the life of a person and society. But there is no complete unanimity among culturologists regarding the number of functions of culture. Nevertheless, all authors agree with the idea of ​​multifunctionality of culture, with the fact that each of its components can perform different functions.

The adaptive function is the most important function of culture, ensuring human adaptation to the environment. It is known that the adaptation of living organisms to their habitat is a necessary condition for their survival in the process of evolution. Their adaptation occurs due to the work of the mechanisms of natural selection, heredity and variability, which ensure the survival of individuals best adapted to the environment, the preservation and transmission of useful characteristics to subsequent generations. But what happens is completely different: a person does not adapt to the environment, to changes environment, like other living organisms, but changes the environment in accordance with its needs, remaking it for itself.

When the environment is transformed, a new, artificial world is created - culture. In other words, a person cannot lead a natural lifestyle like animals, and in order to survive, he creates an artificial habitat around himself, protecting himself from unfavorable conditions external environment. Man gradually becomes independent of natural conditions: if other living organisms can live only in a certain ecological niche, then man is able to master any natural conditions at the cost of forming an artificial world of culture.

Of course, a person cannot achieve complete independence from the environment, since the form of culture is largely determined by natural conditions. The type of economy, housing, traditions and customs, beliefs, rites and rituals of peoples depend on natural and climatic conditions. So. the culture of the mountain peoples differs from the culture of the peoples leading nomadic image life or engaged in marine fishing, etc. Southern peoples They use a lot of spices when cooking to delay spoilage in hot climates.

As culture develops, humanity provides itself with increasing security and comfort. The quality of life is constantly improving. But having gotten rid of old fears and dangers, a person comes face to face with new problems that he creates for himself. For example, today there is no need to be afraid of the terrible diseases of the past - the plague or smallpox, but new diseases have appeared, such as AIDS, for which no cure has yet been found, and in military laboratories other deadly diseases created by man himself are waiting in the wings. Therefore, a person needs to protect himself not only from the natural environment, but also from the world of culture, artificially created by man himself.

The adaptive function has dual nature. On the one hand, it manifests itself in the creation of specific means of human protection - the necessary means of protection for a person from the outside world. These are all the products of culture that help a person survive and feel confident in the world: the use of fire, storing food and other necessary things, creating productive Agriculture, medicine, etc. Moreover, these include not only objects of material culture, but also those specific means that a person develops to adapt to life in society, keeping him from mutual destruction and death - state structures, laws, customs, traditions, moral norms, etc. .d.

On the other hand, there are non-specific means of human protection - culture as a whole, existing as a picture of the world. Understanding culture as a “second nature”, a world created by man, we emphasize the most important property of human activity and culture - the ability to “double the world”, highlighting sensory-objective and ideal-imaginative layers in it. By connecting culture with the ideal-shaped world, we obtain the most important property of culture - to be a picture of the world, a certain network of images and meanings through which the world around us is perceived. Culture as a picture of the world makes it possible to see the world not as a continuous flow of information, but as ordered and structured information. Any object or phenomenon of the external world is perceived through this symbolic grid, it has a place in this system of meanings, and it is often assessed as useful, harmful or indifferent to a person.

The symbolic, significative function (naming) is associated with culture as a picture of the world. The formation of names and titles is very important for a person. If some object or phenomenon is not named, does not have a name, is not designated by a person, they do not exist for him. By giving a name to an object or phenomenon and assessing it as threatening, a person simultaneously receives the necessary information that allows him to act to avoid danger, since when labeling a threat, it is not just given a name, but it fits into the hierarchy of existence. Let's give an example. Each of us has been sick at least once in our lives (not with a mild cold, but with some fairly serious illness). In this case, a person experiences not only painful sensations, feelings of weakness and helplessness. Usually, in such a state, unpleasant thoughts come to mind, including about a possible death, and the symptoms of all the diseases that we have heard about are recalled. The situation is exactly according to J. Jerome, one of the heroes of whose novel “Three in a Boat, Not Counting a Dog,” while studying a medical reference book, found all the diseases in himself, except for puerperal fever. In other words, a person experiences fear because of the uncertainty of his future, because he feels a threat, but knows nothing about it. This significantly worsens the general condition of the patient. In such cases, a doctor is called, who usually makes a diagnosis and prescribes treatment. But relief occurs even before taking medication, since the doctor, having made a diagnosis, gave a name to the threat, thereby entering it into the picture of the world, which automatically provided information about possible means of combating it.

We can say that culture as an image and picture of the world is an orderly and balanced scheme of the cosmos, and is the prism through which a person looks at the world. It is expressed through philosophy, literature, mythology, ideology and in human actions. Most members of the ethnos are fragmentarily aware of its content; it is fully accessible only to a small number of cultural specialists. The basis of this picture of the world are ethnic constants - the values ​​and norms of ethnic culture.

The cognitive (epistemological) function most fully manifests itself in science and scientific knowledge. Culture concentrates the experience and skills of many generations of people, accumulates rich knowledge about the world and thereby creates favorable opportunities for its knowledge and development. Of course, knowledge is acquired not only in science, but also in other spheres of culture, but there it is a by-product of human activity, and in science, obtaining objective knowledge about the world is the most important goal.

