Traditions of Russian literature in the image of superfluous people. "The type of "superfluous person" in Russian literature of the 19th century

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"Superfluous people" in literature are images characteristic of Russian prose of the mid-nineteenth century. Examples of such characters in works of art are the topic of the article.

Who coined this term?

"Superfluous people" in literature are characters that appeared as early as the beginning of the nineteenth century. Who exactly introduced this term is unknown. Possibly Herzen. According to some sources - Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin. After all, the great Russian poet once said that his Onegin is "an extra person." One way or another, this image is firmly established in the works of other writers.

Every schoolboy who hasn't even read Goncharov's novel knows about someone like Oblomov. This character is a representative of the outdated landlord world, and therefore cannot adapt in any way to the new one.

General signs

"Superfluous people" are found in the works of such classics as I. S. Turgenev, M. Yu. Lermontov. Before considering each of the characters that can be attributed to this category, it is necessary to highlight common features. "Superfluous people" in literature are contradictory characters who are in conflict with the society to which they belong. As a rule, they are deprived of both fame and wealth.

Examples

"Superfluous people" in literature are characters introduced by the author into an environment alien to them. They are moderately educated, but their knowledge is unsystematic. The "superfluous person" cannot be a deep thinker or scientist, but he has the "ability of judgment", the gift of eloquence. And the main sign of this literary character- neglect of others. As an example, we can recall Pushkin's Onegin, who avoids communication with his neighbors.

"Superfluous people" in Russian literature of the 19th century were heroes capable of seeing vices modern society but not knowing how to resist them. They are aware of the problems of the world around them. But, alas, they are too passive to change anything.

Causes

The characters discussed in this article began to appear on the pages of the works of Russian writers in the Nikolaev era. In 1825 there was an uprising of the Decembrists. For the next decades, the government was in fear, but it was at this time that the spirit of freedom, the desire for change, appeared in society. The policy of Nicholas I was rather contradictory.

The tsar introduced reforms designed to make life easier for the peasants, but at the same time did everything to strengthen the autocracy. Various circles began to appear, the members of which discussed and criticized the current government. The landlord way of life for many educated people caused contempt. But the trouble is that the participants in various political associations belonged to the same society for which they suddenly inflamed with hatred.

The reasons for the appearance of "superfluous people" in Russian literature lie in the emergence in society of a new type of person who was not accepted by society and did not accept him. Such a person stands out from the crowd, and therefore causes bewilderment and irritation.

As already mentioned, the concept of "extra person" was first introduced into literature by Pushkin. However, this term is somewhat vague. Characters in conflict with the social environment have been encountered in literature before. The protagonist of Griboyedov's comedy has features inherent in this type of character. Is it possible to say that Chatsky is an example of an "extra person"? In order to answer this question, a brief analysis of the comedy should be made.

Chatsky

The hero of Griboedov rejects the inert foundations of the Famus society. He denounces servility and blind imitation. This does not go unnoticed by representatives of the Famus society - whipping, Khryumin, Zagoretsky. As a result, Chatsky is considered strange, if not crazy.

Griboyedov's hero is a representative of an advanced society, which includes people who do not want to put up with reactionary orders and remnants of the past. Thus, we can say that the topic of "an extra person" was first raised by the author of "Woe from Wit".

Eugene Onegin

But most literary critics believe that this particular hero is the first "extra person" in the prose and poetry of Russian authors. Onegin is a nobleman, "the heir to all his relatives." He received a very tolerable education, but does not possess any deep knowledge. To write and speak French, to behave at ease in society, to recite a few quotations from the writings of ancient authors - this is enough to create a favorable impression in the world.

Onegin is a typical representative of an aristocratic society. He is not able to "work hard", but he knows how to shine in society. He leads an aimless, idle existence, but that is not his fault. Eugene became what his father was, who gave three balls annually. He lives the way most representatives of the Russian nobility exist. However, unlike them, at some point he begins to experience fatigue, disappointment.

Loneliness

Onegin - "an extra person." He languishes from idleness, tries to occupy himself with useful work. In the society to which he belongs, idleness is the main component of life. Hardly anyone from Onegin's entourage is familiar with his experiences.

Eugene at first tries to compose. But the writer does not come out of it. Then he begins to read with enthusiasm. However, Onegin does not find moral satisfaction in books either. Then he retires to the house of his deceased uncle, who bequeathed his village to him. Here the young nobleman, it would seem, finds something to do. He makes life easier for the peasants: he replaces the yoke with a light quitrent. However, these good undertakings do not lead to anything.

The type of "superfluous person" in Russian literature appeared in the first third of the nineteenth century. But by the middle of the century, this character acquired new features. Pushkin's Onegin is rather passive. He treats others with contempt, is in a blues and cannot get rid of conventions and prejudices, which he himself criticizes. Consider other examples of the "extra person" in the literature.

Pechorin

Lermontov's work "A Hero of Our Time" is devoted to the problems of a person rejected, spiritually not accepted by society. Pechorin, like Pushkin's character, belongs to high society. But he is tired of the mores of aristocratic society. Pechorin does not enjoy attending balls, dinners, festive evenings. He is oppressed by boring and meaningless conversations that are customary to conduct at such events.

Using the examples of Onegin and Pechorin, one can supplement the concept of "an extra person" in Russian literature. This is a character who, due to some alienation from society, acquires such features as isolation, selfishness, cynicism and even cruelty.

"Notes of an Extra Man"

And yet, most likely, the author of the concept of "superfluous people" is I. S. Turgenev. Many literary scholars believe that it was he who introduced this term. According to them, Onegin and Pechorin were subsequently ranked among the "superfluous people", although they have little in common with the image created by Turgenev. The writer has a story called "Notes of an Extra Man". The hero of this work feels like a stranger in society. This character himself calls himself such.

Whether the hero of the novel "Fathers and Sons" is a "superfluous person" is a moot point.

Bazarov

Fathers and Sons depicts a mid-nineteenth-century society. The stormy political disputes by this time had reached their apogee. In these disputes, on one side stood the liberal democrats, and on the other, the revolutionary democrats-raznochintsy. Both understood that change was needed. The revolutionary-minded democrats, unlike their opponents, were determined to take rather radical measures.

Political disputes have penetrated into all spheres of life. And, of course, they became the theme of artistic and journalistic works. But there was at that time another phenomenon that interested the writer Turgenev. Namely, nihilism. Adherents of this movement rejected everything that has to do with the spiritual.

Bazarov, like Onegin, is a deeply lonely person. This feature is also characteristic of all characters, which literary critics refer to as "superfluous people". But, unlike Pushkin's hero, Bazarov does not spend time in idleness: he is engaged in natural sciences.

The hero of the novel "Fathers and Sons" has successors. He is not considered insane. On the contrary, some heroes try to adopt Bazar's oddities and skepticism. Nevertheless, Bazarov is lonely, despite the fact that his parents love and idolize him. He dies, and only at the end of his life he realizes that his ideas were false. There are simple pleasures in life. There is love and romantic feelings. And all this has a right to exist.

