International artificial languages. Artificial languages and their classification
Today, there are a considerable number of artificial languages in the world. Some of them are well known, others are known only to small groups of people. But none of them has yet become really popular. And can they even become a substitute for natural languages?
The dream of a universal language appeared among people for a very long time. And it would seem, what could be easier? To create a language with a very simple but capacious grammar and sufficient vocabulary. Such that it can be studied without much effort by a person who is sure that he has no abilities in mastering languages. But, as practice has shown, this is not enough.
There are hundreds of similar languages. Some of them were intended for communication of people from all over the world (,), while others - only for certain social groups (,). There have also been attempts to create languages based entirely on the logic (). Other creators of artificial languages \u200b\u200btreated this matter as a kind of creativity (). Move people and other motives.
But the result remains the same - none of the artificial languages has yet managed to become popular enough so that with its help it would be possible to communicate freely in various parts of the Earth. Usually everything is limited only to a narrow circle of interested people. The only exception is Esperanto, which can boast of speakers who consider this language their mother tongue (these are children born in international families). According to some estimates, Esperanto is spoken by about 2 million people around the world. However, many linguists are sure that this figure is very overestimated.
For the widespread dissemination of a planned language (that is, an artificial language for international communication), it is not enough just that it be simple. On its way, there will be many other obstacles, the existence of which the creators of the first artificial languages did not even think about. After all, language is more than just a means of communication. There is a theory that a person perceives the world through the prism of his native language, which determines his consciousness and directly affects the type of his thinking.
Flag of artificial languages.
It depicts the Tower of Babel with the rising sun in the background.
Why are there individual people - languages determine the consciousness of entire peoples. It is not for nothing that all conquerors always strive to belittle the value of the native dialect of the people they conquered (typical examples are and). Language is also a whole layer of culture. Unless, of course, it's artificial.
In addition, in order for a language to become really popular, a large number of people must be interested in it and like it. It is simply impossible to take and make any language a means of international communication.
There is another problem. In order for the planned language to remain a truly universal instrument of international communication, it must be free of dialects. And the appearance of each new word should be considered by special commissions. And this, you see, is not an easy task at all.
There are other difficulties as well. However, despite them, new artificial languages will be constantly created in the future. Mostly for needs and sometimes. Languages will also appear, the purpose of which is simply a language game, entertainment. But as far as languages for international communication are concerned, it is doubtful that anyone today will seriously hope to create something like that. It just doesn't make sense - today it copes well with such a task, the popularity of which is constantly growing. Let's not forget that English is relatively easy to learn. Yes, and with the cultural layer everything is in order here.
Does it make sense to learn any artificial language? Given enough time, definitely yes! But only as a hobby. This is a great workout for the mind, a way to learn a lot of new things, to get acquainted with unusual forms of expression of various other ideas. Also, it is a way to meet interesting people from all over the world who are also interested in your chosen language. The famous Hungarian polyglot expressed an excellent idea, according to which, "language is the only thing that is useful to study even badly." Learning any language will only bring benefits.
(USA)
Jan van Steenbergen, Igor Polyakov
G. I. Muravkin (Berlin)
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Notes
Literature
- Histoire de la langue universelle. - Paris: Librairie Hachette et C ie, 1903. - 571 p.
- Drezen E.K. For the common language. Three centuries of searching. - M.-L.: Gosizdat, 1928. - 271 p.
- Svadost-Istomin Ermar Pavlovich. How will a common language emerge? - M .: Nauka, 1968. - 288 p.
- Dulichenko A. D. Projects of universal and international languages (Chronological index from II to XX centuries) // Uchenye zapiski Tartu Gos. university. Issue. 791. - 1988. - S. 126-162.
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List of national Esperanto organizations- a list of organizations whose activities are aimed at spreading Esperanto within the country or region. Contents 1 America 2 Asia 3 Africa ... Wikipedia
Esperanto- Esperanto ... Wikipedia
Constructed language
Auxiliary language- Artificial languages are special languages that, unlike natural ones, are purposefully constructed. There are already more than a thousand such languages, and more and more are constantly being created. Classification There are the following types of artificial ... ... Wikipedia
The language is synthetic- Artificial languages are special languages that, unlike natural ones, are purposefully constructed. There are already more than a thousand such languages, and more and more are constantly being created. Classification There are the following types of artificial ... ... Wikipedia
Constructed languages- Portal:Constructed Languages for Beginners Community Portals Awards Projects Inquiries Grading Geography History Society Personalities Religion Sports Technology Science Art Philosophy ... Wikipedia
Portal:Constructed languages- For Beginners Community Portals Awards Projects Inquiries Grading Geography History Society Personalities Religion Sports Technology Science Art Philosophy ... Wikipedia
Esperanto vocabulary- The basic set of Esperanto words was defined in the First Book, published by Zamenhof in 1887. It contained about 900 roots, however, the rules of the language allowed speakers to borrow words as needed. It was recommended to borrow ... Wikipedia
Wikipedia in Esperanto- Wikipedia en Esperanto ... Wikipedia
Zamenhof, Ludwik Lazar- Ludwik Lazar Zamenhof Eliezer Levi Samengoff ... Wikipedia
Books
- Designing languages. From Esperanto to Dothraki, Alexander Piperski. Why do people create their own new languages - conlangs, when there are 7000 natural languages in the world? What are artificial languages? How are they similar to natural languages, and how ...
It would seem that English today is the language of world communication, why do we need something else? But linguists don't think so. The first known artificial language appeared in the world at the end of the 19th century, it was called Volapuk. In 1880, the first Volapuk language textbook was published. True, Volapyuk did not take a strong position and disappeared simultaneously with the death of his creator. After that, many new artificial languages appeared in the world. Some of them are popular, such as Esperanto, and some are spoken and written only by their creator (it would be more correct to call such artificial languages “linguo projects”).