Science for a long time remained a phenomenon only of European civilization and culture, while other peoples chose a different path to understanding the world around them. Thus, in the East, the most complex systems of philosophy and psychotechnics were created for this purpose. They seriously discussed such ways of understanding the world, unusual for rational European minds, as telepathy (transfer of thoughts at a distance), telekinesis (the ability to influence objects with thought), clairvoyance (the ability to predict the future), etc.

The function of accumulation and storage of information is inextricably linked with the cognitive function, since knowledge and information are the result of knowledge of the world. The need for information on a variety of issues is a natural condition for the life of both an individual and society as a whole. A person must remember his past, be able to evaluate it correctly, admit his mistakes; must know who he is, where he comes from and where he is going. To answer these questions, people have created sign systems that collect, systematize and store the necessary information. At the same time, culture can be represented as a complex sign system that ensures historical continuity and the transfer of social experience from generation to generation, from era to era, from one country to another, as well as the synchronous transfer of information between people living at the same time. Various sign systems help a person not only understand the world, but also record this understanding and structure it. Humanity has only one way to preserve, increase and distribute accumulated knowledge in time and space - through culture.

The means of storing, accumulating and transmitting information are the natural memory of the individual, the collective memory of the people, enshrined in language and spiritual culture, symbolic and material means of storing information - books, works of art, any objects created by man, since they are also texts . IN Lately Electronic means of information storage have begun to play an increasingly important role. The society also created special institutions to perform this cultural function - libraries, schools and universities, archives, and other services for collecting and processing information.

The communicative function of culture ensures that people communicate with each other. A person cannot solve any complex problem without the help of other people. People enter into communication in any kind of process labor activity. Without communication with others like themselves, a person cannot become a full-fledged member of society and develop his abilities. A long separation from society leads an individual to mental and spiritual degradation, turning him into an animal. Culture is the condition and result of human communication. Only through the assimilation of culture do people become members of society. Culture provides people with a means of communication. In turn, by communicating, people create, preserve and develop culture.

Nature has not endowed man with the ability to establish emotional contacts, exchange information without the help of signs, sounds, writing, and for communication man has created various means of cultural communication. Information can be transmitted by verbal (verbal) methods, non-verbal (facial expressions, gestures, postures, communication distance, information transmitted through material objects, for example through clothing, especially uniforms) and paraverbal (rate of speech, intonation, volume, articulation, pitch of voice and so on.).

To communicate with other people, a person uses natural languages, artificial languages and codes - computer, logical, mathematical symbols and formulas, traffic signs, as well as various technical devices.

The communication process consists of three stages:

Encoding of information that must be transmitted to the recipient, i.e. translation into some symbolic form;

Transmission via communication channels, with possible interference and loss of some information;

Decoding of the received message by the addressee, and due to differences in ideas about the world, different individual experience the sender and recipient of the message, decoding occurs with errors. Therefore, communication is never 100% successful; greater or lesser losses are inevitable. The effectiveness of communication is ensured by a number of cultural conditions, such as the presence of a common language, channels for transmitting information, appropriate motivation, ethical, semiotic rules, which ultimately determine to whom, what, when and how can be communicated and from whom and when to expect a response message.

The development of forms and methods of communication is the most important aspect of the formation of culture. In the early stages of human history, the possibilities of communication were limited to direct contacts between people and in order to transmit information they had to move closer to the distance of direct visibility and hearing. Over time, people found the opportunity to increase the communication range, for example, with the help of special devices. This is how signal drums and bonfires appeared. But their capabilities were limited to transmitting only a few signals. Therefore, the most important stage in the development of culture was the invention of writing, which made it possible to transmit complex messages long distances. IN modern world The media of mass communication are becoming increasingly important, primarily television, radio, print, as well as computer networks, coming first as a means of communication between people.

In modern conditions, the importance of the communicative function of culture is growing faster than any other function. The development of communication capabilities leads to erasure national characteristics and contributes to the formation of a single universal civilization, i.e. processes of globalization. These processes, in turn, stimulate intensive progress in means of communication, which is expressed in an increase in the power and range of communication means, an increase in information flows, and an increase in the speed of information transfer. Along with this, people’s mutual understanding and their ability to sympathize and empathize are progressing.

The integrative function of culture is related to the communicative one and is associated with the fact that culture unites any social communities - peoples, social groups and states. The basis for the unity of such groups is: a common language, a common system of values ​​and ideals that creates a common outlook on the world, as well as common norms governing the behavior of people in society. The result is a sense of community with people who are members of the in-group, as opposed to others who are perceived as “outsiders.” Because of this, the whole world is divided into “us” and “strangers”, into Us and They. As a rule, a person has more trust in “his own” than in “strangers” who speak an incomprehensible language and behave incorrectly. Therefore, communications between representatives of different cultures are always difficult, and there is a high risk of mistakes that give rise to conflicts and even wars. But recently, due to the processes of globalization, the development of media and communication, intercultural contacts are strengthening and expanding. This is largely facilitated by modern mass culture, thanks to which many people in different countries books, music, achievements of science and technology, fashion, etc. become available. The Internet plays a particularly important role in this process. We can say that the integrative function of culture has recently contributed to the unity of not only individual social and ethnic groups, but also humanity as a whole.