Rudin

In often there are "extra people". The action of the novel "Rudin" takes place in the forties. Daria Lasunskaya, one of the heroines of the novel, lives in Moscow, but in the summer she leaves the city, where she organizes musical evenings. Her guests are exceptionally educated people.

One day, a certain Rudin appears in Lasunskaya's house. This man is prone to polemics, extremely ardent, and with his wit conquers listeners. The guests and the mistress of the house are enchanted by Rudin's amazing eloquence. Lasunskaya invites him to live in her house.

In order to give a clear description of Rudin, Turgenev tells about the facts from his life. This man was born into a poor family, but never had the desire to earn money, to get out of poverty. At first he lived on the pennies that his mother sent him. Then he lived at the expense of rich friends. Rudin, even in his youth, was distinguished by extraordinary oratorical skills. He was a fairly educated person, because he spent all his leisure time reading books. But the trouble is that nothing followed his speeches. By the time he met Lasunskaya, he had already become a man, pretty battered by the hardships of life. In addition, he became painfully proud and even conceited.

Rudin - "an extra person." Many years of immersion in the philosophical sphere has led to the fact that ordinary emotional experiences seem to have died out. This Turgenev hero is a born orator, and the only thing he strove for was to conquer people. But he was too weak, spineless, to become a political leader.

Oblomov

So, the "extra person" in Russian prose is a disillusioned nobleman. The hero of Goncharov's novel is sometimes referred to as this type of literary hero. But can Oblomov be called "an extra person"? After all, he misses, languishes for his father's house and all that made up the landowner's life. And he is by no means disappointed in the way of life and traditions characteristic of the representatives of his society.

Who is Oblomov? This is a descendant of a landowner family, who is bored with working in an office, and therefore he does not get up from his sofa for days. This is a common opinion, but it is not entirely correct. Oblomov could not get used to Petersburg life, because the people around him were all prudent, heartless individuals. The protagonist of the novel, unlike them, is smart, educated and, most importantly, has high spiritual qualities. But why does he then not want to work?

The fact is that Oblomov, like Onegin and Rudin, does not see the point in such work, such a life. These people cannot work only for the sake of material well-being. Each of them requires a high spiritual goal. But it does not exist, or it turned out to be insolvent. And Onegin, and Rudin, and Oblomov become "superfluous".

Goncharov contrasted Stolz, a childhood friend, with the protagonist of his novel. This character first creates a positive impression on the reader. Stolz is a hardworking, purposeful person. The writer endowed this hero with German origin not by chance. Goncharov seems to be hinting that only a Russian person can suffer from Oblomovism. And in the last chapters it becomes clear that there is nothing behind Stolz's diligence. This person has neither dreams nor high ideas. It acquires sufficient means of subsistence and stops without continuing its development.

The influence of the "extra person" on others

It is also worth saying a few words about the heroes who surround the "extra person". referred to in this article, lonely, unhappy. Some of them end their lives too soon. In addition, "superfluous people" bring grief to others. Especially women who had the imprudence to love them.

Pierre Bezukhov is sometimes also referred to as "superfluous people". In the first part of the novel, he is in constant anguish, searching for something. He spends a lot of time at parties, buys paintings, reads a lot. Unlike the aforementioned heroes, Bezukhov finds himself, he does not die either physically or morally.

Extra person- a literary type characteristic of the works of Russian writers of the 1840s and 1850s. Usually this is a person of considerable ability who cannot realize his talents in the official field of Nikolaev Russia.

Belonging to the upper classes of society, the superfluous person is alienated from the nobility, despises bureaucracy, but, having no other prospect of self-realization, mostly spends time in idle entertainment. This lifestyle fails to alleviate his boredom, leading to duels, gambling and other self-destructive behavior. Typical features of the superfluous person include "mental fatigue, deep skepticism, discord between word and deed, and, as a rule, social passivity."

The name "superfluous man" was assigned to the type of disillusioned Russian nobleman after the publication in 1850 of Turgenev's story The Diary of a Superfluous Man. The earliest and classic examples - Eugene Onegin A. S. Pushkin, Chatsky from "Woe from Wit", Pechorin M. Lermontov - go back to the Byronic hero of the era of romanticism, to Rene Chateaubriand and Adolphe Constant. The further evolution of the type is represented by Herzen Beltov (“Who is to blame?”) and heroes early works Turgenev (Rudin, Lavretsky, Chulkaturin).

Superfluous people often bring trouble not only to themselves, but also female characters who have the misfortune to love them. The negative side of superfluous people, associated with their displacement outside the social and functional structure of society, comes to the fore in the works of literary officials A.F. Pisemsky and I.A. Goncharov. The latter opposes practical businessmen “hovering in the skies” to loafers: Aduev Jr. - Aduev Sr., and Oblomov - Stolz.

Who is this "extra person"? This is a well-educated, intelligent, talented and extremely gifted hero (man), who, by virtue of various reasons(both external and internal) could not realize himself, his capabilities. The "superfluous person" is looking for the meaning of life, the goal, but does not find it. Therefore, he wastes himself on life's trifles, on entertainment, on passions, but does not feel satisfaction from this. Often the life of an "extra person" ends tragically: he dies or dies in the prime of life.

Examples of "extra people":

The ancestor of the type of "superfluous people" in Russian literature is considered Eugene Onegin from novel of the same name A.S. Pushkin. In terms of his potential, Onegin is one of the best people of his time. He has a sharp and penetrating mind, broad erudition (he was interested in philosophy, astronomy, medicine, history, etc.) Onegin argues with Lensky about religion, science, morality. This hero even strives to do something real. For example, he tried to alleviate the fate of his peasants (“He replaced the corvee with an old dues with a light one with a yoke”). But all this was wasted for a long time. Onegin was just burning through his life, But he got bored very soon. The bad influence of secular Petersburg, where the hero was born and raised, did not allow Onegin to open up. He did nothing useful not only for society, but also for himself. The hero was unhappy: he did not know how to love and, by and large, nothing could interest him. But throughout the novel, Onegin changes. It seems to me that this is the only case when the author leaves hope to the “extra person”. Like everything in Pushkin, the novel's open ending is optimistic. The writer leaves his hero hope for a revival.

The next representative of the type of "superfluous people" is Grigory Alexandrovich Pechorin from the novel by M.Yu. Lermontov "A Hero of Our Time". This hero reflected a characteristic feature of the life of society in the 30s of the 19th century - the development of social and personal self-consciousness. Therefore, the hero, the first in Russian literature, tries to understand the reasons for his misfortune, his difference from others. Of course, Pechorin has enormous personal powers. He is gifted and even talented in many ways. But he does not find the use of his forces. Like Onegin, Pechorin indulged in all serious things in his youth: secular revels, passions, novels. But as a non-empty person, the hero very soon got bored with all this. Pechorin understands that secular society destroys, dries up, kills the soul and heart in a person.

What is the reason for the life restlessness of this hero? He does not see the meaning of his life, he has no purpose. Pechorin does not know how to love, because he is afraid of real feelings, afraid of responsibility. What is left for the hero? Only cynicism, criticism and boredom. As a result, Pechorin dies. Lermontov shows us that in the world of disharmony there is no place for a person who, with all his soul, albeit unconsciously, strives for harmony.