Moreover, there are even invented artificial languages, the creators of which came up not only with the name of the language and the people who use this language, but also with grammar and vocabulary. The most famous and prolific creator of invented artificial languages is Tolkien (yes, the author of The Hobbit and The Lord of the Ring). He invented more than a dozen Elvish languages, created a logical structure for their origin and development, distribution, and even thought out the grammar and lexical structure of each of the languages (with varying degrees of detail).
Tolkien, as a professional linguist, specialized in the ancient Germanic languages. This is what helped him in the creation of his famous Elvish languages. In his books, Tolkien used the languages he created for names and titles, even writing poems and songs in them. So much is known about the Quenya language invented by Tolkien that you can even learn to speak it, there is a Quenya textbook. Another thing is that you can only speak Quenya with ardent fans of Tolkien, in real life the language is unlikely to be useful.
Let's now recall some artificial languages (otherwise they are called "planned languages") that are used in the world.
Constructed Languages: Esperanto
Esperanto is the best known and most widely used artificial language in the world. Like Volapuk, it appeared at the end of the 19th century, but this language was much more fortunate. Its creator is the doctor and linguist Lazar Markovich Zamenhof. Today Esperanto is spoken by 100 thousand to several million people, there are even people for whom the language is native (usually children from international marriages, in which Esperanto is the language of family communication). Unfortunately, exact statistics for artificial languages are not kept.
Constructed language Ido (edo)
Ido is a kind of descendant of Esperanto. It was created by French Esperantist Louis de Beaufron, French mathematician Louis Couture and Danish linguist Otto Jespersen. Ido was proposed as an improved version of Esperanto. It is estimated that up to 5,000 people speak Ido today. At the time of its creation, about 10% of Esperanto speakers switched to it, but the Ido language did not gain worldwide popularity.
Constructed Languages: Slovian
We, Russian people, cannot fail to mention such an interesting project as Slovianski. This is a new language, it appeared in 2006 as a language for international communication of the Slavs. The creators of the language set themselves the task: the language should be understandable without translation to most speakers of Slavic languages (and this group includes not only us, Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians. There are also Czechs, and Croats, and Bulgarians, and other peoples).
There are other planned or artificial languages that are not so famous and popular: Interlingua (appeared in the middle of the 20th century), Tokipona (one of the simplest artificial languages, several hundred users, appeared in 2001), Quenya (the most popular and developed elvish language, the number of people who know it to some extent reaches several thousand), Klingon language (the language of one of the alien races in the Star Trek series, a magazine is published on it, there are songs in Klingon and even Klingon Google!) . In fact, the number of artificial languages is difficult to determine: only more or less well-known artificial languages are about forty. And here is a link to a long list of artificial languages:
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF RUSSIA
Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education
"Chelyabinsk State University"
(FGBOU VPO "ChelGU")
Kostanay branch
Department of Philology
COURSE WORK
Topic: International Constructed Languages
Moldasheva Aizhan Bolatovna
Specialty/direction Linguistics
Work manager
Kostanay 2013
Introduction. Language as a means of communication
1 Essence of language
2 Language as a social phenomenon. International Constructed Languages
Conclusion
Introduction
There are currently thousands of different languages. Language - as the most important means of human communication is closely connected with society, its culture and people who live and work in society, using the language widely and in a variety of ways. Without considering the purpose of the language, its connections with society, consciousness and mental activity of a person, without considering the rules of functioning and the laws of the historical development of languages, it is impossible to deeply and correctly understand the language system, its units of categories. The need for a language, an intermediary between peoples, has always existed, but among the thousands of languages that cover our land, it is difficult to find just one that everyone could understand. For any natural language, the function of international communication is secondary, since such a language is primarily used as the national language of a particular people. Therefore, projects for creating an artificial language, as a rule, were based on the idea of creating a universal language that would be common to all mankind or several ethnic groups.
The relevance of this work is due to the situation in which our society is now. First of all, this is due to the development of global means of communication, primarily international negotiations. There are currently more than a thousand artificial languages in the world, and there is a growing interest in Esperanto and other planned languages. Therefore, an increase in interest in interlinguistics and planned languages as a means of communication is possible, and as a result, the further development of this branch of linguistics. Today, there are about five hundred artificial languages in the world. However, of the total number of planned languages that were ever proposed as international, few turned out to be suitable for real communication and began to be used by more or less people.
The purpose of this work is to study the role of artificial languages in the system of modern culture.
To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:
give a brief historical background on the formation and development of artificial languages;
consider varieties of international artificial languages;
open the concept of "planned languages".
Object of study: Basic English, Volapuk, Ido, Interlingua, Latin Blue Flexion, Loglan, Lojban, Na "Vi, Novial, Occidental, Simli, Solresol, Esperanto, Ithkuil, Klingon, Elvish languages.
Subject of study: Languages of artificial origin.
The theoretical significance of the study lies in the study of artificial language in general.
The practical significance of the study lies in how artificial languages help international communication and society as a whole.
The theoretical and methodological basis for the study were fundamental works in the field of interlinguistics: Galen, J.M. Shleyer L.L. Zamenhof, E. Weferling, E. Lipman, K. Sjöstedt, E. de Walem A. Goud,
This paper discusses the history of the emergence, causes, advantages of artificial languages.
The work has a traditional structure and includes an introduction, the main part, consisting of two chapters, a conclusion and a list of references.
