Conditions for the participation of citizens in the social life of society. Participation of a citizen in political life - Knowledge Hypermarket

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"THOUGHTS OF THE WISE

"There is a minimum level of education and awareness beyond which every vote becomes its own caricature."
I. A. Ilyin (1882-1954). Russian philosopher

24. " Citizen participation in political life

Can an ordinary citizen influence the political process? Why is a culture of democracy needed? What are the ways of political self-improvement of the individual?

Political life is dynamic and changeable. It involves people, social groups, ruling elites with their hopes, expectations, level of culture and education. Here the interests of various socio-political forces intertwine and fight. The interaction of political subjects on the issues of gaining, retaining and using state power gives rise to political processes in society.

What is the political process?

THE ESSENCE OF THE POLITICAL PROCESS

In the most general way political process - this is a chain of political events and states that change as a result of the interaction of specific subjects of politics. For example, political leaders and governments are being replaced by others. The composition of the parliament is being updated, some parties disappear from the political scene, others appear. The state of stability is replaced by increased tension in society, new situations arise, each of which is peculiar and unique.

Our life is, as it were, woven from separate political processes: large and small, random and regular. Political scientists classify them in different ways. So, in terms of scale, they stand out domestic political and foreign policy (international) processes. Domestic political processes can develop at the national (national), regional, local levels (for example, the electoral process); may not be so significant for society (for example, the formation of a separate party), but may reflect changes in it. From the point of view of significance for society, political processes are divided into basic and private.

The dynamics of the entire political life is usually set by the basic political process (for example, the "democratization of society"). It characterizes the operation of the entire political system as a mechanism for the formation and implementation of political power. As a result, changes are observed in all spheres of public life. (Give examples.)

The basic process determines the content of private processes: economic-political, political-legal, cultural-political, etc. An example of one of the private cultural-political processes is the modernization of education in the Russian Federation, discussed in the paragraphs "Science and education", "Political system". (Remember how the interaction between the political system and the environment was carried out as part of this process. What stages did it include?)

Let us emphasize that the following stages, or stages, are typical for both basic and private political processes:

a) representation of interests (requirements) to power structures;
b) decision making;
c) implementation of decisions.

The political process is always aimed at solving some political problem. We are talking about the most significant problems for society, those that require the intervention of the authorities. For example, the deterioration of the academic performance of some students is a private problem of individual schools and families. And the state of the education system in the country as a whole is a political problem. These issues are on the political agenda. Their solution becomes an object - the goal of the political process, which leads to certain results (improving the quality of education, creating new management structures and increasing its efficiency, etc.). However, the political process can take place only if there are specific subjects - participants in the process. These include initiators, that is, those who state the problem, and performers, that is, those who are able to ensure its consistent solution.

The initiators of political processes in a democratic society are citizens, interest groups, political parties and movements, professional and creative unions, youth, women's and other organizations, and the media. (The essence and significance of their actions will be discussed below, when examining the issue of political participation.)

The solution of political problems belongs to the executors - first of all, to power institutions and officials vested with power, as well as people appointed for these purposes from non-governmental organizations. (Remember who, how and in what forms decided the issue of modernizing education.)

The executors of the political process choose the means. methods and resources for its implementation. Resources can be knowledge, science, technical and financial means, public opinion, etc.

The outcome (result) of the political process largely depends on a combination of internal and external factors. Internal factors include, for example, the competence and ability of the authorities to correctly assess the situation, choose appropriate means and methods, and achieve the implementation of the decisions taken in strict accordance with the rule of law. Equally important is the competence and civil responsibility of those to whom these decisions are addressed. The inconsistency of all elements of the political process, i.e. subjects, objects (goals), means, methods and resources of executors, leads to unpredictable results (processes of restructuring, creation of CHG, etc.).

Within the framework of political processes, when solving problems, various interests of social groups intersect, sometimes causing intractable contradictions and conflicts. An example is the transformation of the state system, for example, the constitutional reform in Russia, which took place in a sharp confrontation between the supporters of the presidential republic and their opponents. No less acute is the struggle around other political problems. (Give examples.)

From the point of view of the publicity of the adoption of power decisions, open and hidden (shadow) political processes are distinguished.

In an open political process, the interests of groups and citizens are revealed in the programs of parties, in voting in elections, through taking into account public opinion, through public appeals and people's demands to state authorities, consultations of power structures with interested parties and joint development of a number of documents with them.

In contrast to the open, hidden (shadow) political process is characterized by closeness and lack of control over state decisions. They are accepted by officials and authorities under the influence of not publicly registered, publicly recognized (shadow) structures, such as mafia corporations and clans.

In a democratic society, the authorities are called upon to act openly. resolve socio-political contradictions and conflicts primarily by non-violent methods. The main one is the coordination of interests based on the search for a compromise and reaching a consensus (from the Latin consensus - consent).

Consequently, truly democratic processes are open processes taking place before the eyes of the whole society and with its conscious active political participation.

POLITICAL PARTICIPATION

Political participation - these are the actions of a citizen in order to influence the adoption and implementation of state decisions, the choice of representatives in government institutions. This concept characterizes the involvement of members of this society in the political process.

The scope of possible participation is determined by political rights and freedoms. In a democratic society, these include: the right to elect and be elected to public authorities, the right to participate in the management of state affairs directly and through their representatives; the right to join public organizations, including political parties; the right to hold rallies, demonstrations, marches and pickets; the right of access to public service; the right to appeal to state bodies.

Recall that the exercise of rights has boundaries (measures) and is regulated by laws and other normative acts. Thus, the right of access to public service is limited to a certain register of public positions. The right to gather for rallies, demonstrations - an indication that they must take place peacefully, without weapons, after prior notification of the authorities. The organization and activities of political parties aimed at forcibly changing the foundations of the constitutional order, inciting social, racial, national, religious hatred, etc. are prohibited.

Established regulatory restrictions, requirements and prohibitions are introduced in the interests of the security of the individual, society and the state, the protection of morality and public order.

Political participation is indirect (representative) and direct (direct) . Indirect participation is carried out through elected representatives. Direct participation is the impact of a citizen on power without intermediaries. It appears in the following forms:

The reaction of citizens (positive or negative) to the impulses emanating from the political system;
- periodic participation in actions related to the election of representatives, with the transfer of powers to them for decision-making;
- participation of citizens in the activities of political parties, socio-political organizations and movements;
- influence on political processes through appeals and letters, meetings with political figures;
- direct actions of citizens (participation in rallies, pickets, etc.);
- activity of political leaders.

The designated forms of political activity can be group, mass and individual . Thus, an ordinary citizen who wants to influence politics usually joins a group, party or movement whose political positions coincide or are close to his own. A party member, for example, being active in the affairs of his organization and election campaigns, has a constant and most effective impact on power. (Explain why.)

Often, citizens, groups or collectives, outraged by the injustice of a state decision, demand its revision. They apply with petitions, letters and statements to the relevant authorities, on radio and television, in the editorial offices of newspapers and magazines. The problem acquires public resonance and forces the authorities, as already noted, to change or correct their decision.

Mass actions can have no less efficiency. For example, in Russia there are rallies of teachers, doctors, miners against late payment of salaries, worsening working conditions or growing unemployment. Political scientists call these forms of protest, because they are people's negative reaction to the current situation in society.

The most developed and extremely important form of political participation is democratic elections. This is a necessary minimum of political activity guaranteed by constitutions. Within the framework of the institution of elections, each full-fledged citizen performs his individual action, voting for any party, any candidate or political leader. By adding his vote to the votes of other voters who have made the same choice, he directly affects the composition of people's representatives, and hence the political course. Therefore, participation in elections is a responsible matter. Here one should not succumb to first impressions and emotions, because there is a great danger of falling under the influence of populism. Populism (from Latin populus - people) is an activity whose goal is to ensure popularity among the masses at the cost of unfounded promises, demagogic slogans, appeals to the simplicity and clarity of the proposed measures. Election promises require a critical attitude.