The next in the line of "superfluous people" are the heroes of I.S. Turgenev. First of all, this Rudin- the main character of the novel of the same name. His worldview was formed under the influence of philosophical circles of the 30s of the 19th century. Rudin sees the meaning of his life in serving high ideals. This hero is a great orator, he is able to lead, ignite the hearts of people. But the author constantly checks Rudin "for strength", for viability. The hero of these tests does not withstand. It turns out that Rudin is only able to speak, he cannot put his thoughts and ideals into practice. The hero doesn't know real life, can not assess the circumstances and their strength. Therefore, he is "out of business."
Evgeny Vasilyevich Bazarov stands out from this orderly line of heroes. He is not a nobleman, but a commoner. He had, unlike all previous heroes, to fight for his life, for his education. Bazarov is well aware of reality, the everyday side of life. He has his "idea" and implements it as best he can. In addition, of course, Bazarov is a very intellectually powerful person, he has great opportunities. But the point is that the very idea that the hero serves is erroneous and pernicious. Turgenev shows that it is impossible to destroy everything without building anything in return. In addition, this hero, like all other "superfluous people", does not live the life of the heart. He gives all his potential to mental activity.

But man is an emotional being, a being with a soul. If a person knows how to love, then there is a high probability that he will be happy. Not a single hero from the gallery of "superfluous people" is happy in love. This speaks volumes. All of them are afraid to love, afraid or cannot come to terms with the surrounding reality. All this is very sad, because it makes these people unhappy. The enormous spiritual strength of these heroes and their intellectual potential are being wasted. The unviability of "superfluous people" is evidenced by the fact that they often die untimely (Pechorin, Bazarov) or vegetate, wasting themselves in vain (Beltov, Rudin). Only Pushkin gives his hero hope for rebirth. And this inspires optimism. So, there is a way out, there is a way to salvation. I think that he is always inside the personality, you just need to find strength in yourself.

The image of the "little man" in Russian literature of the 19th century

"Small man"- a type of literary hero that arose in Russian literature with the advent of realism, that is, in the 20-30s of the XIX century.

The theme of the "little man" is one of the cross-cutting themes of Russian literature, which was constantly addressed by writers of the 19th century. A.S. Pushkin was the first to touch it in the story “ Stationmaster". The successors of this theme were N.V. Gogol, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.P. Chekhov and many others.

This person is small precisely in social terms, since he occupies one of the lower rungs of the hierarchical ladder. His place in society is small or completely invisible. A person is considered “small” also because the world of his spiritual life and claims is also extremely narrow, impoverished, filled with all sorts of prohibitions. For him there are no historical and philosophical problems. He lives in a narrow and closed circle of his vital interests.

The best humanistic traditions are associated with the theme of the "little man" in Russian literature. Writers invite people to think about the fact that every person has the right to happiness, to their own outlook on life.

Examples of "little people":

1) Yes, Gogol in the story "The Overcoat" characterizes the protagonist as a poor, ordinary, insignificant and inconspicuous person. In life, he was assigned the insignificant role of a copyist of departmental documents. Brought up in the sphere of subordination and execution of orders of superiors, Akaky Akakievich Bashmachkin not accustomed to reflect on the meaning of his work. That is why, when he is offered a task that requires the manifestation of elementary ingenuity, he begins to worry, worry, and in the end comes to the conclusion: “No, it’s better to let me rewrite something.”

The spiritual life of Bashmachkin is in tune with his inner aspirations. The accumulation of money to buy a new overcoat becomes for him the goal and meaning of life. The theft of a long-awaited new thing, which was acquired through hardship and suffering, becomes a disaster for him.

And yet Akaky Akakievich does not look like an empty, uninteresting person in the mind of the reader. We imagine that there were a great many such small, humiliated people. Gogol urged society to look at them with understanding and pity.
This is indirectly demonstrated by the surname of the protagonist: diminutive suffix -chk-(Bashmachkin) gives it the appropriate shade. "Mother, save your poor son!" - the author will write.

Calling for justice the author raises the question of the need to punish the inhumanity of society. As compensation for the humiliation and insults suffered during his lifetime, Akaky Akakievich, who rose from the grave in the epilogue, comes through and takes away their overcoats and fur coats. He calms down only when he takes away the outer clothing of the "significant person" who played a tragic role in the life of the "little man".

2) In the story Chekhov "Death of an official" we see the slavish soul of an official whose understanding of the world is completely distorted. There is no need to talk about human dignity. The author gives his hero a wonderful last name: Chervyakov. Describing the small, insignificant events of his life, Chekhov seems to look at the world with Chervyakov's eyes, and these events become huge.
So, Chervyakov was at the performance and “felt on top of bliss. But suddenly ... sneezed. Looking around like a “polite person”, the hero was horrified to find that he had sprayed a civilian general. Chervyakov begins to apologize, but this seemed not enough to him, and the hero asks for forgiveness again and again, day after day ...
There are a lot of such little officials who know only their little world and it is not surprising that their experiences are made up of such small situations. The author conveys the whole essence of the official's soul, as if examining it under a microscope. Unable to bear the cry in response to the apology, Chervyakov goes home and dies. This terrible catastrophe of his life is the catastrophe of his limitations.

3) In addition to these writers, Dostoevsky also addressed the theme of the “little man” in his work. The main characters of the novel "Poor people" - Makar Devushkin- a half-impoverished official, crushed by grief, want and social lawlessness, and Varenka- a girl who has become a victim of social ill-being. Like Gogol in The Overcoat, Dostoevsky turned to the theme of the disenfranchised, immensely humiliated "little man" who lives his inner life in conditions that trample on the dignity of man. The author sympathizes with his poor heroes, shows the beauty of their soul.

4) Theme "poor people" develops as a writer in the novel "Crime and Punishment". One by one, the writer reveals before us pictures of terrible poverty, which humiliates the dignity of a person. The scene of the work becomes Petersburg, and the poorest district of the city. Dostoevsky creates a canvas of immeasurable human torment, suffering and grief, peers penetratingly into the soul of the “little man”, discovers in him the deposits of a huge spiritual wealth.
Family life unfolds before us Marmeladov. These are people crushed by reality. He drinks himself with grief and loses his human appearance official Marmeladov, who has "nowhere else to go." Exhausted by poverty, his wife Ekaterina Ivanovna dies of consumption. Sonya is released into the street to sell her body in order to save her family from starvation.

The fate of the Raskolnikov family is also difficult. His sister Dunya, wanting to help her brother, is ready to sacrifice herself and marry the rich Luzhin, whom she feels disgusted with. Raskolnikov himself conceives a crime, the roots of which, in part, lie in the sphere of social relations in society. The images of “little people” created by Dostoevsky are imbued with the spirit of protest against social injustice, against the humiliation of people and faith in their high calling. The souls of the "poor" can be beautiful, full of spiritual generosity and beauty, but broken by the hardest conditions of life.

6. The Russian world in the prose of the 19th century.

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Depiction of reality in Russian literature of the 19th century.