I. Language as a means of communication
1 Essence of language
The history of the science of language testifies that the question of the essence of language is one of the most difficult in linguistics. It is no coincidence that it has several mutually exclusive solutions:
language is a biological, natural phenomenon, independent of man ( Languages, these natural organisms formed in sound matter ...., manifest their properties of a natural organism not only in the fact that they are classified into genera, species, subspecies, etc., but also in the fact that their growth occurs according to certain laws, - wrote A. Schleicher).
language is a mental phenomenon that arises as a result of the action of an individual spirit - human or divine ( Language, W. Humboldt wrote, is a continuous activity of the spirit, striving to turn sound into an expression of thought).
language is a psychosocial phenomenon, which, according to I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay collective - individual or collectively - mental an existence in which the individual is at the same time general, universal;
language is a social phenomenon that arises and develops only in a collective ( Language is a social element of speech activity, - said F. de Saussure, - external to the individual, who by himself can neither create a language nor change it).
It is easy to see that in these different definitions, language is understood either as a biological (or natural) phenomenon, or as a mental (individual) phenomenon, or as a social (public) phenomenon. If language is recognized as a biological phenomenon, then it should be considered on a par with such human abilities as eating, drinking, sleeping, walking, etc., and it should be considered that language is inherited by man, since it is inherent in his very nature. However, this contradicts the facts, since the language is not inherited. It is acquired by the child under the influence of speakers. It is hardly legitimate to consider language as a mental phenomenon, arising as a result of the action of an individual spirit - human or divine. In this case, humanity would have a huge variety of individual languages, which would lead to a situation of Babylonian confusion of languages, misunderstanding of each other, even by members of the same team. There is no doubt that language is a social phenomenon: it arises and develops only in a team due to the need for people to communicate with each other.
A different understanding of the essence of language gave rise to different approaches to its definition, cf.: language is thinking expressed by sounds (A. Schleicher); language is a system of signs in which the only essential thing is the combination of meaning and acoustic image (F. de Saussure); language is practical, existing for other people, and only thereby existing also for myself, real consciousness (K. Marx, F. Engels); language is the most important means of human communication (V.I. Lenin); language is a system of articulate sounds of signs that spontaneously arises in human society and develops, serving for the purposes of communication and capable of expressing the totality of a person’s knowledge and ideas about the world (Artyunova N.D.).
In each of these definitions (and their number can be increased to infinity), different points are emphasized: the relationship of language to thinking, the structural organization of language, the most important functions, etc., which once again indicates that language is a complex sign system, working in unity and interaction with human consciousness and thinking.
Language is the most complex thing. E. Benveniste wrote several decades ago: “The properties of the language are so peculiar that one can, in essence, speak of the presence of not one, but several structures in the language, each of which could serve as the basis for the emergence of a holistic linguistics.” Language is a multidimensional phenomenon that has arisen in human society: it is both a system and an anti-system, both an activity and a product of this activity, both spirit and matter, and a spontaneously developing object and an ordered self-regulating phenomenon, it is both arbitrary and produced, etc. Characterizing the language in all its complexity from opposite sides, we reveal its very essence.
To reflect the most complex essence of language, Yu. S. Stepanov presented it in the form of several images, because none of these images is able to fully reflect all aspects of the language: 1) language as the language of an individual; 2) language as a member of the family of languages; 3) language as a structure; 4) language as a system; 5) language as type and character; 6) language as a computer; 7) language as a space of thought and as a “house of the spirit” (M. Heidegger), i.e. language as a result of complex human cognitive activity. Accordingly, from the standpoint of the seventh image, the language, firstly, is the result of the activity of the people; secondly, the result of the activity of a creative person and the result of the activity of language normalizers (the state, institutions that develop norms and rules).
To these images at the very end of the 20th century. one more was added: language as a product of culture, as its important component and condition of existence, as a factor in the formation of cultural codes.
From the standpoint of the anthropocentric paradigm, a person cognizes the world through awareness of himself, his theoretical and objective activity in it. No abstract theory can answer the question why one can think of a feeling as fire and talk about the flame of love, the warmth of hearts, the warmth of friendship, etc. Awareness of oneself as the measure of all things gives a person the right to create in his mind an anthropocentric order of things, which can be explored not at the everyday, but at the scientific level. This order, which exists in the head, in the mind of a person, determines his spiritual essence, the motives of his actions, the hierarchy of values. All this can be understood by examining a person’s speech, those turns and expressions that he most often uses, for which he shows the highest level of empathy.
In the process of forming a new scientific paradigm, the thesis was proclaimed: “The world is a collection of facts, not things” (L. Wittgenstein). The language was gradually reoriented to a fact, an event, and the personality of a native speaker (linguistic personality, according to Yu. N. Karaulov) became the focus of attention. The new paradigm presupposes new attitudes and goals of language research, new key concepts and methods. In the anthropocentric paradigm, the ways of constructing the subject of linguistic research have changed, the very approach to the choice of general principles and methods of research has changed, several competing metalanguages of linguistic description have appeared (R. M. Frumkina).
2 Language as a social phenomenon
As a phenomenon, social language is the property of all people belonging to the same collective. Language is created and developed by society. F. Engels drew attention to this connection between language and society, writing in Dialectics of nature : Forming people came to the point that they had a need to say something to each other.
The question of the relationship between language and society has different solutions. According to one point of view, there is no connection between language and society, because the language develops and functions according to its own laws (Polish scientist E. Kurilovich), according to another, this connection is one-sided, because the development and existence of the language is completely determined the level of development of society (French scientist J. Maruso), or vice versa - the language itself determines the specifics of the spiritual culture of society (American scientists E. Sapir, B. Whorf). However, the most widespread point of view is that the relationship between language and society is two-way.