Elections are closely related to referendums - voting on legislative or other issues. Thus, the Constitution of the Russian Federation was adopted at a national referendum.

Political participation can be permanent (membership in a party), periodic (participation in elections), one-time (appeal to authorities). Nevertheless, it is always aimed, as we found out, to do something (change the situation, elect a new legislature) or prevent something (deterioration of people's social conditions).

Unfortunately, in every society some groups of citizens shy away from participating in politics. Many of them believe that they are outside the political games. In practice, such a position, called absenteeism, strengthens a certain political line and can cause damage to the state. For example, non-attendance at elections can disrupt them and thereby paralyze the most important parts of the political system. Citizens who boycott elections are sometimes included in political processes, especially in conflict situations where their interests are affected. But political participation can be disappointing, because it is far from always effective. Here much depends on whether political actions are rational or irrational. The first is conscious and planned actions, with an understanding of goals and means. The second - actions motivated mainly by the emotional state of people (irritation, indifference, etc.), impressions of ongoing events. In this regard, the normativity of political behavior, that is, the observance of political rules and norms, is of particular importance. So, even a sanctioned and organized rally can have unpredictable consequences if its participants act mostly irrationally and not according to the rules (permit hooligan antics, insult opponents, desecrate state symbols). Violent, extremist forms of behavior, a variety of which is terrorism, are extremely dangerous. (What are its goals, essence and consequences? If there are difficulties, refer to task 3.)

We emphasize that violence and enmity give rise only to violence and enmity. The alternative to this is civil consent. Recently, new mechanisms of political communication between people have been formed: public control over the observance of political norms, forecasting the consequences of political actions, and a constructive dialogue of political forces. This requires a new democratic political culture from the participants in the political process.

POLITICAL CULTURE

Political culture personality presupposes: firstly, versatile political knowledge; secondly, an orientation towards the values ​​and rules of life in a democratic society; thirdly, the mastery of these rules (methods of practical political action - models of behavior). Taken together, they characterize a democratic political culture. Let's take a look at each of its components.

political knowledge - this is a person's knowledge about politics, the political system, about various political ideologies, as well as about those institutions and procedures that ensure the participation of citizens in the political process. Political knowledge can include both scientific and everyday ideas. In everyday ideas, political phenomena are often distorted, consensus is interpreted as conciliation, and democracy - as unlimited opportunities to do whatever you want. Scientific knowledge is the result of mastering the basics of political science and is designed to adequately reflect political reality.

A person who possesses scientific knowledge is able to independently navigate and evaluate political information, resist attempts to manipulate his political consciousness, which, unfortunately, is not uncommon in politics.

Political value orientations - these are the ideas of a person about the ideals and values ​​​​of a reasonable or desired social order. They are formed under the influence of knowledge about politics, personal emotional attitude to political phenomena and their assessments.

Many Russians, as political scientists note, do not yet have a strong and conscious orientation towards the establishment of democratic values ​​in the country, enshrined in the Constitution of the Russian Federation. (List them.) The weakness of the political positions of citizens is one of the reasons that make it difficult to achieve harmony in society, contributes to the emergence of nationalist and other radical political movements. And vice versa, adherence to democratic ideals and values ​​encourages a person to purposeful, most often constructive, actions.

Methods of practical political action are models and rules of political behavior that determine how one can and how one should act. Many scientists call them models of political behavior, because any form of political participation of a citizen presupposes the observance of not one, but a number of political rules. For example, participation in elections involves analysis and evaluation from the standpoint of certain requirements of election programs and the personal qualities of contenders for power. The totality of the voter's actions in accordance with the regulatory requirements (rules) will be the model (sample) of his political behavior.

Political consciousness predetermines political behavior, which, in turn, actively influences political consciousness.

Let us emphasize that democratic political culture manifests itself in reality in political behavior, and not in words.

The essential features of a democratic culture are classified by political scientists as social and cultural values. Their successful implementation largely depends on the presence of such personal qualities among the participants in politics as criticality, initiative and creativity, humanism, peacefulness, tolerance (respect for other people's opinions), civic responsibility for their political choice and ways to implement it.

Thus, the democratic type of political culture has a pronounced humanistic orientation and is of worldwide significance. It embodies the best examples of the political experience of many countries of the world.

PRACTICAL CONCLUSIONS

1 In order to understand this or that political process, it is necessary to find out who exactly acts as its initiator, in whose interests it is carried out, who and how is able to ensure its consistent development. Since the real process is always influenced by various political forces, it is advisable to evaluate their alignment. In other words, it is necessary to determine which stratum, social group, is at the center of events and dominates them. This will allow us to draw conclusions about the nature and direction of the ongoing changes.

2 Self-obtained information about the political process will allow competently and consciously engage in it: choose adequate forms of political participation, comprehend the goals and means of their political actions.

3 Political actions must be carried out in accordance with established norms and rules, without excessive emotionality.

4 Consistent implementation of the above advice will contribute to the development of a democratic political culture.

Document

From the "Memoirs" of the chairman of the Social Democratic Party, the former Federal Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany, W. Brandt.

At the age of fifteen ... I spoke in the Lübeck newspaper Volksboten, declaring that as young socialists we must prepare for the political struggle, we must constantly work on ourselves, improve ourselves, and not kill our time with mere dances, games and songs. Where there is no place for civil courage, freedom is short-lived. And where freedom is not defended at the right moment, it can be returned only at the cost of huge sacrifices. This is the lesson of our century.

When at the beginning of the summer of 1987 I resigned from the post of party chairman, I asked myself: what, besides peace, is most important for you? And he answered: freedom. I defined it as freedom of conscience and opinion, freedom from want and fear.

Questions and tasks for the document

1. How do you understand the author’s thought: “where there is no place for civil courage, freedom is short-lived”? Is this idea relevant today? Justify your answer.
2. What, according to W. Brandt, was the essence and purpose of preparing young socialists for active participation in the activities of the party?
3. Should, in your opinion, modern Russian youth, entering political life, prepare for political struggle? Explain the answer.

SELF-CHECK QUESTIONS

1 What is the political process?
2. What types of political processes do you know?
3. What are the structure and stages of the political process?
4. What is the essence of political participation?
5. What are the possible forms of political activity of citizens?
6. Why is political participation not always effective?
7. What is political culture?

TASKS

1. Some political scientists compare the political process with the two-faced Janus - the Roman deity of doors, entry and exit, every beginning, one face of which is turned to the past, the other - to the future. How do you understand this comparison? On specific examples, reveal its essence.

Remember: What is the role of politics in society?What does the word "citizen" mean? What are the rights and obligations of a Russian citizen?

Consider: Can the average citizen influence politics? Who can participate in the management of state affairs? Why do people need political freedoms?

We have already said that depending on the policy pursued by the state, people live worse or better. Therefore, all sectors of society are interested in the state policy taking into account their interests. Politics is an area of ​​common interests, public life.

Opinions.

Public opinion researchers suggested answering the question: “What is needed in order for you personally to participate more actively in social and political activities?” Most of all there were such answers: “Confidence that this activity will bring a positive result”; “The desire to help people, including those in a difficult situation”; “The desire to protect the violated rights of one’s own, one’s loved ones”; "The ability to influence the actions of the authorities, the adoption of important decisions."

What are the possibilities of a citizen to influence the adoption of political decisions by the government? The Constitution of the Russian Federation in Article 32 establishes that citizens of the Russian Federation have the right to participate in the management of state affairs, both directly and through their representatives.

Elections, referenda.

Governance of the state requires a comprehensive knowledge of the situation in the country, high professionalism in the adoption of laws. Therefore, citizens entrust this work to their representatives in the legislature. Citizens have the right to decide who exactly will represent their interests in the process of legislative activity.They make this decision in the elections.When voting for this or that party, this or that candidate, voters give preference to pre-election statements, programs that best suit their interests. Thus, they determine the direction of the legislative activity of senior officials.