The normative (regulatory) function of culture manifests itself as a system of norms and requirements of society for all its members in all areas of their lives and activities - work, everyday life, family, intergroup, interethnic, interpersonal relations.

In any human community, it is necessary to regulate the behavior of the individuals composing them in order to maintain balance within the community itself and for the survival of each individual. The cultural products that a person has at his disposal outline the field of his possible activities, allow him to predict the development of various events, but do not determine how a person should act in a given situation. Each person must consciously and responsibly carry out his actions, based on the norms and requirements for the behavior of people that have historically developed in society and are clearly entrenched in our consciousness and subconscious.

Norms of human behavior, both permissive and prohibitive, are an indication of the acceptable limits and boundaries within which a person must act in order for his behavior to be positively assessed by other people and society as a whole. Each culture has its own norms of behavior. There are cultures with a strong normative side (China) and cultures in which normativity is weaker (European cultures). The question of the existence of universal human norms remains debatable.

Through norms, culture regulates and coordinates the actions of individuals and human groups, develops optimal ways to resolve conflict situations, and provides recommendations for solving vital issues.

The regulatory function of culture is carried out at several levels:

Morals and other norms that are strictly observed, despite the absence of special control institutions; violation of these norms is met with sharp condemnation from society;

Rules of law that are set out in detail in the constitution and laws of the country. Their compliance is controlled by specially created institutions - the court, the prosecutor's office, the police, the penitentiary system;

Customs and traditions, which are a stable system of people’s behavior in different areas of life and different situations, have become the norm and are passed on from generation to generation. As a rule, they take the form of a certain stereotype and are stable over the centuries with any social changes;

Norms of human behavior at work, at home, in communication with other people, in relation to nature, including wide circle requirements - from basic neatness and adherence to the rules of good manners to general requirements for spiritual world person.

The axiological (evaluative) function of culture is associated with its value orientations. Cultural regulation of human activity is carried out not only normatively, but also through a system of values—ideals that people strive to achieve. Values ​​imply the choice of a particular object, state, need, goal in accordance with the criterion of their usefulness for human life and help society and people to separate good from bad, truth from error, fair from unfair, permissible from forbidden, etc. The selection of values ​​occurs in the process practical activities. As experience accumulates, values ​​form and disappear, are revised and enriched.

Values ​​provide the specificity of each culture. What is important in one culture may not be important in another. Each nation develops its own hierarchy of values, although the set of values ​​has a universal human character. Therefore, we can conditionally classify the core values ​​as follows:

Vital values ​​- life, health, safety, welfare, strength, etc.;

Social -- social status, labor, profession, personal independence, family, gender equality;

Political - freedom of speech, civil liberties, legality,

Civil Peace;

Moral - goodness, goodness, love, friendship, duty, honor, selflessness, decency, loyalty, justice, respect for elders, love for children;

Aesthetic values ​​- beauty, ideal, style, harmony, fashion, originality.

Each society, each culture is guided by its own set of values, which may lack some of the values ​​listed above. In addition, each culture represents certain values ​​in its own way. Thus, the ideals of beauty vary quite widely among different nations. For example, in medieval China, aristocratic women, in accordance with the then existing ideal of beauty, should have tiny feet; the desired was achieved through painful foot-binding procedures, which girls were subjected to from the age of five and as a result of which they became literally crippled.

People's behavior is oriented through values. A person cannot treat the opposites that make up the world in the same way; he must give preference to one thing. Most people believe that they strive for good, truth, love, but what seems good to some may turn out to be evil to others. This again leads to cultural specificity of values. Based on our ideas about good and evil, all our lives we act as “evaluators” of the world around us. culture atheistic elitist mass

The recreational function of culture (mental relaxation) is the opposite of the normative function. Regulation and regulation of behavior are necessary, but their consequence is the restriction of the freedom of individuals and groups, the suppression of some of their desires and inclinations, which leads to the development of hidden conflicts and tensions. A person comes to the same result due to excessive specialization of activity, forced loneliness or excess communication, unsatisfied needs for love, faith, immortality, intimate contact with another person. Not all of these tensions can be rationally resolved. Therefore, culture faces the task of creating organized and relatively safe ways of detente that do not violate social stability.

Similar documents

Culturological problems of personality socialization. The lifestyle and meaning of an individual's life. The concept of moral culture of man and society. Morality and beauty as system-forming signs of culture. The meaning of history as the basis of the spiritual life of the individual in society.

test, added 01/19/2011


Prerequisites for the formation of mass culture, its modern understanding. Analysis and characteristics of mass, elite and visual culture. The main constituent elements and properties of mass culture. Individual and personal character of elite culture.

abstract, added 09/25/2014


Concept, meaning and main types of culture. The role and place of culture in human life. The development of culture in conjunction with religion, science and art. Essence artistic culture. The meaning of science and scientific activity. Myth as a special form of culture.

test, added 04/13/2015


What is culture, the emergence of the theory of mass and elite culture. Heterogeneity of culture. Features of mass and elite culture. Elite culture as an antipode to mass culture. Postmodern trends in the rapprochement of mass and elite cultures.