A language that spontaneously arose in human society and is a developing system of discrete (articulate) sound signs, intended for communication purposes and capable of expressing the totality of a person's knowledge and ideas about the world. The sign of spontaneity of emergence and development, as well as the boundlessness of the scope and possibilities of expression, distinguishes the Language from the so-called artificial or formalized languages that are used in other branches of knowledge (Artificial languages, Information languages, Programming language, Information retrieval language), and from various signaling systems created on the basis of the Language (Morse code, traffic signs, etc.). On the basis of the ability to express abstract forms of thinking and the property of discreteness (internal segmentation of the message) associated with this ability, Language is qualitatively different from the so-called Animal Language, which is a set of signals that transmit reactions to situations and regulate the behavior of animals in certain conditions. Animal communication can only be based on direct experience. It is indecomposable into distinctive elements and does not require a verbal response: a certain course of action serves as a reaction to it. Language proficiency is one of the most important features that distinguish a person from the animal world. Language is at the same time a condition for development and a product of human culture.
Being primarily a means of expressing and communicating thoughts, language is most directly related to thinking. It is no coincidence that units of language served as the basis for establishing forms of thinking. The connection between language and thinking is interpreted in modern science in different ways. The most widespread point of view is that a person's thinking can be carried out only on the basis of language, since thinking itself differs from all other types of mental activity in its abstractness. At the same time, the results of scientific observations by doctors, psychologists, physiologists, logicians and linguists show that thinking occurs not only in the abstract-logical sphere, but also in the course of sensory cognition, within which it is carried out by the material of images, memory and imagination; the thinking of composers, mathematicians, chess players, etc. is not always expressed in verbal form. The initial stages of the process of generating speech are closely related to various non-verbal forms of thinking. Apparently, human thinking is a combination of different types of mental activity, constantly replacing and supplementing each other, but what about verbal thinking? only the main of these types. Since language is closely connected with the entire mental sphere of a person and the expression of thoughts is not its only purpose, it is not identical with thinking.
Communication with abstract thinking provides a linguistic opportunity, carrying out a communicative function, to convey any information, including general judgments, messages about objects that are not present in the speech situation, about the past and future, about fantastic or simply untrue situations. On the other hand, due to the presence in the language of sign units expressing abstract concepts, the language in a certain way organizes human knowledge about the objective world, dismembers them and fixes them in human consciousness. Is this the second main function of the language? the function of reflecting reality, i.e., the formation of categories of thought and, more broadly, consciousness. The interdependence of the communicative function of language and its connection with human consciousness was indicated by K. Marx: “Language is as ancient as consciousness; Language is practical, existing also for other people and only thereby also existing for myself, real consciousness, and, like consciousness, language arises only from a need, from an urgent need to communicate with other people. Along with the two main languages, it performs a number of other functions: nominative, aesthetic, magical, emotionally expressive, appellative.
There are two forms of the existence of language, corresponding to the opposition of the concepts of "language" and speech. Language - as a system has the character of a kind of code; speech is the implementation of this code. The language has special means and mechanisms for the formation of specific speech messages. The action of these mechanisms, for example, the assignment of a name to a specific object, allows the "old" language to be applied to the new reality, creating speech utterances. As one of the forms of social activity, speech has signs of consciousness and purposefulness. Without correlation with a specific communicative goal, a sentence cannot become a fact of speech. Communicative goals that are universal in nature are heterogeneous. Some actions, deeds are unthinkable without speech acts. Speech necessarily participates in many other types of social activity. All forms of literary activity, propaganda, controversy, dispute, agreement, etc., arose on the basis of language, and are carried out in the form of speech. With the participation of speech, the organization of labor, as well as many other types of social life of people, takes place.
Language has only its characteristic features that make it a unique phenomenon. In both forms of the existence of a language, national-specific and universal features are distinguished. The universal ones include all those properties of the language that correspond to universal forms of thinking and activities. Those properties of the language that allow it to fulfill its purpose are also universal, as well as those of its characteristics that arise as a result of the laws of development common to all languages. The specific features of articulation, expression and internal organization of meanings are among the national-specific ones.
The coincidence of structural features unites languages into types. The proximity of the material inventory of units, due to the common origin, unites languages into groups, or families. The structural and material community that has developed as a result of language contacts unites languages into language unions.
The sign nature of a language presupposes the presence in it of a sensually perceived form - an expression, and some sensually non-perceivable meaning - content, materialized with the help of this form. Sound matter is the main and primary form of meaning expression. The existing types of writing are only a transposition of a sound form into a visually perceived substance. They are a secondary form of the expression plan. Since sound speech unfolds in time, it has a sign of linearity, which is usually preserved in the forms of writing.
The connection between the sides of a linguistic sign - the signifier and the signified - is arbitrary: this or that sound does not necessarily imply a strictly defined meaning, and vice versa. The arbitrariness of the sign explains the expression in different languages by different sound complexes of the same or similar meaning. Since the words of the native language isolate concepts, delimit them and fix them in memory, the connection between the sides of the sign for native speakers is not only strong, but also natural, organic.
The ability to correlate sound and meaning is the essence of language. The materialistic approach to language emphasizes the inseparability of the connection between meaning and sound, and at the same time its dialectically contradictory nature. Naturally evolving languages allow sound variation that does not involve a change in meaning, as well as a change in meaning that does not require a variation in sound. As a result of this, different sequences of sounds can correspond to one value, and one sound? different values. The asymmetry in the ratio of the sound and semantic sides of linguistic signs does not prevent communication, since the arsenal of means that perform a semantic role consists not only of constants that form a system of linguistic units, but also of many variables that a person uses in the process of expressing and understanding some content. units, their syntactic position, intonation, speech situation, context, paralinguistic means - facial expressions, gestures.
In most languages, the following series of sound units is distinguished: a phoneme in which acoustic features are merged due to the unity of pronunciation; a syllable that combines sounds with an expiratory push; a phonetic word that groups syllables under one stress; a speech tact that unites phonetic words with restrictive pauses, and, finally, a phonetic phrase that sums up the measures with a unity of intonation.