Suffrage is universal. This means that it belongs to all citizens who have reached the age of 18, regardless of their social status, gender, nationality, religion, education, place of residence. The exception is persons held in places of deprivation of liberty by a court verdict, as well as those recognized by the court as legally incompetent, that is, incapable of fully exercising their rights due to their mental, mental state. Universal suffrage is a sign of democracy. (Recall from the course of history whether suffrage in our country and foreign countries has always been universal.)

Suffrage is equal to: each elector has only one vote.

Elections in the Russian Federation are straight: The President, deputies of the State Duma and legislative bodies of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation are directly elected by citizens. (Recall that in the United States, for example, citizens elect electors, and then the electors elect the President. Such elections are called multistage elections.) The President of the Russian Federation is elected for a period of 6 years, the State Duma - for a period of 5 years.

Elections in our country are held bysecret ballot:the will of the voter takes place in special booths, and other persons do not know for whom this voter voted.

Every citizen, according to the Constitution of the Russian Federation, has the right to be elected to state authorities and local self-government bodies. An exception is established for those persons who cannot participate in elections. True, the age limit for election to government bodies may be higher (21 years for election as a deputy of the State Duma and 35 years, as well as residence in the Russian Federation for at least 10 years - for election as President of the Russian Federation). This right means that every citizen can become a candidate for election, but the citizens will choose the most worthy of the candidates of their own free will.

Citizens take a direct part in the management of the affairs of the state and referendum. This is the name of the nationwide vote on draft laws and other issues of national importance. The current Constitution of the Russian Federation was adopted at a referendum on December 12, 1993. The same principles apply in the conduct of a referendum as in the election of deputies. Elections and referendums are the most massive form of citizens' participation in the management of state affairs.

The right to equal access to public service.

Public service is a professional activity to ensure the execution of the powers of state bodies. In the public service are officials (civil servants) holding positions in the central and local apparatus of state administration, in the judiciary and some other bodies.

According to the Constitution, citizens of the Russian Federation have the right to equal access to public service. This means that every citizen can hold any public position without restrictions depending on race, nationality, gender, social origin, property status, place of residence, attitude to religion, beliefs, membership in public associations. This does not mean that any citizen who wishes can work, for example, in a ministry, regional administration, etc. There is a system of competitions: requirements for professional training, a certain procedure for appointment to public positions.

Citizens of Russia also have the right to participate in the implementation, or, as lawyers say, in the administration, of justice. This right can be exercised by holding positions in the court (with the appropriate education, work experience, etc.), as well as by participating in justice as a juror.

Appeals to authorities.

In addition to the above, there are other ways and means to encourage the authorities to respond quickly to the economic, social, political needs of citizens.

One of these ways is the right to apply personally, as well as to send collective appeals to state bodies and local governments. Among these appeals, some concern the individual interests of citizens (the roof is leaking, and the housing office does not make repairs, etc.). This may be a complaint, i.e. an appeal, of a citizen demanding the restoration of a right violated by the action (or inaction) of individuals, organizations, state or self-government bodies (as in the above example). This may be a statement, i.e. an appeal, of a citizen with a request to exercise his right (for example, to receive a pension). It can also be a proposal, that is, a type of appeal that is not associated with a violation of the rights of citizens, but which raises questions about improving the activities of a state body, about the need and ways to solve a particular social problem. Obviously, the proposals, like certain statements, go beyond the scope of individual interest and concern the solution of issues of broad social significance. Appeals to the authorities can be sent by any person (including minors and foreigners), as well as by a group of persons, a public organization.

The laws of the Russian Federation establish strict deadlines for resolving issues raised in citizens' appeals. Civil servants who violate them, allowing red tape, may be held administratively liable.

Other ways of influencing power.

Citizens can also influence the policy of state power through public associations, political parties, using freedom of assembly, freedom of speech to express their demands to the authorities or to support certain political decisions.

Among the most important rights and freedoms of man and citizen is the freedom of assembly, rallies and demonstrations.

Document.

From Article 31 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation:

"Citizens of the Russian Federation have the right to assemble peacefully, without weapons, to hold meetings, rallies and demonstrations, marches and pickets."

Citizens can meet to discuss any issues of common interest to them. Meetings can be held at the place of residence or work, in public buildings (buildings, stadiums), on the streets, squares. A mass meeting on topical, mostly political, issues is called rally. They often gather at rallies to protest against government policies, the actions of any political forces, or to support them. In speeches and with the help of posters, the participants of the rally express their point of view on the events taking place.

Let us pay attention to the fact that there is freedom to hold only peaceful meetings and demonstrations, i.e. only those that do not threaten violent actions against other citizens. The laws of each country impose some restrictions on freedom of assembly. A gathering of people with weapons (even homemade ones) poses a threat to state and public security, a danger of violating the rights and freedoms of others. The same threat is posed by rallies at which people are called for the violent overthrow of the constitutional order, racial and national hostility. Other restrictions are associated with the need to maintain public order: large crowds of people can interfere with the movement of transport, disturb the peace of citizens living nearby.

It is clear that we need a procedure for organizing meetings and rallies defined by law. In different countries, there is either a permissive or notification procedure for holding them, i.e. the organizers of a rally either send an application to the local authority that gives permission to hold a rally, or only notify (inform) about the place and time of its holding. But in all states (with any order of organization) the police have the right to use force against the participants of the rally if they violate the laws of the country. In these cases, if necessary, special means (rubber batons, water cannons, tear gases) can be used.

Think about which procedure - permissive or notification - is more fully consistent with the observance of the rights and freedoms of all citizens.

All of the above also applies to street marches and demonstrations. Actually, the word "demonstration" means "march" or "rally", which provide an opportunity for mass expression of socio-political sentiments.

The meaning of freedom of speech.International human rights instruments proclaim: "Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression." No one has the right to prevent a person from adhering to his opinions. Everyone has the right to freely express their opinion. A person may seek, receive and impart information and ideas orally, in writing, or through print or artistic forms of expression. Moreover, he can do this regardless of state borders.

Document.

From Article 29 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation:

• 1. Everyone is guaranteed freedom of thought and speech...
• 5. Freedom of the media is guaranteed. Censorship is prohibited."

For the real exercise of these rights and freedoms, it is necessary that political life proceed according to: people should be able to receive truthful and complete information about the work of government bodies, the activities of political parties and leaders, and the situation in the country. After all, in order to have your own opinion about something, you need to know about it as accurately as possible.

In our country for a long time there was censorship. A special state institution carried out viewing of newspapers and magazines, literary works, films, texts of radio programs intended for release. The censor who supervised could not authorize any publication. Some books and films could not reach readers and viewers for decades. Now there is no censorship. The fuller the guarantees of freedom of speech and the press, the stronger the democracy. It is very important that citizens have the right to apply to the press, to freely express their opinions and views in newspapers and magazines.

But freedom of speech and the press is not absolute. After all, if false information about a person is reported on the TV screen or in the newspaper, undermining his reputation,

it violates his rights. But, as we know, no one should use the rights and freedoms to infringe on the rights of other people. It may also be that the information reported from the television screen or in the press sets some people against others, negatively affects their behavior, which often creates a threat to public order, health, morality of the population, and state security. Therefore, the law introduces some restrictions. Any propaganda for war is prohibited by law, and speeches in favor of national, racial or religious hatred, which constitute incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence, are also prohibited. Thus, the exercise of freedom of speech imposes a special responsibility. Those who use freedom to slander other people, disseminate false information, or induce violent acts may be prosecuted in accordance with the law.

The danger of political extremism.