abstract, added 02/12/2004


Formation of national culture. Genesis of mass culture. Universality of mass media. Enrichment and development of the human spiritual world. Global funds distribution of basic cultural products. The evolution of social ideals.

abstract, added 01/30/2012


Personality as the goal of culture. Historical and outstanding personalities, their role in the history and development of cultures. Nietzsche and his concept of the superman. The problem of human alienation from culture. The concept of elite and mass culture. Mass culture in modern Russia.

test, added 01/08/2012


The essence of world culture. Characteristics of the culture of the nation and the views of Renaissance thinkers on this problem. The study of human culture from the point of view of Marxist philosophy. Analysis of modern world religions: Judaism, Islam, Buddhism, Christianity.

abstract, added 02/25/2010


The relationship between culture and society. Analysis of the main approaches to understanding culture and its functions. Social functions of culture. Improving man as a spiritual and moral subject of culture. Cultural differences and mutual understanding between people.

abstract, added 02/18/2010


Concept, historical conditions and stages of formation of mass culture. Economic prerequisites and social functions of mass culture. Her philosophical foundations. Elite culture as an antipode to mass culture. A typical manifestation of elitist culture.

test, added 11/30/2009


Analysis of mass and elite cultures; the concept of "class" in the social structure of American society. The problem of mass culture in various versions of the concept of “post-industrial society”. Possible solutions to the relationship between mass and elite culture.

This role of culture is realized through a number of functions:

Educational function. We can say that it is culture that makes a person a person. An individual becomes a member of society, a personality, as he socializes, i.e., masters knowledge, language, symbols, values, norms, customs, traditions of his people, his social group and all humanity. The level of a person's culture is determined by his socialization - familiarization with the cultural heritage, as well as the degree of development of individual abilities. Personal culture is usually associated with developed creative abilities, erudition, understanding of works of art, fluency in native and foreign languages, accuracy, politeness, self-control, high morality, etc. All this is achieved in the process of upbringing and education.

Integrative and disintegrative functions of culture. E. Durkheim paid special attention to these functions in his research. According to E. Durkheim, the development of culture creates in people - members of a particular community - a sense of community, belonging to one nation, people, religion, group, etc. Thus, culture unites people, integrates them, and ensures the integrity of the community. But while uniting some on the basis of some subculture, it contrasts them with others, separating wider communities and communities. Cultural conflicts may arise within these broader communities and communities. Thus, culture can and often does perform a disintegrating function.

Regulatory function of culture. As noted earlier, during socialization, values, ideals, norms and patterns of behavior become part of the individual’s self-awareness. They shape and regulate her behavior. We can say that culture as a whole determines the framework within which a person can and should act. Culture regulates human behavior in the family, school, at work, in everyday life, etc., putting forward a system of regulations and prohibitions. Violation of these regulations and prohibitions triggers certain sanctions that are established by the community and supported by the power of public opinion and various forms of institutional coercion.

The function of broadcasting (transferring) social experience is often called the function of historical continuity, or information. Culture, which is a complex sign system, transmits social experience from generation to generation, from era to era. Apart from culture, society does not have other mechanisms for concentrating the entire wealth of experience that has been accumulated by people. Therefore, it is no coincidence that culture is considered the social memory of humanity.

The cognitive (epistemological) function is closely related to the function of transmitting social experience and, in a certain sense, follows from it. Culture, concentrating the best social experience of many generations of people, acquires the ability to accumulate rich knowledge about the world and thereby create favorable opportunities for its knowledge and development. It can be argued that a society is intellectual to the extent that it fully utilizes the wealth of knowledge contained in the cultural gene pool of humanity. All types of society that live on Earth today differ significantly primarily in this regard.

The regulatory (normative) function is primarily associated with the determination (regulation) of various aspects, types of public and personal activities of people. In the sphere of work, everyday life, and interpersonal relationships, culture, one way or another, influences people’s behavior and regulates their actions and even the choice of certain material and spiritual values. The regulatory function of culture is supported by such normative systems as morality and law.

The sign function is the most important in the cultural system. Representing a certain sign system, culture presupposes knowledge and mastery of it. Without studying the corresponding sign systems, it is impossible to master the achievements of culture. Thus, language (oral or written) is a means of communication between people. Literary language acts as the most important means of mastering national culture. Specific languages ​​are needed to understand the world of music, painting, and theater. Natural sciences also have their own sign systems.

The value, or axiological, function reflects the most important qualitative state of culture. Culture as a certain value system forms very specific value needs and orientations in a person. By their level and quality, people most often judge the degree of culture of a person. Moral and intellectual content, as a rule, acts as a criterion for appropriate assessment.

Social functions of culture

The social functions that culture performs allow people to carry out collective activities, optimally satisfying their needs. The main functions of culture include:

• - social integration - ensuring the unity of humanity, a common worldview (with the help of myth, religion, philosophy);
• - organization and regulation of joint life activities of people through law, politics, morality, customs, ideology, etc.;
• - providing the means of human life (such as cognition, communication, accumulation and transfer of knowledge, upbringing, education, stimulation of innovation, selection of values, etc.);
• - regulation of certain spheres of human activity (life culture, leisure culture, work culture, nutrition culture, etc.).