Along with the system of sound units, there is a system of sign units, which in most languages is formed by a morpheme, a word, a phrase and a sentence. Due to the presence of a language of meaningful units, various combinations of which create statements, and also due to the theoretical unlimited scope of a sentence, an infinite number of messages can be created from a finite set of initial elements.
The division of speech into sound elements does not coincide with its division into bilateral units. The difference in segmentation is determined not only by the fact that the syllable does not coincide with the morpheme in some languages, but also by the different depth of division of speech into sound and meaningful units: the segmentation limit of the sound stream is a sound that does not have its own meaning. This makes it possible to create a huge number of significant units differing in sound composition from a very limited inventory of sounds.
The sign, or semiotic, nature of language as a system suggests that it is organized by the principle of distinctiveness of the units that form it. With minimal differences in sound or meaning of a language unit, they form oppositions on a certain basis. Opposite units are in paradigmatic relations with each other, based on their ability to distinguish in the same speech position. Adjacency relations also arise between units of the language, which are determined by their ability to be compatible.
The transmission of information by a language can be considered not only from the point of view of the organization of its internal structure, but also from the point of view of the organization of its external system, since the life of a language manifests itself in socially typified forms of its use. The social essence of the language ensures its adequacy to the social structure.
The influence of language on the development of social relations is evidenced primarily by the fact that language is one of the consolidating factors in the formation of a nation. It is, on the one hand, a prerequisite and condition for its occurrence, and on the other, the result of this process. In addition, this is evidenced by the role of language in the upbringing and educational activities of society, since language is an instrument and means of transferring knowledge, cultural, historical and other traditions from generation to generation.
The connection of language with society is objective, independent of the will of individual individuals. However, a purposeful influence of society (and in particular, the state) on the language is also possible when a certain language policy is carried out, that is, a conscious, purposeful influence of the state on the language, designed to promote its effective functioning in various fields (most often this is expressed in the creation of alphabets or writing for non-literate peoples, in the development or improvement of spelling rules, special terminology, codification, and other activities, although sometimes the language policy of the state can hinder the development of the national literary language as it was.
Any thought in the form of concepts, judgments or conclusions is necessarily clothed in a material-linguistic shell and does not exist outside the language. It is possible to reveal and investigate logical structures only by analyzing linguistic expressions.
Language is a sign system that performs the function of forming, storing and transmitting information in the process of cognition of reality and communication between people.
Language is a necessary condition for the existence of abstract thinking. Therefore, thinking is a distinctive feature of man.
According to their origin, languages are natural and artificial.
Natural languages are sound (speech) and then graphic (writing) information sign systems that have historically developed in society. They arose to consolidate and transfer the accumulated information in the process of communication between people. Natural languages are carriers of centuries-old culture and are inseparable from the history of the people who speak them.
Everyday reasoning is usually conducted in natural language. But such a language was developed in the interests of ease of communication, the exchange of thoughts, at the expense of accuracy and clarity. Natural languages have rich expressive possibilities: they can be used to express any knowledge (both ordinary and scientific), emotions, feelings.
Natural language performs two main functions - representative and communicative. The representative function lies in the fact that the language is a means of symbolic expression or representation of abstract content (knowledge, concepts, thoughts, etc.), accessible through thinking to specific intellectual subjects. The communicative function is expressed in the fact that language is a means of transferring or communicating this abstract content from one intellectual subject to another. By themselves, letters, words, sentences (or other symbols, such as hieroglyphs) and their combinations form a material basis in which the material superstructure of the language is realized - a set of rules for constructing letters, words, sentences and other linguistic symbols, and only together with the corresponding superstructure that or some other material basis forms a concrete natural language.
II. International Constructed Languages
1 The main stages in the development of artificial languages
Today, about five hundred artificial languages function more or less successfully in the world. At the same time, we do not take into account extreme and degenerate cases - such as chemical notation, musical notation or flag alphabet. We are talking only about developed languages suitable for conveying complex concepts. Projects for creating an artificial language, as a rule, were based on the idea of creating a universal language that would be common to all mankind or several ethnic groups. Obviously, any project to create a pan-human language is political.
The first known attempt to create an artificial language was made in the 2nd century AD. Greek physician Galen. In total, in the history of mankind, about a thousand projects of an international artificial language have been created. However, very few of them have received at least some practical application. The first artificial language that really became a means of communication between people was created in 1879 in Germany by J.M. Schleyer, Volapuk. Due to the extreme complexity and detail of its grammar, Volapuk was not widely used in the world, and around the middle of the 20th century it finally fell into disuse. A much happier fate awaited L.L., invented in 1887. Zamenhof the Esperanto language. Creating his own language, L.L. Zamenhof strove to make it as simple and easy to learn as possible. He succeeded. Esperanto orthography is built on the principle of "one sound - one letter". Nominal inflection is limited to four, and verbal - to seven forms. Declension of names and conjugation of verbs is unified, in contrast to natural national languages, where, as a rule, we meet with several types of declension and conjugation. Mastering the Esperanto language usually takes no more than a few months. There is a rich original and translated literature in Esperanto, numerous newspapers and magazines (about 40 periodicals) are published, and radio broadcasting is carried out in some countries. Esperanto, along with French, is the official language of the International Postal Association. Interlingua (1903), Occidental (1922), Ido (1907), Novial (1928), Omo (1926) and some others are also among the artificial languages that have received some practical use. However, they have not received wide distribution. Of all the artificial languages that exist today, only Esperanto has a real chance of becoming in time the main means of international communication. All artificial languages are divided into a posteriori and a priori. A posteriori are called such artificial languages, which are composed "on the model and from the material of natural languages". Examples of a posteriori languages are Esperanto, Latin-blue-flexione, novial, idiom-neutral. A priori are called such artificial languages, the vocabulary and grammar of which are in no way connected with the vocabulary and grammar of natural languages, but are built on the basis of the principles developed by the creator of the language. Solresol and rho are examples of a posteriori languages. .