1. Landscape. Functions and types.

2. Interior: detail problem.

3. The image of time in a literary text.

4. Motif of the road as a form of artistic development of the national picture of the world.

Landscape - not necessarily an image of nature, in literature it may involve a description of any open space. This definition corresponds to the semantics of the term. From French - country, area. In French art theory, landscape description incorporates both the image of wildlife and the image of objects created by man.

The well-known typology of landscapes is based on the specifics of the functioning of this text component.

First, landscapes stand out, which are the background of the story. These landscapes, as a rule, indicate the place and time against which the depicted events take place.

The second type of landscape is a landscape that creates a lyrical background. Most often, when creating such a landscape, the artist pays attention to meteorological conditions, because this landscape should first of all influence the emotional state of the reader.

The third type is the landscape, which creates/becomes the psychological background of existence and becomes one of the means of revealing the character's psychology.

The fourth type is the landscape, which becomes a symbolic background, a means of symbolic reflection of the reality depicted in a literary text.

The landscape can be used as a means of depicting a particular artistic time or as a form of presence of the author.

This typology is not the only one. The landscape can be expositional, dual, etc. Contemporary critics separate the landscapes of Goncharov; it is believed that Goncharov used the landscape for an ideal representation of the world. For a person who writes, the evolution of the landscape skill of Russian writers is fundamentally important. There are two main periods:

· pre-Pushkin, during this period the landscapes were characterized by the completeness and concreteness of the surrounding nature;

· post-Pushkin period, the idea of an ideal landscape has changed. It assumes the stinginess of details, the economy of the image and the accuracy of the selection of details. Accuracy, according to Pushkin, involves identifying the most significant feature perceived in a certain way by feelings. This idea of Pushkin, then will be used by Bunin.

Second level. Interior - image of the interior. The main unit of the interior image is a detail (detail), attention to which was first demonstrated by Pushkin. The literary test of the 19th century did not show a clear boundary between the interior and the landscape.

Time in literary text in the 19th century it becomes discrete, intermittent. Heroes easily go into memories and whose fantasies rush into the future. There is a selectivity of the attitude to time, which is explained by the dynamics. Time in a literary text in the 19th century has a convention. The most conditional time in a lyrical work, with the predominance of the grammar of the present tense, for lyrics, the interaction of different time layers is especially characteristic. Artistic time is not necessarily concrete, it is abstract. In the 19th century, the depiction of historical color became a special means of concretizing artistic time.

One of the most effective means The image of reality in the 19th century becomes the motif of the road, becomes part of the plot formula, a narrative unit. Initially, this motif dominated the travel genre. In the 11th-18th centuries, in the genre of travel, the motif of the road was used, first of all, to expand ideas about the surrounding space (cognitive function). In sentimentalist prose, the cognitive function of this motif is complicated by evaluativeness. Gogol uses travel to explore the surrounding space. The renewal of the functions of the road motif is associated with the name of Nikolai Alekseevich Nekrasov. "Silence" 1858

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The 19th century is called the "Golden Age" of Russian poetry and the century of Russian literature on a global scale. It should not be forgotten that the literary leap that took place in the 19th century was prepared by the entire course of the literary process of the 17th and 18th centuries. The 19th century is the time of the formation of the Russian literary language, which took shape largely thanks to A.S. Pushkin.
But the 19th century began with the heyday of sentimentalism and the formation of romanticism. These literary trends found expression primarily in poetry. Poetic works of poets E.A. Baratynsky, K.N. Batyushkova, V.A. Zhukovsky, A.A. Feta, D.V. Davydova, N.M. Yazykov. Creativity F.I. Tyutchev's "Golden Age" of Russian poetry was completed. However, the central figure of this time was Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin.
A.S. Pushkin began his ascent to the literary Olympus with the poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila" in 1920. And his novel in verse "Eugene Onegin" was called an encyclopedia of Russian life. Romantic poems by A.S. Pushkin's "The Bronze Horseman" (1833), "The Fountain of Bakhchisaray", "Gypsies" opened the era of Russian romanticism. Many poets and writers considered A. S. Pushkin their teacher and continued the traditions of creating literary works laid down by him. One of these poets was M.Yu. Lermontov. Known for it romantic poem"Mtsyri", poetic story "Demon", a lot of romantic poems. Interestingly, Russian poetry of the 19th century was closely connected with the social and political life of the country. Poets tried to comprehend the idea of their special purpose. The poet in Russia was considered a conductor of divine truth, a prophet. The poets urged the authorities to listen to their words. Vivid examples of understanding the role of the poet and influence on the political life of the country are the poems of A.S. Pushkin "Prophet", ode "Liberty", "The Poet and the Crowd", a poem by M.Yu. Lermontov "On the Death of a Poet" and many others.
The prose writers of the beginning of the century were influenced by the English historical novels of W. Scott, whose translations were very popular. The development of Russian prose of the 19th century began with the prose works of A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol. Pushkin, influenced by English historical novels, creates story "The Captain's Daughter" where the action takes place against the backdrop of grandiose historical events: during the Pugachev rebellion. A.S. Pushkin did an enormous job, exploring this historical period. This work was largely political in nature and was directed to those in power.
A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol identified the main artistic types that would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This is the artistic type of the “superfluous person”, an example of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A.S. Pushkin, and the so-called type of "little man", which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story "The Overcoat", as well as A.S. Pushkin in the story "The Stationmaster".
Literature inherited its publicism and satirical character from the 18th century. In a prose poem N.V. Gogol "Dead Souls" the writer in a sharp satirical manner shows a swindler who buys dead Souls, different types landlords who are the embodiment of various human vices(influenced by classicism). Comedy is in the same vein. "Inspector". The works of A. S. Pushkin are also full of satirical images. Literature continues to satirically depict Russian reality. The tendency to depict vices and shortcomings Russian society- a characteristic feature of all Russian classical literature . It can be traced in the works of almost all writers of the 19th century. At the same time, many writers implement the satirical trend in a grotesque form. Examples of grotesque satire are the works of N.V. Gogol "The Nose", M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin "Gentlemen Golovlevs", "History of one city".
FROM mid-nineteenth century, the formation of Russian realistic literature takes place, which is created against the backdrop of a tense socio-political situation that developed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. The crisis of the feudal system is brewing, the contradictions between the authorities and common people. There is a need to create a realistic literature that sharply reacts to the socio-political situation in the country. Literary critic V.G. Belinsky marks a new realistic trend in literature. His position is being developed by N.A. Dobrolyubov, N.G. Chernyshevsky. A dispute arises between Westernizers and Slavophiles about the paths of Russia's historical development.
Writers turn to the socio-political problems of Russian reality. The genre of the realistic novel is developing. Their works are created by I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov. The socio-political prevails philosophical problems. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism.
people.
The literary process of the late 19th century discovered the names of N. S. Leskov, A.N. Ostrovsky A.P. Chekhov. The latter proved to be a master of the small literary genre- a story, and also an excellent playwright. Competitor A.P. Chekhov was Maxim Gorky.
The end of the 19th century was marked by the formation of pre-revolutionary sentiments. The realist tradition was beginning to fade. It was replaced by the so-called decadent literature, the hallmarks of which were mysticism, religiosity, as well as a premonition of changes in the socio-political life of the country. Subsequently, decadence grew into symbolism. This opens a new page in the history of Russian literature.