Thus, the cultural system is not only complex and diverse, but also very mobile. Culture is an integral part of the life of both society as a whole and its closely interconnected subjects: individuals, social communities, social institutions.

The complex and multi-level structure of culture determines the diversity of its functions in the life of a person and society. But there is no complete unanimity among culturologists regarding the number of functions of culture. Nevertheless, all authors agree with the idea of ​​multifunctionality of culture, with the fact that each of its components can perform different functions.

The adaptive function is the most important function of culture, ensuring human adaptation to the environment. It is known that the adaptation of living organisms to their habitat is a necessary condition for their survival in the process of evolution. Their adaptation occurs due to the work of the mechanisms of natural selection, heredity and variability, which ensure the survival of individuals best adapted to the environment, the preservation and transmission of useful characteristics to subsequent generations. But what happens is completely different: a person does not adapt to his environment, to changes in the environment, like other living organisms, but changes his environment in accordance with his needs, remaking it for himself.

When the environment is transformed, a new, artificial world is created - culture. In other words, a person cannot lead a natural lifestyle like animals, and in order to survive, he creates an artificial habitat around himself, protecting himself from unfavorable environmental conditions. Man gradually becomes independent of natural conditions: if other living organisms can live only in a certain ecological niche, then man is able to master any natural conditions at the cost of forming an artificial world of culture.

Of course, a person cannot achieve complete independence from the environment, since the form of culture is largely determined by natural conditions. The type of economy, housing, traditions and customs, beliefs, rites and rituals of peoples depend on natural and climatic conditions. So. the culture of mountain peoples differs from the culture of peoples leading a nomadic lifestyle or engaged in maritime fishing, etc. Southern peoples use a lot of spices when preparing food to delay spoilage in hot climates.

As culture develops, humanity provides itself with increasing security and comfort. The quality of life is constantly improving. But having gotten rid of old fears and dangers, a person comes face to face with new problems that he creates for himself. For example, today there is no need to be afraid of the terrible diseases of the past - the plague or smallpox, but new diseases have appeared, such as AIDS, for which no cure has yet been found, and in military laboratories other deadly diseases created by man himself are waiting in the wings. Therefore, a person needs to protect himself not only from the natural environment, but also from the world of culture, artificially created by man himself.

The adaptive function has a dual nature. On the one hand, it manifests itself in the creation of specific means of human protection - the necessary means of protection for a person from the outside world. These are all cultural products that help a person survive and feel confident in the world: the use of fire, storing food and other necessary things, creating productive agriculture, medicine, etc. Moreover, these include not only objects of material culture, but also those specific means that a person develops to adapt to life in society, keeping him from mutual destruction and death - state structures, laws, customs, traditions, moral norms, etc. .d.

On the other hand, there are non-specific means of human protection - culture as a whole, existing as a picture of the world. Understanding culture as a “second nature”, a world created by man, we emphasize the most important property of human activity and culture - the ability to “double the world”, highlighting sensory-objective and ideal-imaginative layers in it. By connecting culture with the ideal-shaped world, we obtain the most important property of culture - to be a picture of the world, a certain network of images and meanings through which the world around us is perceived. Culture as a picture of the world makes it possible to see the world not as a continuous flow of information, but as ordered and structured information. Any object or phenomenon of the external world is perceived through this symbolic grid, it has a place in this system of meanings, and it is often assessed as useful, harmful or indifferent to a person.

The symbolic, significative function (naming) is associated with culture as a picture of the world. The formation of names and titles is very important for a person. If some object or phenomenon is not named, does not have a name, is not designated by a person, they do not exist for him. By giving a name to an object or phenomenon and assessing it as threatening, a person simultaneously receives the necessary information that allows him to act to avoid danger, since when labeling a threat, it is not just given a name, but it fits into the hierarchy of existence. Let's give an example. Each of us has been sick at least once in our lives (not with a mild cold, but with some fairly serious illness). In this case, a person experiences not only painful sensations, feelings of weakness and helplessness. Usually, in such a state, unpleasant thoughts come to mind, including about a possible death, and the symptoms of all the diseases that we have heard about are recalled. The situation is exactly according to J. Jerome, one of the heroes of whose novel “Three in a Boat, Not Counting a Dog,” while studying a medical reference book, found all the diseases in himself, except for puerperal fever. In other words, a person experiences fear because of the uncertainty of his future, because he feels a threat, but knows nothing about it. This significantly worsens the general condition of the patient. In such cases, a doctor is called, who usually makes a diagnosis and prescribes treatment. But relief occurs even before taking medication, since the doctor, having made a diagnosis, gave a name to the threat, thereby entering it into the picture of the world, which automatically provided information about possible means of combating it.

We can say that culture as an image and picture of the world is an orderly and balanced scheme of the cosmos, and is the prism through which a person looks at the world. It is expressed through philosophy, literature, mythology, ideology and in human actions. Most members of the ethnos are fragmentarily aware of its content; it is fully accessible only to a small number of cultural specialists. The basis of this picture of the world are ethnic constants - the values ​​and norms of ethnic culture.

The cognitive (epistemological) function most fully manifests itself in science and scientific knowledge. Culture concentrates the experience and skills of many generations of people, accumulates rich knowledge about the world and thereby creates favorable opportunities for its knowledge and development. Of course, knowledge is acquired not only in science, but also in other spheres of culture, but there it is a by-product of human activity, and in science, obtaining objective knowledge about the world is the most important goal.