As you may have noticed, political freedoms do not mean the possibility of irresponsible actions in the field of politics. Any political activity can be carried out only within the framework of laws and democratic traditions. However, some individuals, as well as public and religious associations or the mass media, violate the established rules, resort to extreme measures in their activities that pose a threat to society, the state, and citizens. Such actions are usually called extremist (from Latin extremus - extreme). These in our country include the preparation and commission of actions aimed at forcibly changing the foundations of the constitutional order and violating the integrity of the Russian Federation; undermining the security of the Russian Federation; seizure or appropriation of power. Extremist actions are the creation of illegal armed formations and the implementation of terrorist activities. The laws of the Russian Federation recognize the incitement of racial, national or religious hatred, as well as social hatred associated with violence or calls for violence, as dangerous manifestations of extremism; humiliation of national dignity; carrying out mass riots, hooligan actions and acts of vandalism based onideological, political, racial, national or religious hatred, as well as on the grounds of enmity against any social group. It is also propaganda of the exclusivity, superiority or inferiority of citizens on the basis of their attitude to religion, social, racial, national, religious or linguistic affiliation; propaganda and public demonstration of Nazi paraphernalia or symbols or similar to Nazi paraphernalia or symbols.

To counter extremism, it is necessary for citizens to cooperate with state bodies, public and religious associations in protecting civil rights and freedoms, maintaining law and order.

Is politics everyone's business?

Let's ask ourselves: do people want to get involved in politics? Are citizens interested in it? There is no single answer: some are interested, others are not.

Data.

In most European countries, as studies have shown, there are approximately equal numbers of people who are interested and not interested in politics. Studies conducted in our country also show that 48% of respondents show interest, 50% say they are not interested, and 2% found it difficult to answer. At the same time, the youngest and oldest citizens show less interest, and the middle age groups show a higher interest.

What, besides interest and desire, is necessary for participation in political life? Any business requires certain knowledge. Is it possible to imagine a doctor who does not know human anatomy and physiology, the science of diseases and methods of treatment? Or an engineer who does not know physics, mathematics, technology? It is clear that the first requirement for a person who wants to actively participate in political life is political knowledge of the social structure, political system, government policy, various political organizations, and the most important events of our day. The study of history, the course of social science, the study of the laws of their republic, the speeches of prominent political figures, books and articles by political scientists, reading newspapers and magazines, and participation in public life helps a school student to acquire this knowledge. But knowledge alone is not enough. It is necessary to determine one's own attitude towards the positions of various political parties and other organizations. It is necessary to be able to independently navigate political information, collect and systematize material on a particular issue, and correctly evaluate it. All these skills can be developed through active involvement in social and political life. Beliefs and political views of a person, knowledge and skills, experience of his participation in public life characterize his political culture.

Test yourself

1. Police squads were sent to the rally, authorized by the authorities, to maintain order. During the rally, its excited participants trampled the lawns on the square and broke the fences.Who, in your opinion, should compensate for the damage: the organizers of the rally or the police? Justify your answer.
2. Do you agree with the following statement: “Freedom of the press reflects, like a mirror, the state and level of development of our democracy”? Justify your answer.
3. The reforms being carried out in Russia are assessed positively by some newspapers and negatively by others. Do you think this "discordance" is normal? Explain your point of view.
4. Explain how one person's use of freedom can infringe on the rights of another. Who should be responsible for the observance of the rights and freedoms of a citizen?
5. Explain why freedom of speech, assembly, association is recognized as a condition for the normal development of man and society.
6. Select from newspapers and magazines (possibly from the Internet) materials that illustrate the main ideas of this paragraph.

Forms of citizen participation in politics

The life system of mankind is arranged in such a way that there is always power that influences and controls a certain mass of people: whether it is power in a separate country, in a family, or, say, in a criminal group. But even despite the fact that the influence of power is seen as an undeniable and self-sufficient factor, the influence of community on power cannot be denied. Of course, the strength of this reverse influence depends, for the most part, on the regime, the political regime, if we are talking about it on a country or state scale.

For example, under a democratic form of government, theoretically, citizens are given a great opportunity to influence the authorities. The political participation assumed for a democratic society is universal, equal, initiative. Each individual citizen has the right to participate in the life of the country, to protect their interests, to express their dissatisfaction with any factors, theoretically choose their own “power”, or simply show interest in politics as an area of ​​accessible activity. Political participation in a democratic society is free and acts as a means for citizens to express a sense of duty to the country, a means to achieve their goals, to realize the need for self-expression. Such participation is provided by the state in terms of providing various legal norms and procedures and an even distribution of participation resources, such as money, access to the media, education, a “transparent” vision of the exercise of power itself, and so on. Also, a democratic society allows, within certain limits, such an expression of protest of citizens as rallies, demonstrations, strikes, petitions. Such events serve both as a tool for political education of citizens and proof, in fact, that the state is truly democratic and every citizen has the right to self-expression.

Under a totalitarian system, everything and everything is under the complete control of state bodies. And the authorities are striving for the mobilization involvement of the population in political participation, creating the appearance of general politicization, which, of course, practically does not take into account the opinion of citizens. Under this regime, the influence of the community on power is minimally limited, and often just nominally. Accordingly, the political participation of citizens is conditioned purely by the needs of the authorities, and is most of all a means of controlling the subject mass. Of course, such a regime, although tough and repressing dissenting opinions in every possible way, has the best chance of such a powerful political participation of discontented and disenfranchised citizens as riots and revolutions. And, more than democratic, it has the ability to forcibly change its regime policy to the opposite. The totalitarian regime is usually inherent in underdeveloped countries, as it is rather a relic of the past than an adequate form of relations between people and power. The exception is, for example, Japan, as an example of the Asian type of government, which is a highly developed culture and, it seems, should be a completely democratic society with all signs of free political participation of citizens. However, centuries-old traditions have played their role and most of the citizens of this country live quietly under a totalitarian regime that has become so familiar that it seems almost democratic and does not cause significant complaints from the population itself.

In principle, democracy is rightfully a sign of a progressive society and, in essence, is more stable than totalitarianism in terms of the stability of one-time power. Repressed discontent is always dangerous, and a friend is always easier to control than an enemy. Therefore, in a democratic society, the authorities try to maintain the image of a friendly essence, providing citizens with preferably evenly distributed means of subsistence, opportunities for self-realization and self-development, freedom of expression in any field of activity, and expressing concern for health and attention to problems. This ensures maximum consideration of the interests of citizens, helps to overcome distrust in the authorities and ensures the political participation of a large number of citizens in the life of society. Which, in turn, expands the intellectual potential for decision-making, which contributes to the optimization of the work of the structure, increases its efficiency and the stability of the political system. The participation of citizens in politics also ensures effective control over officials and prevents abuse of power.

The most effective factor in stimulating citizens for political participation is socioeconomic status, primarily determined by the level of education, profession and income. Undoubtedly, a high level of material comfort is decisive in terms of a favorable attitude towards the political system. Accordingly, the lower the social position, the more likely becomes a negative attitude towards the system.

At the same time, factors such as gender and age also influence. For example, it is well known that the activity of a citizen increases towards the middle of life, and then declines again. Women are less inclined to political participation, which, however, is due to the structure of the traditional order. As is known, in principle, the patriarchal system is more developed in the world and there are certain stereotypes and ideas about the social role of women, sometimes that do not take into account the changes associated with the progress of society, despite a significant increase in the educational level. In addition, most often women, especially with low living standards, simply do not have time to participate in politics. The traditional definition of a man as a leader, and a woman as a wife and mother, forces women to devote most of their lives not to their own interests, but to the interests of their family and children, practically losing their personal potential.

This, however, is somewhat of a digression. In addition to all of the above, an important role is also played by the motivation of a citizen to participate in the activities of the country. The most common motives are:

The motive of interest and attractiveness of politics as a field of activity;

The motive is cognitive, where the political system acts as a means for knowing the world around and, also, taking into account the complexity of this system for understanding, as an increase in one's own status in the eyes of oneself and others;

The motive of power, the desire to control other people;

The motive is monetary, since political activity is a highly paid activity;

The motive is traditional when the policy is adopted in the circle of family or friends;

The motive is ideological, when the system of life values ​​coincides with the ideological values ​​of the political system;

The motives are false, but forming the desired reaction among the masses, the so-called propaganda.