7. Literary situation at the end of the 19th century.

Realism

The second half of the 19th century is characterized by the undivided dominance of the realistic trend in Russian literature. basis realism how artistic method is socio-historical and psychological determinism. The personality and fate of the depicted person appears as the result of the interaction of his character (or, more deeply, universal human nature) with the circumstances and laws of social life (or, more broadly, history, culture - as can be seen in the work of A.S. Pushkin).

Realism 2nd half of XIX in. often call critical, or socially accusatory. AT recent times In modern literary criticism, attempts are increasingly being made to abandon such a definition. It is both too wide and too narrow; it levels the individual characteristics of the writers' creativity. The founder of critical realism is often called N.V. Gogol, however, in Gogol's work, social life, the history of the human soul is often correlated with such categories as eternity, supreme justice, the providential mission of Russia, the kingdom of God on earth. Gogol tradition to some extent in the second half of the nineteenth century. picked up by L. Tolstoy, F. Dostoevsky, partly N.S. Leskov - it is no coincidence that in their work (especially later) there is a craving for such pre-realistic forms of comprehension of reality as a sermon, a religious and philosophical utopia, a myth, a life. No wonder M. Gorky expressed the idea of the synthetic nature of Russian classical realism, about its non-delimitation from the romantic direction. At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. the realism of Russian literature not only opposes, but also interacts in its own way with the emerging symbolism. The realism of the Russian classics is universal, it is not limited to the reproduction of empirical reality, it includes a universal content, a "mystical plan", which brings realists closer to the search for romantics and symbolists.

Socially accusatory pathos in its purest form appears most in the work of writers of the second row - F.M. Reshetnikova, V.A. Sleptsova, G.I. Uspensky; even N.A. Nekrasov and M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, with all their closeness to the aesthetics of revolutionary democracy, are not limited in their work posing purely social, topical issues. Nevertheless, a critical orientation towards any form of social and spiritual enslavement of a person unites all realist writers of the second half of the 19th century.

XIX century revealed the main aesthetic principles and typological properties of realism. In Russian literature of the second half of the XIX century. It is conditionally possible to single out several directions within the framework of realism.

1. The work of realist writers who strive for the artistic recreation of life in the "forms of life itself." The image often acquires such a degree of reliability that literary heroes are spoken of as living people. I.S. belong to this direction. Turgenev, I.A. Goncharov, partly N.A. Nekrasov, A.N. Ostrovsky, partly L.N. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov.

2. Bright in the 60s and 70s the philosophical-religious, ethical-psychological direction in Russian literature is outlined(L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky). Dostoevsky and Tolstoy have amazing pictures of social reality, depicted in the "forms of life itself." But at the same time, writers always start from certain religious and philosophical doctrines.

3. Satirical, grotesque realism(in the first half of the 19th century, it was partly represented in the works of N.V. Gogol, in the 60-70s it unfolded in full force in the prose of M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin). The grotesque does not appear as hyperbole or fantasy, it characterizes the method of the writer; he combines in images, types, plots what is unnatural, and is absent in life, but is possible in the world created creative fantasy artist; similar grotesque, hyperbolic images emphasize certain patterns that prevail in life.

4. Completely unique realism, "hearted" (Belinsky's word) by humanistic thought, presented in art A.I. Herzen. Belinsky noted the “Voltaireian” warehouse of his talent: “talent went into the mind”, which turns out to be a generator of images, details, plots, biographies of a person.

Along with the dominant realistic trend in Russian literature of the second half of the 19th century. the direction of the so-called "pure art" also developed - it is both romantic and realistic. Its representatives eschewed "damned questions" (What to do? Who is to blame?), but not reality, by which they meant the world of nature and the subjective feeling of a person, the life of his heart. They were excited by the beauty of life itself, the fate of the world. A.A. Fet and F.I. Tyutchev can be directly comparable with I.S. Turgenev, L.N. Tolstoy and F.M. Dostoevsky. The poetry of Fet and Tyutchev had a direct influence on the work of Tolstoy in the era of Anna Karenina. It is no coincidence that Nekrasov discovered F.I. Tyutchev to the Russian public as a great poet in 1850.

Problematics and Poetics

Russian prose, with all the flourishing of poetry and dramaturgy (A.N. Ostrovsky), occupies a central place in the literary process of the second half of the 19th century. It develops in line with the realistic direction, preparing, in the variety of genre searches of Russian writers, an artistic synthesis - a novel, the pinnacle of world literary Development XIX in.

The search for new artistic techniques images of a person in his connections with the world appeared not only in the genres story, story or novel (I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, A.F. Pisemsky, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, D. Grigorovich). Striving for an accurate reproduction of life in the literature of the late 40s and 50s begins to look for a way out in memoir-autobiographical genres, with their installation on documentary. At this time, they begin to work on the creation of their autobiographical books. A.I. Herzen and S.T. Aksakov; the trilogy partly adjoins this genre tradition. L.N. Tolstoy ("Childhood", "Adolescence", "Youth").

Another documentary genre goes back to the aesthetics of the "natural school", it is - feature article. In its purest form, it is presented in the works of democratic writers N.V. Uspensky, V.A. Sleptsova, A.I. Levitova, N.G. Pomyalovsky (“Essays on Bursa”); in a revised and largely transformed - in Turgenev's Notes of a Hunter and Saltykov-Shchedrin's Provincial Essays, Dostoevsky's Notes from the House of the Dead. There is a complex interpenetration of artistic and documentary elements here, fundamentally new forms of narrative prose are being created, combining the features of a novel, essay, and autobiographical notes.

The desire for epicness is a characteristic feature of the Russian literary process of the 1860s; it captures both poetry (N. Nekrasov) and dramaturgy (A.N. Ostrovsky).

The epic picture of the world as a deep subtext is felt in novels I.A. Goncharova(1812-1891) "Oblomov" and "Cliff". So, in the novel Oblomov, the depiction of typical character traits and way of life imperceptibly turns into the depiction of the universal content of life, its eternal states, conflicts, situations. Showing the perniciousness of the "all-Russian stagnation", that which has firmly entered the Russian public consciousness under the name "Oblomovism", Goncharov opposes to it the preaching of the deed (the image of the Russian German Andrei Stolz) - and at the same time shows the limitations of this sermon. Oblomov's inertia appears in unity with genuine humanity. The composition of the "Oblomovism" also includes the poetry of the noble estate, the generosity of Russian hospitality, the touchingness of Russian holidays, the beauty of Central Russian nature - Goncharov traces the primordial connection of noble culture, noble consciousness with the people's soil. The very inertia of Oblomov's existence is rooted in the depths of centuries, in the distant corners of our national memory. Ilya Oblomov is somewhat akin to Ilya Muromets, who sat on the stove for 30 years, or the fabulous simpleton Emelya, who achieved his goals without applying his own efforts - "at the behest of the pike, at my will." "Oblomovshchina" is a phenomenon of not just noble, but Russian national culture, and as such it is not idealized by Goncharov at all - the artist explores both its strong and weak features. In the same way, purely European pragmatism, opposed to Russian Oblomovism, reveals strong and weak features. In the novel, on a philosophical level, the inferiority, insufficiency of both opposites and the impossibility of their harmonious combination are revealed.