The ideal description of an artificial language as a political project is given by Orwell in the famous novel "1984". According to one version, the idea of a powerful Newspeak, which serves as the main basis of a totalitarian society, was inspired by Orwell precisely in Esperanto. Newspeak cannot be called a full-fledged artificial language, but the methodology for its creation is described by Orwell so fully that anyone can construct a fully functional Newspeak for their own needs.
Newspeak is a great example of a fictional language that has evolved enough to step over the back of a book. Fortunately, not all literary languages are designed to build totalitarianism, completely freed from thought crimes and evil sex. Among our contemporaries there are several thousand people who can clearly communicate in the language of the Quenya elves or in the secret dialect of the Khuzdul Dwarves. (We note, however, that there are still more fans of independent newspeak - turn on the TV and see for yourself). Tolkien's saga of Middle-earth, which gained new popularity after the release of the cinematic trilogy "The Lord of the Rings", is built on the languages constructed by the Professor. We owe the whole story of the adventures of the Hobbits to Tolkien's project to develop a family of special languages. The project was so successful that the resulting languages took on a life of their own. No less popular is the fantastic Klingon language, the spoken and written language of the Klingon Empire, described in the StarTrek series. Klingon was developed by American linguist Mark Orkand for Paramount Studios. For the inhabitants of the Earth, who wish to study Klingon, a special institute of the Klingon language has been founded, books and magazines are published. Klingon is a developed and living language. Not too long ago, Earth's main search engine, Google, opened up a Klingon version of its homepage. This is an absolute indicator of the significance of the Klingon language for civilization. To a lesser extent, the general public knows the artificial language described by Jorge Luis Borges in the short story "Tlen, Ukbar, Orbistertius", in this small work the constructions of the new language are practically not spelled out, but the mechanisms of the influence of the artificial language on the work of the social machine are shown. (In addition to the short story "Tlen, Ukbar, Orbistertius" mentioned above, Borges's lesser-known story "The Analytical Language of John Wilkes" is devoted to the problem of constructing an artificial language and a general typology of concepts). The most successful project of building an artificial language is the creation of Hebrew - a living language for a dynamic, modern nation based on written Hebrew. Hebrew ceased to be a spoken language around the 2nd century BC. For the next 18 centuries, Hebrew served as the written language of theological and scientific texts. Yiddish and, to a lesser extent, Ladino became a common spoken language for Jews. In the 19th century, the political project of Jewish statehood demanded the creation of a universally recognized national language. Hebrew has been reconstructed as a spoken language. First of all, it was necessary to develop new phonetics and introduce vocabulary to denote concepts that were absent in biblical Hebrew. In addition, the requirement of relative ease of learning for Jews was imposed on the new language.
In popular typologies of artificial languages, one often encounters the "machine languages" section. I would like to point out that programming languages - C, C++, Basic, Prolog, HTML, Python etc. are not machine languages in the ordinary sense of the word. C++ code is as alien to a computer as Pushkin's poems or American Negro slang. Real machine language is binary code. It cannot be said that binary codes are fundamentally inaccessible to people, after all, it was people who constructed them on the basis of the mathematical apparatus. Artificial machine language is more for people than for machines - it's just a way to formalize instructions for a computer so that special programs can translate them into codes.
Artificial languages are special languages that, unlike natural ones, are purposefully constructed. They can be constructed using natural language or a previously constructed artificial language. A language that acts as a means of building or learning another language is called a metalanguage, the basis is called an object language. A metalanguage, as a rule, has richer expressive possibilities than an object language.
There are the following types of artificial languages:
Programming languages and computer languages - languages for automatic processing of information using a computer.
Information languages are languages used in various information processing systems.
Formalized languages of science are languages intended for symbolic recording of scientific facts and theories of mathematics, logic, chemistry and other sciences.
Languages of non-existent peoples created for fiction or entertainment purposes, for example: the Elvish language, invented by J. Tolkien;
International auxiliary languages are languages created from elements of natural languages and offered as an auxiliary means of interethnic communication.
Of the artificial languages, the most famous are: Basic English, Volapuk, Ido, Interlingua, Latin Blue Flexion, Loglan, Lojban, Na "Vi, Novial, Occidental, Simli, Solresol, Esperanto, Ithkuil, Klingon, Elvish languages.
Any artificial language has three levels of organization:
· syntax - the level of the structure of the language, where relationships between signs are formed and studied, ways of forming and transforming sign systems;
· cinematics, which explores the relationship of a sign to its meaning (meaning, which means either the thought expressed by the sign, or the object denoted by it);
· pragmatics, which explores the ways in which signs are used in a given community using an artificial language.
However, the pathos of "the destruction of the Tower of Babel" is so strong that it is very difficult to isolate the political meaning and background of the projects of artificial languages from later descriptions. The most successful and most failed international language project is Esperanto. It should be noted that most of the descriptions of Esperanto are created by fans of the new language. In the propaganda texts there is not even a hint of the structure and goals of the Esperanto project, however, could an artificial language become almost native to several million people if it were not included in a single program? I called Esperanto the most failed universal language project. This is no coincidence - despite the fact that several million people speak Esperanto, this language is not common to them. A Russian-speaking Esperantist hardly understands English or Spanish. An artificial living language is developed by each "diaspora" and spreads into dialects. The development of the Esperanto project is explained by the non-functional role of the new language for international communication.
2 Classification of international artificial languages
a landmark international artificial language
International artificial languages are an object of study of two interdisciplinary theories: the theory of international languages (international in language) and the theory of artificial languages (artificial in language). The first theory is known as interlinguistics; the second theory is still in the process of formation and has not separated from adjacent disciplines.