Different motives encourage different types of political participation. In any political system, with the dominant of one, there are various signs of the opposite, regardless of the political system.

Usually, two main types are distinguished among these options: autonomous and mobilization participation.

Autonomous participation is a free voluntary activity of an individual, caused by his desire to participate in the political life of the country, pursuing personal and group interests.

Mobilization participation, on the other hand, is coercive. It is stimulated by factors such as fear, coercion, tradition. As a rule, this type of participation is an initiative of the ruling group and is aimed at supporting its political system, at demonstrating its noble goals and positive attitude towards the people. Naturally, this kind of participation in no way provides for the expression of the personal opinion of an individual or a group, however, it often creates a false, but necessary idea of ​​the authorities about the situation in the country.

It is also customary to single out active and passive forms of citizens' participation in politics, each of which can be classified as acceptable or unacceptable in terms of morality or law. In terms of active forms of participation, there are several divisions.

Participation in elected bodies, such as presidential elections;

Mass actions, such as rallies, demonstrations, strikes, in which the masses are coordinated, dissatisfied with any action of the government, such as the strikes of workers of the Continental plant now in Paris, who demand to reconsider the decision to close an enterprise located in the suburbs of the French capital ;

Single actions, however, are notable enough to carry political weight. As, for example, the Iraqi journalist, who threw a shoe at George Bush, expressed his political participation in an interesting way, expressing his opinion in an extraordinary way about the policy pursued by America towards his country;

Participation in political parties and organizations, participation in the government of the country, in the adoption of laws;

Participation of citizens in polls that take into account the opinion of citizens and, in theory, are considered in the context of any changes;

Appeals and complaints to higher structures of individuals or groups of citizens;

Lobbying activity is the political promotion of an object, whether it be a law or a deputy, using either personal or monetary interest, or when it is impossible to refuse an offer. In the context of this activity, both legal and illegal, such as a bribe, types of achieving goals can be considered;

Network participation is no longer a new kind of political participation. Numerous blogs, electronic newspapers, and other Internet resources. In particular, on personal experience, a type of political participation was observed on one of the sites, in the process of the conflict between Ukraine and Russia, while at the government level the lower masses were prescribed negative in the direction of the “enemy”, on this resource people were discussing this topic with might and main, which with the one on the other side, and at the same time, calls for friendship between peoples and independence of interethnic relations from government strife sounded the loudest.

If we talk about passive forms of participation, then it is worth noting here:

Social apathy as a factor of citizens' distrust of the government and, accordingly, all kinds of non-participation in elections;

Ignoring social events, such as subbotniks, rallies and demonstrations, when invited or strongly recommended to come to them;

Not doing something, caused by dissatisfaction with some actions of the government. For example, a small payment provided to an individual, which he considers offensive to himself and does not go to receive it, they say, no thanks, no need.

In conclusion, I would like to add once again that with the development of society, the importance of citizens' participation in the life of the community increases. This is also evidenced by the funds allocated by political movements, parties, states for sponsoring the forms of citizens' participation in politics that are necessary for their purposes (elections, demonstrations, protest actions). The more democratic the society becomes, the more the role of the value of society in its life increases. And a correct understanding of this meaning allows the state to make society a necessary and obedient lever of its activity, and in return allows society, which is aware of its importance, to receive the greatest benefit and the best result from power.

Detailed solution Paragraph § 28 on social science for students in grade 11, authors L.N. Bogolyubov, N.I. Gorodetskaya, L.F. Ivanova 2014

Questions and tasks for the document

Question 1. What is the political socialization of the individual? What institutions contribute to the political socialization of the British?

The process of assimilation by individuals or groups of ideas, norms and patterns of political culture inherent in a particular society is called political socialization. The political socialization that has taken place allows the subjects to effectively perform political functions and ensure the stability of society and the political system.

Political socialization is the process of including a person in politics.

Parliament, party, political movements, civil societies contribute to the political socialization of the British.

This is facilitated by the socialization of the younger generation through all sorts of voluntary organizations, committees, clubs, commissions, associations, flourishing in all social strata.

Question 2. Based on the text, show the connection between political socialization and political culture.

In politics, too, socialization presupposes the upbringing of an active position from childhood (through school discussion clubs, youth branches of parties, etc.). This applies primarily to professionals, from whom "gladiator" qualities are required, but involvement, although more superficial, is promoted as a positive characteristic of an ordinary person.

Question 3. Are the processes of political socialization presented in the text similar in Great Britain and Russia? Justify your answer based on your personal experience.

Yes, they are. In Russia, the socialization of the younger generation is also being carried out through all sorts of voluntary organizations, committees, clubs, commissions, associations that flourish in all social strata.

SELF-CHECK QUESTIONS

Question 1. What is the political process?

Political life is dynamic and changeable. It involves citizens, social groups, political organizations, ruling elites with their hopes, expectations, level of culture and education. Here the interests of various socio-political forces intertwine and fight. The interaction of political subjects on the issues of gaining, retaining and using state power gives rise to political processes in society.

In everyday life, the political process appears to us as a chain of events and states that change as a result of the actions and interactions of political subjects. The sphere of politics is, as it were, woven from large and small, random and natural political processes: the speech of a politician, the course of a spontaneous meeting, the inauguration of a president, etc. At the same time, all these private processes are included in one way or another in the general basic process of the life of the political system as an integral mechanism for the formation and implementation of political power.

The political process is a functional, dynamic characteristic of the political system, reflecting the totality of purposeful interactions and the confrontation of political subjects, both within the political system itself and outside it.

Question 2. What types of political processes do you know?

It can be said that political processes are divided into domestic and foreign political processes.

The internal political process takes place between the subjects of politics (classes, other social groups, nations, parties, social movements, political leaders), the core of whose activity is the conquest, retention and use of political power. The domestic political process covers various spheres of society - political, legal, economic, social, environmental, demographic, cultural, military, etc.

The foreign policy process extends to relations with other states as the art of conducting international affairs. It is closely connected with the dominant economic structure, social and state system and expresses them on the world stage. In modern conditions, the foreign policy process is increasingly becoming the art of negotiations, reaching reasonable, mutually acceptable political compromises.

According to the significance for society of certain forms of political regulation of social relations, political processes are divided into basic and peripheral.

The basic political process is characterized by various ways of involving broad social strata in relations with the state, forms of transforming the interests and demands of the population into managerial decisions, typical methods of forming political elites, etc.

Peripheral political processes reveal the dynamics of the formation of individual political associations (parties, pressure groups, etc.), the development of local self-government, other connections and relations in the political system that do not fundamentally affect the dominant forms and methods of exercising power.

By the nature of the participation of the masses in political life, one can single out democratic, where various forms of direct and representative democracy are combined, and non-democratic, the internal content of which is determined by the presence of totalitarian or authoritarian regimes; the activities of the relevant political parties and public organizations and leaders, the existence of an authoritarian political culture and the mentality of citizens.

Question 3. What are the structure and stages of the political process?

The formation of power structures at the state level is carried out mainly through the electoral process, as well as through appointment to public office.

For democratic countries, the meaning of the electoral process is to implement the principles of representation of social interests, electivity and turnover of government bodies, and the choice of a political course. This is a cyclic (depending on the timing of the elections) purposeful process, within which there is a confrontation between the interests and goals of the subjects of politics. As a result, certain political forces come to power structures and the process of exercising power develops, the essence of which is the adoption and implementation of political decisions. It includes the following stages: presentation of interests (requirements) to power structures; making decisions; implementation of solutions; control over their implementation and evaluation of results.

At the first stage, people's dissatisfaction with any negative phenomena is revealed, the solution of which involves the intervention of the state. In modern democracies, the forms of presenting demands are diverse: from petition campaigns, rallies, strikes to the use of the information capabilities of the media and the Internet. The demands are voiced by interest groups, socio-political movements, opposition parties and individual citizens. These subjects of the political process become its main initiators. At the same time, the initiative may also belong to the authorities.