The literature of the 1870s is dominated by the same prose genres, as in the literature of the previous century, but new trends appear in them. Epic tendencies in narrative literature are weakening, there is an outflow of literary forces from the novel, to small genres - a story, an essay, a story. Dissatisfaction with the traditional novel was a characteristic phenomenon in literature and criticism in the 1870s. It would be wrong, however, to assume that the genre of the novel entered a period of crisis during these years. The work of Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Saltykov-Shchedrin serves as an eloquent refutation of this opinion. However, in the 1970s, the novel underwent an internal restructuring: the tragic beginning sharply intensified; this trend is associated with a heightened interest in the spiritual problems of the individual and its internal collisions. Novelists pay special attention to a personality that has reached its full development, but is put face to face with the fundamental problems of being, deprived of support, experiencing deep discord with people and with itself (“Anna Karenina” by L. Tolstoy, “Demons” and “The Brothers Karamazov” by Dostoevsky ).

AT small prose In the 1870s, a craving for allegorical and parable forms is revealed. Particularly indicative in this regard is the prose of N.S. Leskov, the flowering of his work falls precisely on this decade. He acted as an innovative artist, combining the principles of realistic writing into a single whole with the conventionality of traditional folk poetic techniques, with an appeal to the style and genres of ancient Russian literature. Leskov's skill was compared with icon painting and ancient architecture, the writer was called an "isographer" - and for good reason. Leskov's gallery of original folk types Gorky called the "iconostasis of the righteous and saints" of Russia. Leskov introduced into the sphere artistic image such layers folk life, which before him were hardly touched upon in Russian literature (the life of the clergy, the bourgeoisie, the Old Believers and other layers of the Russian province). In the depiction of various social strata, Leskov skillfully used the forms of the tale, whimsically mixing the author's and folk points of view.