Science for a long time remained a phenomenon only of European civilization and culture, while other peoples chose a different path to understanding the world around them. Thus, in the East, the most complex systems of philosophy and psychotechnics were created for this purpose. They seriously discussed such ways of understanding the world, unusual for rational European minds, as telepathy (transfer of thoughts at a distance), telekinesis (the ability to influence objects with thought), clairvoyance (the ability to predict the future), etc.

The function of accumulation and storage of information is inextricably linked with the cognitive function, since knowledge and information are the result of knowledge of the world. The need for information on a variety of issues is a natural condition for the life of both an individual and society as a whole. A person must remember his past, be able to evaluate it correctly, admit his mistakes; must know who he is, where he comes from and where he is going. To answer these questions, people have created sign systems that collect, systematize and store the necessary information. At the same time, culture can be represented as a complex sign system that ensures historical continuity and the transfer of social experience from generation to generation, from era to era, from one country to another, as well as the synchronous transfer of information between people living at the same time. Various sign systems help a person not only understand the world, but also record this understanding and structure it. Humanity has only one way to preserve, increase and distribute accumulated knowledge in time and space - through culture.

The means of storing, accumulating and transmitting information are the natural memory of the individual, the collective memory of the people, enshrined in language and spiritual culture, symbolic and material means of storing information - books, works of art, any objects created by man, since they are also texts . Recently, electronic means of information storage have begun to play an increasingly important role. The society also created special institutions to perform this cultural function - libraries, schools and universities, archives, and other services for collecting and processing information.

The communicative function of culture ensures that people communicate with each other. A person cannot solve any complex problem without the help of other people. People enter into communication in the process of any type of work activity. Without communication with others like themselves, a person cannot become a full-fledged member of society and develop his abilities. A long separation from society leads an individual to mental and spiritual degradation, turning him into an animal. Culture is the condition and result of human communication. Only through the assimilation of culture do people become members of society. Culture provides people with a means of communication. In turn, by communicating, people create, preserve and develop culture.

Nature has not endowed man with the ability to establish emotional contacts, exchange information without the help of signs, sounds, writing, and for communication man has created various means of cultural communication. Information can be transmitted by verbal (verbal) methods, non-verbal (facial expressions, gestures, postures, communication distance, information transmitted through material objects, for example through clothing, especially uniforms) and paraverbal (rate of speech, intonation, volume, articulation, pitch of voice and so on.).

To communicate with other people, a person uses natural languages, artificial languages ​​and codes - computer, logical, mathematical symbols and formulas, traffic signs, as well as various technical devices.

The communication process consists of three stages:

• - encoding of information that must be transmitted to the addressee, i.e. translation into some symbolic form;
• - transmission via communication channels, with possible interference and loss of some information;
• - decoding of the received message by the addressee, and due to differences in ideas about the world, different individual experiences of the sender and recipient of the message, decoding occurs with errors. Therefore, communication is never 100% successful; greater or lesser losses are inevitable. The effectiveness of communication is ensured by a number of cultural conditions, such as the presence of a common language, channels for transmitting information, appropriate motivation, ethical, semiotic rules, which ultimately determine to whom, what, when and how can be communicated and from whom and when to expect a response message.

The development of forms and methods of communication is the most important aspect of the formation of culture. In the early stages of human history, the possibilities of communication were limited to direct contacts between people and in order to transmit information they had to move closer to the distance of direct visibility and hearing. Over time, people found the opportunity to increase the communication range, for example, with the help of special devices. This is how signal drums and bonfires appeared. But their capabilities were limited to transmitting only a few signals. Therefore, the most important stage in the development of culture was the invention of writing, which made it possible to transmit complex messages over long distances. In the modern world, mass communication media are becoming increasingly important, primarily television, radio, print, as well as computer networks, which come to the fore as a means of communication between people.

In modern conditions, the importance of the communicative function of culture is growing faster than any other function. The development of communication capabilities leads to the erasure of national characteristics and contributes to the formation of a single universal civilization, i.e. processes of globalization. These processes, in turn, stimulate intensive progress in means of communication, which is expressed in an increase in the power and range of communication means, an increase in information flows, and an increase in the speed of information transfer. Along with this, people’s mutual understanding and their ability to sympathize and empathize are progressing.

The integrative function of culture is related to the communicative one and is associated with the fact that culture unites any social communities - peoples, social groups and states. The basis for the unity of such groups is: a common language, a common system of values ​​and ideals that creates a common outlook on the world, as well as common norms governing the behavior of people in society. The result is a sense of community with people who are members of the in-group, as opposed to others who are perceived as “outsiders.” Because of this, the whole world is divided into “us” and “strangers”, into Us and They. As a rule, a person has more trust in “his own” than in “strangers” who speak an incomprehensible language and behave incorrectly. Therefore, communications between representatives of different cultures are always difficult, and there is a high risk of mistakes that give rise to conflicts and even wars. But recently, due to the processes of globalization, the development of media and communication, intercultural contacts are strengthening and expanding. This is largely facilitated by modern mass culture, thanks to which books, music, achievements of science and technology, fashion, etc. become available to many people in different countries. The Internet plays a particularly important role in this process. We can say that the integrative function of culture has recently contributed to the unity of not only individual social and ethnic groups, but also humanity as a whole.