The first aspect of the study of international artificial languages is mainly sociolinguistic: International artificial languages are studied from the point of view of their social functioning and are considered in parallel with other phenomena united by the common problem of "language and society": bilingualism, interference of languages, the problem of spontaneous and conscious in language , questions of language policy, etc. The second aspect is mainly linguo-semiotic: the ontological characteristics of international artificial languages, their similarities and differences from other sign systems, and the typological basis for the classification of international artificial languages are considered here.
The typological classification of international artificial languages is based on a hierarchically organized system of features, the number of which (and, consequently, the depth of classification) can be, in principle, infinite - up to obtaining classes of international artificial languages consisting of one language. We confine ourselves here to the consideration of typological features relating only to the upper tiers of the hierarchy. The ratio of international artificial languages to natural languages in terms of expression can be recognized as the initial classification feature.
According to the tradition dating back to the works of G. Mock, but even more so to the famous works of L. Couture and L. Lo, all international artificial languages are divided into two classes depending on the presence / absence of their material correspondence to natural languages. A posteriori language is an artificial language, the elements of which are borrowed from existing languages, as opposed to a priori, artificial language, the elements of which are not borrowed from existing languages, but are created arbitrarily or on the basis of some logical (philosophical) concept.
A posteriori languages can be divided into three classes:
Simplified ethnic language: basic English, Latin-blue-flexion, etc.;
Naturalistic language, i.e., as close as possible to ethnic languages (often a Romance group): Occidental, Interlingua;
Autonomous (schematic) - in which grammar with a priori elements uses vocabulary borrowed from ethnic languages: Esperanto and most Esperantoids, late Volapuk.
Examples of a priori languages are: Solresol, Ithkuil, Ilaksh, Loglan, Lojban, Rho, Praying Mantis, Chengli, Asteron, Dyryar. The presence of a priori elements at the syntagmatic level (compatibility of morphemes) determines whether an a posteriori language belongs to an autonomous type; according to their presence at the paradigmatic level (composition of morphemes), autonomous languages can be divided into hyperschematic (Esperanto) and hyposchematic (neutral idioms).
The opposition of these two classes of international artificial languages is not absolute, but relative: in a posteriori languages, some a priori elements can be used, and in a priori languages, a posterioriisms are sometimes found.
Due to the fact that the ratio of a priori and a posteriori features is not the same in individual international artificial languages, the opposition of these classes takes the form of a continuum, the middle link of which will be languages with an approximately equal ratio of a priori and a posteriori features. The projects of this group L. Couture and L. Lo were given the name of mixed languages (mixed languages), including Volapyuk and similar projects with it. However, an unambiguous definition of mixed languages has not yet been given, which has led to significant arbitrariness in the use of this term. So, for example, in one of the classifications mentioned by M. Monroe-Dumain, Volapyuk is assigned to the a posteriori group, while some projects close to it were included in the mixed group. Our position on this issue will be formulated below.
Some corrections to the scheme of L. Couture and L. Law should be made due to the fact that in the time that has passed since the publication of their work, projects have been created and received a certain distribution that have expanded the limits of this continuum towards greater a posteriori (Latin-blue- Flexione, 1903; Occidental, 1922; Interlingua-IALA, 1951, etc.). In contrast to languages such as Esperanto, these international artificial languages use exclusively natural forms, refusing to use a priori, and also differ in other features, which will be discussed in more detail below. Thus, a posteriori projects began to differ in the degree of a posteriori: international artificial languages that gravitate towards complete, absolute a posteriori are usually called naturalistic; international artificial languages that exhibit predominant (dominant) a posteriori nature are called autonomous or schematic.
The need for additional changes in the classification of L. Couture and L. Law is caused by the fact that after the decline of Volapuk, starting from the last decade of the 19th century, projects began to appear that either represent a correction of the previously created international artificial languages (reform projects: first Volapukoids, and then Esperantoids, of which the most famous is ido, which gave its series of successors - idoid projects), or an attempt to synthesize several projects (compromise projects, for example, the projects of E. Weferling, E. Lipman, K. Sjöstedt, etc.). Thus, in addition to the "primary" international artificial languages, directly reducible (or not reducible) to natural languages, "secondary" international artificial languages arose, the source of which is no longer natural languages, but previously created international artificial languages. A series of projects built on the same international artificial languages form "families" of languages (sometimes overlapping). These genealogical associations could become the subject of special, interlinguistic, comparative studies.
The next classification feature refers to the structure of the sign in international artificial languages. It is possible to divide international artificial languages into several groups, depending on how the ratio of the inventory of morphemes and the inventory of words is built in them.
International artificial languages differ primarily in the very set of sign levels. International artificial languages of the Ido type have the same levels as natural languages of the synthetic type: levels of roots, complex stems (root + root), derived stems (root + derivator) and word forms (stem + grammatical indicator). Grammatical indicators in Ido have a syncretic character, being both a sign of a given part of speech and an expression of a certain categorical meaning: rich-o "rich man" (-o - a sign of a noun singular), rich-i "rich" (-i - a sign of a noun plural . numbers), rich-a "rich" or "rich" (-a is a sign of an adjective not differentiated by numbers).
In most cases, the principles of the structure of morphemes in a posteriori projects are subject to other laws than in a priori international artificial languages.
A posteriori languages are divided in sign relation into subgroups depending on these lexical homogeneity or heterogeneity.
We have lexically homogeneous languages if the choice of morphemes (words) was made from any single source.
International artificial languages with heterogeneous vocabulary are the result of connecting vocables that do not occur together within natural lexical systems. Examples are the Anglo-French project, 1889, built on the root word of English and French, and the anti-babylon project, 1950, which uses vocabulary from 85 languages of Europe, Asia and Africa.