Extra people - where do they come from in life? Whether an event of fate, a trait of character or a fatal predestination separates them from the society in which they live, deprives them not only of the right, but also of the desire to take their place in it, thus deepening the crack in the relationship "personality - society". On the other hand, starting from the well-known truth that contradiction is the key to development, it can be argued that, desiring and striving for further evolution, society itself seeks out in itself and singles out phenomena and people who can create such a contradiction, go to conflict, accepting it. terms.
Such opposition of the individual to society in literature, inherent in the romanticism of the 19th century, led to the appearance of the image of an “extra” person, a person who was not accepted by society and did not accept him.
Thus, Lermontov’s novel “A Hero of Our Time”, presented to the reader in 1841 in its final version, carried the author’s primordial problem, passing like a through thread through almost all Lermontov’s works, the problem of the individual and society. The transfer of the litigation of man and society to the real historical soil of our time immediately gave life, colors, depth to what was planned in the earlier work of the writer abstractly and one-sidedly. Consideration of the problem against the background of modern reality was accompanied not only by realistic criticism of the social environment, - elements of such criticism had previously accompanied the subjective rebellion of Lermontov's hero, and novelty should not be sought in this; what was new was that, by placing his hero in a real life situation, the author subjected the authenticity of his “heroism” to the test of practice. This meant a test by action, since it was only the effective nature of the protest that made him a “hero”. It is this problem, the problem of active or passive protest of reality, that stands behind any conflict between the individual and society. And in attempts to resolve it, not only the individual features of characters, such as Pechorin, Oblomov, Onegin, are manifested, but also the attitude of the authors towards it: Pushkin, Lermontov, Goncharov. How different these characters are from each other by some internal qualities, the environment surrounding them, interests, the perception of them by other people as “not like that” is just as similar. They are not able, and feel it, to “coincide” with the people around them, to evaluate reality according to all the usual standards and accept it. The dullness and routine of the environment prevents them from finding and seeing their person, close soul and that's what makes them so tragically lonely. This also applies to love. Having met Tatyana in an atmosphere of patriarchal-village life, Onegin did not recognize in her a potentially close person. The personality traits of the heroine were obscured for him by her stereotypical environment. The union with a girl from a “simple Russian family” (3, I), “in the past century” belated, seemed to Onegin a loss of individual independence, which at that time he cherished most of all:
"I thought liberty and peace
Replacement for happiness.
Only as a result of a long lonely wandering Onegin will discover for himself and the reader the opposite - "hateful" - side of absolute personal freedom, dooming its supporter to the position of some kind of abstract being, "not bound by anything" and "alien" for everyone. Having met Tatyana again in St. Petersburg, the hero will sincerely love her, because, already weighed down by his complete human isolation, he is looking for an understanding of a kindred soul. But the current Tatyana is no longer the same:
“How Tatyana has changed!”
She is now able to “calmly and freely” listen to the hero in love with her and read him a “sermon”, similar to the one that Onegin once, guarding her “freedom and peace”, uttered to her. Now she guards her peace, she is in that stage of life in which Onegin was when Tatyana confessed her love to him - she is surrounded by honor and admiration, calm, slightly bored by this brilliance, but not satiated with it, although she is already waking up in her yearning:
"Now I'm glad to give
all this rags of masquerade
[………………………….]
For a shelf of books, for a wild garden,
For our poor dwelling…”.
In the end, the heroes did not recognize each other again, which was their fault, but even more trouble. Indeed, in this particular case, the natural fate of modern man was reflected, whose relations both with society and with people like him are imbued with deep objective drama.
Not external barriers and forces, but first of all, such drama and attempts to resolve it, we will then feed on the action in such works as "A Hero of Our Time" and "Oblomov". However, it is precisely here, in the effective (as in Pushkin and Lermontov) and ineffective (as in Goncharov) attitude towards drama, that the tragedies of Oblomov, Pechorin and Onegin are unlike each other. Oblomov, unlike the other two, did not live. Not having outlived his youth to the end, but also not having reached full maturity, Oblomov smoothly passed into the phase of a person’s life in his declining years: he easily parted with a crowd of friends, secular entertainment and service, which brought only boredom and constant fear of superiors. The result of his development was expressed in the rejection of the unique signs of youth without replacing them with the acquisition of maturity: “He lazily waved his hand at all the youthful hopes that deceived him or deceived by him, all the tenderly sad, bright memories, from which the heart beats in others even in old age.” This is how the leading motive of Oblomov's story is formed - extinction. Ilya Ilyich himself sees how hopelessly he has aged by the age of thirty (“I am a flabby, dilapidated, worn caftan”, but not because of labors or turbulent events and trials, but because of the unfulfilled development aspirations: “twelve years in me the light was locked, which was looking for a way out, but only burned its prison, did not break free and died out. " He himself compares his life with an empty flower: "the flower of life blossomed and did not bear fruit." Extinction-aging prematurely invaded all spheres of the hero's life , because none of them really captivated him: he remained an outsider, bored in the service, among friends, in entertainment, and finally in love relationships: “faded and ruined his strength with Mina, paid her more than half of his income and imagined that I ".
Unlike Oblomov, both Pechorin and Onegin tried to actively learn about life, looked for pleasure and an incentive for development in it, tried to try everything, take everything they could reach. But what's the bottom line? Pechorin himself admits: “In my first youth ... I began to enjoy wildly all the pleasures ... and, of course, these pleasures disgusted me ... I was also tired of society ... love only irritated my imagination and pride, and my heart remained empty ... science also became tired of me boring…"
This confession is reminiscent of what Pushkin said about Onegin:
He is in his first youth
Was a victim of violent delusions
And unbridled passions ... "
Like Pechorin, he threw himself into a whirlpool of various activities: entertainment in society, books, women. But the result is still the same:
“I set up a shelf with a detachment of books,
I read and read, but to no avail:
There is boredom, there is deceit or delirium;
That conscience, that makes no sense ...
…
Like women, he left books
And a shelf with their dusty family
Pulled with mourning taffeta.
Moreover, Pushkin quite harshly sums up a certain period of his hero's life:
“That's how he killed eight years,
Losing life's best color.
In these self-damaging confessions of our heroes, there is a sign of one common illness: Oblomov was "bored in the service, among friends, in entertainment, and finally in love relationships", Pechorin, in the end, "became bored", Onegin even reading books, found, that "there is boredom." So, boredom is what our heroes suffered from. They did not find consolation in any of the manifestations of life. But of all three, Pechorin sought more and more of everything, and most of all he remained inconsolable. He tried everything, both risk and love, however, he himself remained unhappy, and brought pain to others, and realizing this: “I have an unhappy character,” he admits, “... if I am the cause of the misfortune of others, then I myself am no less unhappy". Of all three, it is Pechorin who is more active, he carries the features of his creator, and not just parallels of fate, like Pushkin and Onegin. Belinsky wrote about Lermontov: “People of our time demand too much from life. Let them not previously know the secret illness caused by the "demon of doubt", "the spirit of reflection, reflection"; but didn’t this mean that people, instead of falling into despair from terrible chains ... were getting used to and indifferently from the sphere of proud ideals, the fullness of feeling passed into a peaceful and respectable state of a vulgar life? People of our time look too directly at things, are too conscientious and accurate in the names of things, are too frank about themselves ... "(8, 8). And in this characterization of Lermontov, the features inherent in Pechorin are visible: frankness about himself, brought to cruelty, search and despair from the inability to “get rid of terrible chains”, but also hope, which, however, and he admits it, turned out to be in vain: “I hoped that boredom does not live under Circassian bullets is in vain: a month later I got so used to their buzzing and the proximity of death that ... I became more bored than before, because I lost almost last hope". Almost the last - after all, there was still hope for love, and not only for Pechorin. All of them: Pechorin, Onegin, Oblomov had hope for love as an opportunity for reconciliation not only with society, but also with themselves. Onegin, having fallen in love with Tatiana, rushes to her with all his heart, and how pompous and cold his sermon to Tatiana was in the village, his confession in St. Petersburg sounds so passionate and desperately bold:
“I know: my age is already measured;
But for my life to last
I have to be sure in the morning
That I will see you in the afternoon ... "
Having changed himself in his wanderings, he does not allow the possibility of change in Tatyana, therefore he persistently tries to get her attention, writes letters to her, but does not receive an answer. And here is the decisive moment of insight:
“... There is no hope! He is leaving,
He curses his madness -
And, deeply immersed in it,
He renounced the light again."
Here it is - a defeat, a collapsed hope. And it is even more painful to realize that once with his own hand he averted the possibility of happiness and salvation with love. However, we see that even unfulfilled, unrequited love changed the hero. Even the circle of his reading speaks volumes Gibbon, Rousseau, Herder, Fontenelle - philosophers, educators, scientists. This is the reading circle of the Decembrists, people striving for activity. We see the transformation of heroes: Onegin throws off the tinsel of light and pompous egoism, in his confession one can see a smart, subtle, wise man who knows how to be sincere, not to play. And the word "boredom" is no longer repeated in the novel. So, Onegin's hope for love, at least partially, but still came true?
For Pechorin, the denouement is more tragic: “I was mistaken again: the love of a savage is a little better than the love of a noble lady ... if you want, I still love her ... I will give my life for her - only I’m bored with her ...” What happens between him and Bela , frightens with its cold inevitability. He did not stop loving, but only loves calmer, colder. He realized, perhaps, that love is less than life, and cannot fill the void, since there is nothing to fill.
A person tired of life, perhaps, would find happiness with Bela until the end of his days. But Pechorin was tired not of life, but of its absence. He does not draw when he says: "... maybe I'll die somewhere on the road!" Life burdens him with such terrible force that death seems to be a deliverance, and, most importantly, he does not have that hope that a lonely person almost always has: hope for future joy. There is no joy for him.
Neither Onegin nor Pechorin can find solace in friendship. Onegin's friendship is only what is called it and is easily lost under the pressure of public opinion or the notion of false pride. From the prosaic formula of friendship (“There is nothing to do friends”), Pushkin moves on to the theme of selfishness and the focus of the hero on himself: “But there is no friendship even between us ...” This already anticipates the problems of the novel “A Hero of Our Time”. In Pechorin's life, truly friendly relations begin to take shape only with Vera and Dr. Werner. But even here there is no harmony. Based on the Christian worldview, we can say that in the life of Pechorin there is no revelation, there is no meeting with God. And the social loneliness of Pechorin (there is no friend and beloved) is a sign of another, more terrible loneliness - God-forsakenness. He feels it, and therefore his life is hopeless.
Oblomov is completely afraid of love, because it requires action. Having fallen in love with Olga, he suddenly sees a gap between his ideal (“Isn’t this the secret goal of everyone and everyone: to find in your friend an unchanging physiognomy of peace, an eternal and even flow of feeling”) and the sensations that Olga evokes in him, he feels himself “as before a disaster”, for some reason it “hurts, awkwardly”, love does not warm, but burns him. Unlike Pechorin, who did things with his will, trying to fill life with meaning, and Onegin, who, while going with the flow, still did not oppose certain actions, Oblomov runs away from any situations that require an act. And it is impossible in his mind to find happiness by activity, because he sees that the activity, or rather the appearance of the activity of others, does not bring them happiness. Oblomov sees the sickness of society in the “eternal running around, the eternal game of bad passions ... gossip, gossip, clicks to each other”, in his view, activity is reduced to “eternal running around”, and therefore useless. His inaction is like a protest: “I don’t touch them, I’m not looking for anything, but I just don’t see a normal life in this.”
Unlike Pechorin and Onegin, Oblomov has his own ideals (“life is poetry”, “Everyone is looking for rest and peace”), and he is faithful to them. He is pleased not with events, but with certain signs of life: Olga's voice, her gaze, a lilac branch. In these signs is a celebration of life, and in what Olga encourages him to do - in the chores and cares of life, lies the disease of society, against which he protests with his inaction. In the conflict of external and internal, which is the content of their relationship, not only the hero’s inability to participate in real life is revealed, but also his loyalty to internal principles, as well as thrift, nobility, and the ability to sacrifice himself.
Just like Pechorin for Lermontov, and, to some extent, Onegin for Pushkin, Oblomov is in many ways Goncharov's second self: "I wrote my life and what I grow into it" (5, 279). By his own admission, he himself was a sybarite, he loved serene peace, giving birth to creativity.
Perhaps creative activity, the ability for creative self-realization is what distinguishes Goncharov from Oblomov, as well as other creators of "extra people" from the "extra people" themselves.