The normative (regulatory) function of culture manifests itself as a system of norms and requirements of society for all its members in all areas of their lives and activities - work, everyday life, family, intergroup, interethnic, interpersonal relations.

In any human community, it is necessary to regulate the behavior of the individuals composing them in order to maintain balance within the community itself and for the survival of each individual. The cultural products that a person has at his disposal outline the field of his possible activities, allow him to predict the development of various events, but do not determine how a person should act in a given situation. Each person must consciously and responsibly carry out his actions, based on the norms and requirements for the behavior of people that have historically developed in society and are clearly entrenched in our consciousness and subconscious.

Norms of human behavior, both permissive and prohibitive, are an indication of the acceptable limits and boundaries within which a person must act in order for his behavior to be positively assessed by other people and society as a whole. Each culture has its own norms of behavior. There are cultures with a strong normative side (China) and cultures in which normativity is weaker (European cultures). The question of the existence of universal human norms remains debatable.

Through norms, culture regulates and coordinates the actions of individuals and human groups, develops optimal ways to resolve conflict situations, and provides recommendations for solving vital issues.

The regulatory function of culture is carried out at several levels:

• - morality and other norms that are strictly observed, despite the absence of special monitoring institutions; violation of these norms is met with sharp condemnation from society;
• - rules of law, which are set out in detail in the constitution and laws of the country. Their compliance is controlled by specially created institutions - the court, the prosecutor's office, the police, the penitentiary system;
• - customs and traditions, which represent a stable system of people’s behavior in different spheres of life and different situations, which has become the norm and is passed on from generation to generation. As a rule, they take the form of a certain stereotype and are stable over the centuries with any social changes;
• - norms of human behavior at work, at home, in communication with other people, in relation to nature, including a wide range of requirements - from basic neatness and adherence to the rules of good manners to general requirements for the spiritual world of a person.

The axiological (evaluative) function of culture is associated with its value orientations. Cultural regulation of human activity is carried out not only normatively, but also through a system of values—ideals that people strive to achieve. Values ​​imply the choice of a particular object, state, need, goal in accordance with the criterion of their usefulness for human life and help society and people to separate good from bad, truth from error, fair from unfair, permissible from forbidden, etc. The selection of values ​​occurs in the process of practical activity. As experience accumulates, values ​​form and disappear, are revised and enriched.

Values ​​provide the specificity of each culture. What is important in one culture may not be important in another. Each nation develops its own hierarchy of values, although the set of values ​​has a universal human character. Therefore, we can conditionally classify the core values ​​as follows:

• - vital values ​​- life, health, safety, welfare, strength, etc.;
• - social - social status, work, profession, personal independence, family, gender equality;
• - political - freedom of speech, civil liberties, legality,
• - civil peace;
• - moral - goodness, goodness, love, friendship, duty, honor, selflessness, decency, loyalty, justice, respect for elders, love for children;
• - aesthetic values ​​- beauty, ideal, style, harmony, fashion, originality.

Each society, each culture is guided by its own set of values, which may lack some of the values ​​listed above. In addition, each culture represents certain values ​​in its own way. Thus, the ideals of beauty vary quite widely among different nations. For example, in medieval China, aristocratic women, in accordance with the then existing ideal of beauty, should have tiny feet; the desired was achieved through painful foot-binding procedures, which girls were subjected to from the age of five and as a result of which they became literally crippled.

People's behavior is oriented through values. A person cannot treat the opposites that make up the world in the same way; he must give preference to one thing. Most people believe that they strive for good, truth, love, but what seems good to some may turn out to be evil to others. This again leads to cultural specificity of values. Based on our ideas about good and evil, all our lives we act as “evaluators” of the world around us. culture atheistic elitist mass

The recreational function of culture (mental relaxation) is the opposite of the normative function. Regulation and regulation of behavior are necessary, but their consequence is the restriction of the freedom of individuals and groups, the suppression of some of their desires and inclinations, which leads to the development of hidden conflicts and tensions. A person comes to the same result due to excessive specialization of activity, forced loneliness or excess communication, unsatisfied needs for love, faith, immortality, intimate contact with another person. Not all of these tensions can be rationally resolved. Therefore, culture faces the task of creating organized and relatively safe ways of detente that do not violate social stability.

The simplest, most natural individual means of relaxation are laughter, crying, fits of anger, confession, declarations of love, and honest conversation. Specifically cultural, collective forms of detente, enshrined in tradition - holidays and leisure, freed from direct participation in production. On holidays, people do not work, do not observe everyday norms of life, and organize processions, carnivals, and feasts. The meaning of the holiday is the solemn collective renewal of life. During the holiday, the ideal and the real seem to merge, a person involved in festive culture and who knows how to celebrate, experiences relief and joy. Holidays also take place according to certain rules - observing the appropriate place and time, playing stable roles. With the destruction of these formalities and the strengthening of sensual inclinations, physiological pleasure can become an end in itself and will be achieved at any cost; as a result, alcoholism, drug addiction and other vices will appear.