Planned language is an international artificial socialized language, that is, a language created for international communication and used in practice.
The main international artificial languages that have or had a communicative implementation.
Volapyuk - created in 1879 by I. M. Schleyer, Litzelshtetten near the city of Constance (Germany); the active use of the language continued until approximately 1893, when, stating the failure of Volapyuk, his academy began to develop a new artificial language (neutral idioms); the last Volapuk journal ceased in 1910.
Esperanto - created in 1887 by L. L. Zamenhof, Warsaw (Poland, which was then part of the Russian Empire); the most common planned language actively used to date.
Idiom-neutral - created in 1893-1898. Volapyuk International Academy under the leadership of V. K-Rozenberger, St. Petersburg (Russia); was the official language of the named academy until 1908, had small groups of supporters in Russia, Germany, Belgium and the USA. In 1907, while considering artificial languages by the Delegation committee for the adoption of an international auxiliary language [see. 15, p. 71 et seq.] idiom-neutral appeared as the main rival of Esperanto; after the committee has spoken in favor of (reformed) Esperanto, the propaganda of idiom-neutral ceases; the last magazine (Progres, St. Petersburg) was published until 1908.
Latino-blue-flexione was created in 1903 by J. Peano, Turin (Italy); in 1909 it was adopted as an official language by the former Volapuk Academy (which became known as the Academy of the International Language - Academia pro Interlingua); was used in a number of scientific publications until the start of the Second World War (1939), after which it gradually fades away.
Ido (reformed Esperanto) - created in 1907-1908. committee and permanent commission of the Delegation for the adoption of an international auxiliary language under the leadership of L. Couture and with the participation of L. de Beaufron, O. Jespersen and V. Ostwald; was a strong competitor to Esperanto until its crisis in 1926-1928. Currently, it has supporters and periodicals in Switzerland, England, Sweden and a number of other countries.
Occidental - created in 1921-1922. E. de Valem, Revel (now Tallinn, Estonia); starting in 1924, he began to adopt supporters from the Ido language; had support groups in Austria, Switzerland, Czechoslovakia, France and some other countries; after the publication of the Interlingua language in 1951, most of the Occidentalists switched to the positions of this language.
Novial - created in 1928 by O. Jespersen, Copenhagen (Denmark). He had a limited circle of supporters, mainly from among the former Yidists; Novialist groups broke up with the outbreak of World War II.
Interlingua - created in 1951 by the International Auxiliary Language Association under the leadership of A. Goad, New York (USA). The initial composition of supporters was formed due to the transition to this language of the former adherents of Occidental and Ido. Currently has periodicals in Denmark, Switzerland, France, Great Britain and some other countries.
The above list did not include some of the planned languages that had a small number of supporters (reform neutral, 1912; reformed Volapyuk, 1931; neo, 1937) or stood aside from the main line of development of interlinguistics (basic English, 1929-1932).
Within the framework of the world linguistic situation, planned languages, along with other artificial ones, are included in the general system of interaction between natural and artificial languages. Researchers of the language situation of the modern world note as its characteristic feature the parallel existence of natural and artificial languages, due to the scientific and technological revolution. The electronic computers (computers) that appeared in the 50s required the development of special artificial languages in which it was possible to formulate commands to control the activities of the computer (programming languages) or record the information entered into the computer and to be processed (information languages).
As the areas of computer use expanded, an increasing number of programming languages and information languages were developed, and an ever-growing staff (programmers, computer scientists) was involved in working with them, not to mention the numerous consumers of computer-processed information. As a result, rapidly developing artificial languages formed "their own peculiar world that exists in parallel with the world of natural languages", and a "new language situation began to take shape, the main difference of which can be considered the formation of natural-artificial bilingualism in society".
The foregoing clarifies the historical significance of the appearance at the end of the 19th century. planned languages as the first heralds of the modern language situation, which is formed from the interaction of two language worlds, the world of natural languages that accompanied mankind at all stages of its existence, and the world of artificial languages that has been formed over the past century.
Conclusion
Having studied the topic "International Constructed Languages", we came to the conclusion that an artificial language is as important as a natural one. Since, various international negotiations take place in a certain language, belonging to a certain nation.
Multilingualism has always been a problem in international cooperation, in the progress of world culture. This is especially acute in our time, when the number of international organizations is growing rapidly and international business contacts are expanding.
Language is defined as a means of human communication. This one of the possible definitions of language is the main one, because it characterizes the language not from the point of view of its organization, structure, etc., but from the point of view of what it is intended for. But why is it important? Are there other means of communication? Yes, there are. An engineer can communicate with a colleague without knowing his native language, but they will understand each other if they use blueprints. Drawing is usually defined as the international language of engineering. The musician conveys his feelings with the help of a melody, and the listeners understand him. The artist thinks in images and expresses it with lines and colors. And all these are “languages”, so often they say “the language of the poster”, “the language of music”. But this is another meaning of the word language.
Despite the fact that scientists are still rather indifferent to the issue of an auxiliary international language, and most of all supporters of an artificial language, and mainly artificial languages, are recruited in the scientific world between mathematicians and natural scientists, the topic of international artificial languages remains relevant.
Based on the goals and objectives of this work, it can be concluded that international artificial languages have their own specific role in society and in the system of modern culture, which are created on the basis of natural languages for accurate and economical transmission of scientific and other information. They are widely used in modern science and technology: chemistry, mathematics, theoretical physics, computer technology, cybernetics, communications, shorthand, as well as in legal and logical science for the theoretical and practical analysis of mental structures.
We believe that the development of an international artificial language will give an advantage to the cooperation of political negotiations, to negotiate international deals. But the main advantage is the desire of a person in modern society to learn not only natural languages, but also languages of artificial origin.
List of used literature
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