Making political decisions is the second stage of the political process. We are talking about decisions on key issues of domestic and foreign policy. Depending on which of these areas the decision is aimed at, objects of the political process are distinguished (for example, industry, healthcare, the electoral system, etc.). At this stage, as well as at subsequent ones, state institutions come to the fore. Thus, in Russia, the main directions of foreign and domestic policy are determined by the President. He also sets common goals for the federal executive authorities. The Government of the Russian Federation is developing specific goals and strategies in certain areas. The State Duma takes part in this work by passing laws.

The conflict of interest is observed between the ruling elite and the opposition (remember the goals of the "shadow" ministers of Great Britain), between governmental and non-governmental organizations, official political leaders and professional officials.

Often, high-ranking officials, using their influence and connections, “push” a decision that is beneficial for themselves or a narrow circle of people, which undermines trust in the government and can negatively affect the fate of many people. All this, taken together, creates a rather difficult situation. The way out of it is achieved, as a rule, through lengthy negotiations, and sometimes with the application of administrative sanctions. The result of the common work are official documents.

At the third stage, the executive authorities: ministries, services and agencies become the main executors of the decisions made. Their work is coordinated by the Government of the Russian Federation and the President of the Russian Federation. Federal ministries adopt by-laws: directives, orders, orders, etc. In general, this stage is a pre-thought-out program of actions for the implementation of the tasks set. When implementing plans, various methods are used, primarily legal ones. Socio-psychological (persuasion, agreements) and administrative methods are also widely used. Economic (for example, taxes, subsidies) methods have also acquired great importance. Necessary resources are also being sought. Resources can be knowledge, science, technical and financial means, public opinion, etc.

The implementation of government decisions affects the public sphere. Therefore, the state is interested in the support of its decisions by the general population. In this regard, the participation of various civil structures is not only desirable, but necessary, which reduces the risk of negative social consequences.

Control over the execution of decisions and evaluation of the result is the fourth stage of the political process. Control is carried out by control bodies. The results of political decisions are analyzed and an assessment is made of the work of state bodies.

Along with this, citizens and groups of people also evaluate the policy of the authorities and the measures taken to improve their lives. These assessments are expressed both in support for political decisions and in putting forward new demands on the ruling elite. The completion of one cycle of decision making and implementation is the beginning of another. In short, it is a continuous and purposeful process.

The result of the political process largely depends on a combination of internal and external factors. Internal factors include, for example, the competence and ability of the authorities to correctly assess the situation, to choose appropriate means, methods and resources. Equally important is the commitment of all participants to democratic values, as well as their compliance with the rule of law. Citizens' trust in government is emerging. The political process is characterized by stability and gives a positive result, for example, an increase in the living standards of the population.

The inconsistency of the structural elements of the political process: subjects, goals, means, methods, resources and executors - indicates its instability. It arises, as a rule, in a crisis of power, the loss of its legitimacy. The causes of instability can be very different: a decline in production, dissatisfaction of certain social groups with their status, the external debt of the state, etc. An unstable process is dangerous, because it can lead to unpredictable results.

The democratic political process is a process, as a rule, stable, based on a constructive dialogue of political forces, the search for compromises and the achievement of consensus. It is carried out before the eyes of the whole society and with its conscious active participation.

Question 4. What is the essence of political participation?

Political participation is the actions of a citizen with the aim of influencing the development, adoption and implementation of government decisions, the choice of representatives in government institutions.

The scope of possible participation is determined by political rights, the exercise of which divides citizens into two groups. The first includes the political elite, all those for whom politics is the main occupation, professional activity. The second group is made up of ordinary citizens. Being active, they, as a rule, voluntarily join the political process, influencing the government. Some scholars view political participation as actions in politics by citizens of both groups. Others associate political participation only with the actions of ordinary citizens, while noting the fluidity and conventionality of the line between the two groups.

Question 5. What are the possible forms of political activity of citizens?

The political participation of ordinary citizens can be direct (immediate) and representative (indirect). Direct participation is expressed in such actions as voting in elections and referendums, appeals and letters to state bodies, meetings with politicians, work in political parties, attending rallies, etc. Indirect participation is carried out through elected representatives who are delegated decision-making powers. These actions are called types (or forms) of political participation. They correspond to certain political roles: voter, party member, petition initiator, rally participant, etc. We emphasize that political participation is, firstly, always a specific action; secondly, participation, unlike paying taxes or serving in the army, is predominantly voluntary; thirdly, participation is real, not fictitious, it presupposes the existence of a real choice, an alternative.

Question 6. Why is political participation not always effective?

Having equal legal opportunities, different people are involved in the political process in different ways. Scientists have found that powerful incentives for a person's political activity are his interest in politics and political competence. Political competence is directly related to education. According to sociologists, more educated people are more politically active. Moreover, the influence of the factor of education is higher than the level of income or profession.

In every society, certain groups of citizens shy away from participating in politics. As a rule, people with a low level of education, who are not confident in themselves and their abilities, avoid politics. But a well-educated person who is disappointed in his political participation due to the lack of desired results can also become an absentee. The degree of activity and effectiveness of political participation largely depend on the political culture.

Question 7. What is political culture?

Political knowledge can be of a scientific nature, but it can also exist at the level of everyday ideas. In the latter case, political phenomena are often distorted. Knowledge of political science helps to adequately perceive the political reality. A person with scientific knowledge is less susceptible to misinformation and manipulation of his political consciousness.

Political value orientations occupy a central place in the structure of the political culture of the individual. They include judgments, opinions of a person about political ideals, goals and principles of a reasonable and desirable social order, ways to achieve it, political mechanisms of functioning, etc. Political orientations are formed under the influence of knowledge, emotional personal attitude to political phenomena and their own assessments. At the same time, normative (socially recognized) political values ​​have a certain influence on the value orientations of the individual. Recall that in Russia these include democracy, parliamentarism, the rule of law (continue this list). Basic political values ​​usually act as criteria for evaluating a political event or phenomenon (“democratic or undemocratic”, “legitimate or illegal”, etc.).

Value orientations manifest themselves in different ways. Sometimes they exist in the form of unconscious preferences, for example, to a certain political direction: social democratic, liberal, etc. In the absence of deep knowledge about the essence of these directions, the subject of politics often turns into its object, easily succumbs to populist appeals and slogans, blindly follows political leaders . In this case, his political participation is characterized as mobilized participation.

Ways of practical political action are patterns and rules of political behavior that determine how to act. Many political scientists call them models of political behavior, because the performance by a citizen of any political role implies the observance of not one, but a number of successive rules. Together, these rules reflect the content of the respective role. For example, the role of the voter, as you know, involves analysis and evaluation from the standpoint of certain requirements of election programs, as well as the personal qualities of contenders for power. The totality of the voter's actions, in accordance with the regulatory requirements, will be the model (sample) of his political behavior.

Political culture, being an important part of the political system, is largely determined by its type. In this regard, many political scientists believe that the most general typology is the one based on the types of political systems. So, in totalitarian political systems, the citizens' conviction is formed in the justice of the unlimited power of the state over the individual, the belief that the world is divided into two hostile camps - "friends" and "enemies". The image of an enemy that needs to be destroyed is cultivated in the political consciousness, and an irreconcilable struggle is perceived as a universal method for solving complex political problems.

The authoritarian type of political culture differs significantly from the totalitarian type. Society is aware of alienation from power, the feeling of merging with it disappears. The political behavior of the elite is dominated by the requirements of competence, professionalism and obedience are required from citizens.

The democratic type of political culture is dominated by orientations towards democratic values ​​and norms. A person, his rights and freedoms are of particular value. In relation to the authorities, moods of criticality prevail. People consider the state as an institution controlled by civil society, and at the same time an important factor in its integration. The openness of political positions and orientation towards political participation acquire great significance. Commitment to the laws, a sense of responsibility of citizens for their political choice and ways of implementing it, pluralism and tolerance in public opinion dominate.