Rituals also represent a means of collective release and regulate the most important moments in people’s lives that relate to the sphere of the sacred (sacred) in a given culture. Among the ritual events are birth and death, marriage, rites of growing up (initiation), especially important in primitive and traditional cultures. This group also includes religious rituals and ceremonies, the implementation of which is one of the best ways of compensation created by culture. Rituals are characterized by special solemnity and cultural richness.

Also, a game that satisfies drives through symbolic means is effectively used as a collective release. The symbolism of the game will create a special psychological attitude, when a person simultaneously believes and does not believe in what is happening, it encourages him to use all his strength and skill to achieve the goal. Play allows you to defuse unconscious impulses that are prohibited or unclaimed by culture. Thus, many games contain competitive, sexual motives - sports, lottery, competitions, dancing. In games such as collecting, accumulative drives are realized, which are assessed in everyday life as a manifestation of greed. Finally, there are games that play on the meaning of death - bullfighting, gladiator fights.

On the one hand, today we can talk about the humanization of games, the replacement of many past entertainments, such as street fist fights and public executions, with sports, television, and cinema. But on the other hand, cinema and television show many scenes of violence in films and programs, traumatizing the psyche of people, especially children.

The function of socialization and inculturation, or the human-creative function, is the most important function of culture. Socialization is the process of assimilation by a human individual of certain knowledge, norms and values ​​necessary for life as a full member of society, and enculturation is the process of assimilation of skills and knowledge necessary for life in a particular culture. These similar processes are possible only with the help of specially created cultural systems of upbringing and education. Outside of society, these processes are impossible, so Mowgli or Tarzan would never have turned out to be a real person. Children who, for some reason, grow up among animals themselves remain animals forever.

The processes of socialization and enculturation presuppose the active internal work of the person himself, striving to master the information necessary for life. Therefore, having mastered the complex of knowledge required for a given culture, a person begins to develop his individual abilities, his natural inclinations. This could be the development of musical or artistic abilities, mathematical or technical knowledge, something that may be useful in mastering future profession or will become a person's occupation during leisure hours.

Socialization and enculturation continue throughout a person's life, but the most important learning is acquired during childhood. Then the child learns to speak his native language, assimilates the norms and values ​​of his culture. Basically, this happens automatically when the child first copies the behavior of his parents, and then his peers, teachers and other adults. This is how the social experience accumulated by the people is assimilated, the cultural tradition is preserved and passed on from generation to generation, which ensures the stability of the culture.

Which spouse will you choose? How to hook a guy you like. Crush what's holding you back Understand what has been holding you back and what will truly motivate you. Write your answer in the field by clicking on the Comment link or in the Write a comment field. Gon what. Dating Chechen Republic Trans-Baikal Territory Chuvashia Chukotka Autonomous Okrug Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug Yaroslavl Region An officer of the Ukrainian Armed Forces, Anatoly Stefan, said this.......

I only feel sorry for the Kids and the coot given to us and the hooligan given to us, such stress. If another person participates as a defense lawyer, a meeting with him is granted upon presentation of a corresponding ruling or court order, as well as a document proving his identity. It is from him that you meet, communicate and find new partners for dating with married women for free. but there is one thing. the description of the appearance looks very......

Others, as if in revenge, immediately recall Nikolai’s visits to the house where love soon moved with his own sister. And I found the newest one a week later. For other work you will receive separately, but not for the next six months. We've been living like this for six months now. Free sex and it seems to us that the reaction to it should not be a closure in the form of a victim. We immediately agreed that there was no business......

If he leans back when you lean towards him, or if he does not participate in the conversation, despite all your attempts, then, most likely, he is simply not interested. Flirting is a form of human interface that traditionally expresses romantic interest in another person. Then, passing from hand to hand, it turns the life of its own owners into horror. and who in general can this moment make a wish......

A woman is obliged to infiltrate criminal group, to help capture members of Motokovsky’s gang who are responsible for drug trafficking. An attacker can use this information against you and even start blackmailing you if something goes wrong on the date itself and you don’t justify dating mature guys. I always believed that the basis of such relationships was commercialism, but in my own acquaintances with mature guys I did not notice this. this speaks of......

After a couple of sleepless nights, they move to trans mamba levels of consciousness that allow them to touch the secrets that the old building keeps. The account of the alleged mistress. It will really be better for both of us. Yes, of course, this is a provocation in its purest form. Art Medicine We defend the right to flirt, which is necessary for sexual freedom. I just don’t understand, is it really hard to move forward......

There really was a cherry-vanilla aroma. In desperation, he promises his patron to bring him the latest amazing and hilarious play in verse. This is where those who were considered his friends would be needed. The language of dating and free sex will convey more about interest than words or an invitation to get to know each other even better. Instead, he canceled all plans, took a vacation at his own expense and flew to her......

Opportunity to save your money. And this should interject for you. Is it possible to return the cases that were before the conclusion. Why all these empty discussions about work, about where and who lives, what they do, what they did yesterday, what they are thinking about. Attention and tenderness, and Nathaniel, by chance, is here. I love people who are sociable, good, and capable of surprising people. studenichnik Nadezhda Ivanovna psychologist, online consultant, but from today’s women, if......