TASKS

Question 1. Some political scientists compare the political process with two-faced Janus - a Roman deity, one face of which is turned to the past, the other - to the future. How do you understand this comparison? On specific examples, reveal its essence.

There is no future without the past. The roots of events and political processes lie in the past, and if they are not resolved in the present, they move into the future. Our problems today originate in the USSR They were not completely outlived in the 90s and now they painfully respond to our today's life. The USSR collapsed, other relations arose in the economy, but our Soviet essence remained and it manifests itself everywhere and in everything.

Question 2. On the example of any political process in Russia, describe its stages.

Perestroika. Stages: 1. Privatization 2. Restructuring of the sectoral structure. 3. Transition to a market economy mechanism.

Question 3. Scientists have established the reasons for the political activity and passivity of citizens. Among them is awareness of their socio-economic and political interests; understanding of public duty and concern for the common good; disappointment in the effectiveness of the political system, the collapse of the previously dominant values ​​in it; distrust of authority; lack of strong political knowledge and convictions; the desire to improve their social status; political and legal nihilism. Based on the analysis of these reasons, identify what stimulates political activity and what hinders it. Explain your answer.

Increases watered activity several points, namely:

1) citizens' trust in power (a person cannot entrust his life to unreliable people whom he does not trust)

2) real actions of the authorities (a clear example of how politicians do their job will raise them very high in the eyes of citizens)

The passivity of citizens is caused mainly by the fact that politicians, not fulfilling their duties, lose their reputation and aggravate the situation in the country, and in the end people will rebel.

REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 3

Question 1. What is the relationship between power and politics?

Politics is a concept that includes the activities of public authorities and public administration, as well as issues and events in public life related to the functioning of the state. The scientific study of politics is carried out within the framework of political science.

Power is the ability and ability to impose one's will, to influence the activities and behavior of other people, even in spite of their resistance. The essence of power does not depend on what this possibility is based on. Power can be based on various methods: democratic and authoritarian, honest and dishonest, violence and revenge, deceit, provocation, extortion, incentives, promises, etc.

Political power is the ability of a certain social group or class to exercise its will, to influence the activities of other social groups or classes. Unlike other types of power (family, public, etc.), political power exerts its influence on large groups of people, uses for this purpose a specially created apparatus and specific means. The strongest element of political power is the state and the system of state bodies exercising state power.

The very word politics is translated as the art of management. And to govern the state means to have power over others, that is, without power, politics remains an art in the sense of an aesthetic discipline.

Question 2. How are the main components of the political system related?

Like any other, the political system has its limits. Within these boundaries are power institutions, relationships, activities that determine policy. In the political system, according to one of the approaches existing in political science, four structural components are distinguished, which are called subsystems.

The institutional subsystem includes the state, parties, socio-political movements and other political institutions.

The normative subsystem includes political principles, legal norms governing political life, political traditions and moral norms embodied in constitutions, other laws (these norms apply to the entire political system), party programs, charters of political associations (these norms operate within certain organizations), and also in the traditions and procedures that determine the rules of conduct in politics.

The communicative subsystem is a set of connections and interactions both between the subsystems of the political system, and between the political system and other subsystems of society (economic, social, etc.), as well as between the political systems of different countries.

The cultural and ideological subsystem covers political psychology and ideology, political culture, including political teachings, values, ideals, patterns of behavior that affect the political activity of people.

In the aggregate of all these components, the political system is a complex mechanism for the formation and functioning of power in society.

Question 3. What is the role of the political system in society?

The role of politics in society:

Finding out the meaning of the existence of this community and the system of its priorities;

Coordination and balance of interests of all its members, determination of common collective aspirations and goals;

Development of rules of behavior and life activity acceptable to all;

The distribution of functions and roles between all subjects of a given community, or at least the development of the rules by which this distribution occurs;

Creation of a generally accepted (understandable) language for all - verbal (verbal) or symbolic, capable of ensuring effective interaction and mutual understanding of all community members.

Question 4. What is the ratio of civil society and the rule of law?

Civil society in its modern understanding and meaning is a society capable of resisting the state, controlling its activities, capable of showing the state its place. In other words, civil society is a society capable of making its state legal.

Such a society's ability to political self-organization is possible only in the presence of certain economic conditions, namely, economic freedom, diversity of forms of ownership, market relations. Civil society is based on private property.

So, civil society and its relationship with the state are characterized mainly by the following points:

The formation and development of civil society is associated with the formation of bourgeois social relations, the assertion of the principle of formal equality;

Civil society is based on private and other forms of ownership, market economy, political pluralism;

Civil society exists along with the state as a relatively independent and opposing force, which is in contradictory unity with it;

Civil society is a system that is built on the basis of horizontal links between subjects (the principle of coordination) and which is characterized by self-organization and self-governance;

Civil society is a community of free citizen-owners who perceive themselves in this capacity, and therefore are ready to take full economic and political responsibility for the state of society;

With the development of civil society and the formation of legal statehood, there is a rapprochement between society and the state, their interpenetration: in essence, the rule of law is a way of organizing civil society, its political form;

The interaction of civil society and the rule of law is aimed at the formation of a legal democratic society, at the creation of a democratic social and legal state.

It is possible to indicate a number of the most general ideas and principles underlying any civil society, regardless of the specifics of a particular country. These include:

1) economic freedom, variety of forms of ownership, market relations;

2) unconditional recognition and protection of the natural rights of man and citizen;

3) legitimacy and democratic nature of power;

4) equality of all before the law and justice, reliable legal protection of the individual;

5) a legal state based on the principle of separation and interaction of powers;

6) political and ideological pluralism, the presence of legal opposition;

7) freedom of opinion, speech and press, independence of mass media;

8) non-interference of the state in the private life of citizens, their mutual duties and responsibilities;

9) class peace, partnership and national accord;

10) an effective social policy that ensures a decent standard of living for people.

Question 5. How is the electoral process in a democratic society?

The electoral process is a set of activities for the preparation and conduct of elections. It includes, on the one hand, the election campaigns of candidates, and on the other hand, the work of election commissions to form an elected body of power.

The electoral process has the following components:

appointment of elections;

Organization of electoral districts, districts, sites;

Formation of election commissions;

Voter registration;

Nomination and registration of candidates;

Preparation of ballots and absentee ballots;

Question 6. What is the place in politics political elites and political leaders?

It is believed that in different countries the political elite includes heads of state and government, ministers, heads of the chambers of parliament, heads of parliamentary factions and committees, leaders of political parties, regional leaders (heads of administrations, chairmen of legislative assemblies, party leaders of the region), heads of major public political organizations, centers of political analysis, etc. In a country with a population of tens of millions of citizens, the political elite may number several hundred or (using other signs of belonging to it) several thousand people.

In modern conditions, a political leader is, as a rule, the head of an organization (usually a political party) or a state, that is, a political leader.

The status of a political leader is associated with the formal consolidation of his position, rights and powers: the leader influences people not only because of his personal authority, but also because of his position, the norms contained in official documents, which give him the right to make decisions binding on others.

So, political leadership is expressed in the influence on large groups of people, connected, firstly, with the personal qualities of the leader, his authority, the ability to lead supporters, and secondly, with the formal official status, which implies the possession of power.

Question 7. What are the differences between political ideology and political psychology?

A political ideology is a certain ethical set of ideals, principles, doctrines, myths or symbols of a certain social movement, institution, social class or large group that explain how society should be organized and offer some political and cultural projects for a certain social order. Political ideology is largely focused on the distribution of political power and the question for what purpose it should be used. Some parties follow a certain ideology very clearly, while others may have a wide range of views drawn from different groups of ideologies, but not follow any particular one. The popularity of an ideology depends in part on moral authorities.

Political psychology is an interdisciplinary science at the intersection of psychology, political science and sociology. The main task of political psychology is the study of the patterns of political behavior and consciousness. The subject of study of political psychology is the psychological components of a person's political behavior regarding the problems of both foreign policy (war, terrorism, political decisions, ethnic conflicts, perception of negotiating partners) and internal (political participation, discrimination against minorities, the formation of political orientations), the study of which allows apply psychological knowledge to the explanation of politics. The methods that are used in political psychology are focused primarily on the analysis of individual behavior (content analysis, interviews, focus groups, tests, peer reviews).

Question 8. How do different forms of political behavior differ from each other?

According to its target orientation, political behavior can be constructive (contributing to the normal functioning of the political system) and destructive (undermining the political order).

Political behavior can be individual, group and mass. Individual political behavior is the actions of an individual that have socio-political significance (a practical action or a public statement that expresses an opinion about politicians and politics). Group political behavior is associated with the activities of political organizations or a spontaneously formed politically active group of individuals. The most massive forms of political behavior are elections, referendums, rallies, and demonstrations. In group, and even more so in mass political behavior, imitation, emotional infection, empathy, and the subordination of individual behavior to group norms are observed.

Question 9. What role does citizen participation play in the political process?

Each individual citizen has the right to participate in the life of the country, to protect their interests, to be able to express their dissatisfaction with any factors or simply show interest in politics as a field of accessible activity.

Active forms of participation:

Participation in elected bodies, such as presidential elections;

Mass actions, such as rallies, demonstrations, strikes, in which the masses are coordinated, dissatisfied with any action of the government;

Single actions, but notable enough to carry political weight;

Participation in political parties and organizations, participation in the government of the country, in the adoption of laws;

Participation of citizens in surveys;

Appeals and complaints to higher structures of individuals or groups of citizens;

Lobbying activities;

Network participation - blogs, electronic newspapers, and other Internet resources.

Passive forms of participation:

Social apathy as a factor of citizens' distrust of the government and, accordingly, all kinds of non-participation in elections;

Ignoring social events, such as subbotniks, rallies and demonstrations, when invited or strongly recommended to come to them;

Not doing something caused by dissatisfaction with some government action.

Question 10. How are the political system, political participation, political culture and political process related?

The political system is a set of state, party and public bodies and organizations participating in the political life of the country. It is a complex formation that ensures the existence of society as a single organism, centrally controlled by political power.

Political participation is action taken by private individuals to influence public policy or the choice of political leaders. Political participation, in contrast to political activity, has only one subject - the individual.

Political culture - part of the general culture and inheritance, including historical experience, memory of social and political events, political values, orientations and skills that directly affect political behavior.

Political process - a form of functioning of the political system of society, changing in space and time; the total activity of political subjects, which ensures the functioning and development of the political system.

Political life, changeable and dynamic, involves various subjects of politics: people, social groups, ruling elites, etc. When they interact with each other, the subjects of politics on the issues of conquest, retention and use of state power give rise to various political processes in society.

Political process- this is a chain of political events and states that change as a result of the interaction of specific subjects of politics (one political leader of the government is replaced by others). Political scientists classify political processes in different ways. By scale: internal political and foreign policy processes. Domestic political processes can develop at the national, regional, local levels (for example, the electoral process). And according to their importance for society, they are divided into basic and private.

The basic political process characterizes the action of all political power as a mechanism for the formation and implementation of political power. It determines the content of private processes: economic-political, political-legal, cultural-political, etc.

Both basic and private processes are characterized by:

A) representation of interests to power structures

B) decision making

C) implementation of decisions

The political process is aimed at solving a political problem. For example, the state of the education system in the country as a whole. These issues are on the political agenda. Their decision becomes object - the goal of the political process which leads to certain results. However, a political one can take place only if there is subjects - participants in the process. These include initiators and performers.

Initiators of political processes Citizens, interest groups, political parties and movements, trade unions, etc. act in a democratic society. The solution of political problems belongs performers- primarily government institutions and empowered officials, as well as specially appointed people from non-governmental bodies.

The executors of the political process choose means, methods and resources for its implementation. Resources can be knowledge, science, technical and financial means, public opinion, etc.

Outcome of the political process largely depends on a combination of internal and external factors. Internal factors include, for example, the competence and ability of the authorities to correctly assess the situation, choose appropriate means and methods, and achieve the implementation of the decisions taken in strict accordance with the rule of law. Within the framework of political processes, when solving problems, various interests of social groups intersect, sometimes causing intractable contradictions and conflicts.

Political processes, in terms of publicity of decision-making, are also divided into open and hidden (shadow).

In an open political process, the interests of groups and citizens are revealed in the programs of parties, in voting in elections, and so on. In the hidden - the political process is characterized by closeness and lack of control of government decisions. They are accepted by officials and authorities under the influence of unrecognized structures.

Political participation- these are the actions of a citizen in order to influence the adoption and implementation of state decisions, the choice of representatives in government institutions. This concept characterizes the involvement of members of a given society in the political process.

The scope of possible participation is determined by political rights and freedoms. In a democratic society, these include: the right to elect and be elected to public authorities, the right to participate in public affairs directly and through a representative, etc. But the exercise of these political rights may be limited, for example, the right to assemble for rallies or demonstrations by indicating that they must be held unarmed, peacefully, after prior notice to the authorities. And it is forbidden, for example, the organization of parties, the program

which is a violent change of the constitutional order. Such prohibitions are introduced on the basis of the security of the individual, society, state.

Political participation is indirect(serial) and immediate(direct).

Direct participation is carried out through elected representatives. Direct participation is the impact of a citizen on power without intermediaries. It appears in the following forms:

The reaction of citizens to impulses emanating from the political system

Periodic participation in actions related to the election of representatives, with the transfer of decision-making powers to them

Participation of citizens in the activities of political parties, socio-political organizations and movements

Influence on political processes through appeals and letters, meetings with political figures

Direct actions of citizens

Activities of political leaders

Forms of political activity can be group, mass and individual. The most developed and important form of political participation is democratic elections. This is a necessary minimum of political activity guaranteed by constitutions. Within the framework of the institution of elections, each citizen performs his individual action, voting for any party, candidate or political leader. Thus, it directly affects the composition of representatives, and hence the political course. Elections are accompanied by referendums - voting on legislative or other issues.

Political participation can be permanent (participation in a party), periodic (participation in elections), one-time (appeal to authorities).

But, some residents still try to shy away from participating in politics. This position, in practice, is called absenteeism.

Political participation is sometimes frustrating, this is because rational whether this political action or irrational. Rational - actions are conscious and planned, with an understanding of the means and goals, and irrational - actions that motivate mainly the emotional state of people (irritation, indifference, etc.).

Political culture implies: versatile political knowledge, orientation in life to the rules of a democratic society, mastery of these rules.

political knowledge- this is a person's knowledge about politics, the political system, about various political ideologies, about its institutions and procedures, with the help of which the participation of citizens in the political process is ensured. Knowledge can be presented as worldly or as scientific. Scientific knowledge is the result of the study of political science, and worldly knowledge can be represented, for example, by the vision of a democratic regime as unlimited, it is possible to do whatever you want.

Political values- this is a person's idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe ideals and values ​​​​of a reasonable or desired social order. They are formed under the influence of knowledge about politics, personal and emotional attitude to political phenomena. The weakness of the political positions of citizens is one of the reasons that make it difficult to achieve harmony in society.

Methods of practical political action are models and rules of political behavior that determine how one can and how one should act. Many scientists call them models of political participation of a citizen, because. any form of citizen participation involves analysis and assessment from the standpoint of certain requirements of election programs and personal qualities for power. Political consciousness predetermines political behavior. Democratic political culture manifests itself in reality, but in political behavior.

Thus, the democratic type of political culture has a pronounced humanistic orientation; it embodies the best examples of the political experience of many countries of the world.