List of used literature:
1. Buslakova T. P. Russian Literature of the 19th century. - M .: " graduate School", 2001.
2. Dolinina N. Let's read Onegin together, Pechorin and our time, - L .: Children's literature, 1985.
3. Krasnoshchekova E. Goncharov: the world of creativity. - St. Petersburg: "Pushkin Fund", 1997.
4. Krasukhin G. G. Let's trust Pushkin. – M.: Flinta: Nauka, 1999.
5. Lion P. E, Lokhova N. M. Literature: Proc. allowance. – M.: Bustard, 2000.
6. Mann Yu. Russian Literature of the 19th century. – M.: Aspect Press, 2001.
7. Marantsman V. G. Roman A. S. Pushkin "Eugene Onegin". – M.: Enlightenment, 1983.
8. Mikhailova E. Lermontov's prose. - M.: State publishing house of fiction, 1957.
9. Nedzvetsky V. A. From Pushkin to Chekhov. - M.: Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1999.
10. Roman I. A, Goncharova "Oblomov" in Russian criticism: Sat. articles, - L .: Publishing House of Leningrad. un-ta, 1991.

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Belonging to the upper classes of society, the superfluous person is alienated from the nobility, despises bureaucracy, but, having no other prospect of self-realization, mostly spends time in idle entertainment. This lifestyle fails to alleviate his boredom, leading to duels, gambling, and other self-destructive behaviors. Typical features of the superfluous person include "mental fatigue, deep skepticism, discord between word and deed, and, as a rule, social passivity."

The name "superfluous man" was assigned to the type of disillusioned Russian nobleman after the publication in 1850 of Turgenev's story The Diary of a Superfluous Man. The earliest and classic examples are Eugene Onegin A. S. Pushkin, Chatsky from "Woe from Wit", Pechorin M. Lermontov - go back to the Byronic hero of the era of romanticism, to Rene Chateaubriand and Adolphe Constant. The further evolution of the type is represented by Herzen Beltov (“Who is to blame?”) and the heroes of Turgenev's early works (Rudin, Lavretsky, Chulkaturin).

Who is this "extra person"? This is a well-educated, intelligent, talented and extremely gifted hero (man), who, for various reasons (both external and internal), could not realize himself, his capabilities. The "superfluous person" is looking for the meaning of life, the goal, but does not find it. Therefore, he wastes himself on life's trifles, on entertainment, on passions, but does not feel satisfaction from this. Often the life of an "extra person" ends tragically: he dies or dies in the prime of life.

Examples of "extra people":

The ancestor of the type of "superfluous people" in Russian literature is considered Eugene Onegin from the novel of the same name by A.S. Pushkin. In terms of his potential, Onegin is one of the best people of his time. He has a sharp and penetrating mind, broad erudition (he was interested in philosophy, astronomy, medicine, history, etc.) Onegin argues with Lensky about religion, science, morality. This hero even strives to do something real. For example, he tried to alleviate the fate of his peasants (“He replaced the corvee with an old dues with a light one with a yoke”). But all this was wasted for a long time. Onegin was just burning through his life, But he got bored very soon. The bad influence of secular Petersburg, where the hero was born and raised, did not allow Onegin to open up. He did nothing useful not only for society, but also for himself. The hero was unhappy: he did not know how to love and, by and large, nothing could interest him. But throughout the novel, Onegin changes. It seems to me that this is the only case when the author leaves hope to the “extra person”. Like everything in Pushkin, the novel's open ending is optimistic. The writer leaves his hero hope for a revival.

The next in the line of "superfluous people" are the heroes of I.S. Turgenev. First of all, this Rudin- the main character of the novel of the same name. His worldview was formed under the influence of philosophical circles of the 30s of the 19th century. Rudin sees the meaning of his life in serving high ideals. This hero is a great orator, he is able to lead, ignite the hearts of people. But the author constantly checks Rudin "for strength", for viability. The hero of these tests does not withstand. It turns out that Rudin is only able to speak, he cannot put his thoughts and ideals into practice. The hero does not know real life, cannot assess the circumstances and his strengths. Therefore, he is "out of business."
Evgeny Vasilyevich Bazarov stands out from this orderly line of heroes. He is not a nobleman, but a commoner. He had, unlike all previous heroes, to fight for his life, for his education. Bazarov is well aware of reality, the everyday side of life. He has his "idea" and implements it as best he can. In addition, of course, Bazarov is a very intellectually powerful person, he has great potential. But the point is that the very idea that the hero serves is erroneous and pernicious. Turgenev shows that it is impossible to destroy everything without building anything in return. In addition, this hero, like all other "superfluous people", does not live the life of the heart. He gives all his potential to mental activity.

The image of the "little man" in Russian literature of the 19th century

"Small man"- a type of literary hero that arose in Russian literature with the advent of realism, that is, in the 20-30s of the XIX century.

The theme of the "little man" is one of the cross-cutting themes of Russian literature, which was constantly addressed by writers of the 19th century. A.S. Pushkin was the first to mention it in the story “The Stationmaster”. The successors of this theme were N.V. Gogol, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.P. Chekhov and many others.

Examples of "little people":

2) In the story Chekhov "Death of an official" we see the slavish soul of an official whose understanding of the world is completely distorted. There is no need to talk about human dignity here. The author gives his hero a wonderful last name: Chervyakov. Describing the small, insignificant events of his life, Chekhov seems to look at the world with Chervyakov's eyes, and these events become huge.
So, Chervyakov was at the performance and “felt on top of bliss. But suddenly ... sneezed. Looking around like a “polite person”, the hero was horrified to find that he had sprayed a civilian general. Chervyakov begins to apologize, but this seemed not enough to him, and the hero asks for forgiveness again and again, day after day ...
There are a lot of such little officials who know only their little world and it is not surprising that their experiences are made up of such small situations. The author conveys the whole essence of the official's soul, as if examining it under a microscope. Unable to bear the cry in response to the apology, Chervyakov goes home and dies. This terrible catastrophe of his life is the catastrophe of his limitations.

4) Theme "poor people" develops as a writer in the novel "Crime and Punishment". One by one, the writer reveals before us pictures of terrible poverty, which humiliates the dignity of a person. The scene of the work becomes Petersburg, and the poorest district of the city. Dostoevsky creates a canvas of immeasurable human torment, suffering and grief, peers penetratingly into the soul of the “little man”, discovers in him deposits of enormous spiritual wealth.
Family life unfolds before us Marmeladov. These are people crushed by reality. He drinks himself with grief and loses his human appearance official Marmeladov, who has "nowhere else to go." Exhausted by poverty, his wife Ekaterina Ivanovna dies of consumption. Sonya is released into the street to sell her body in order to save her family from starvation.

6. The Russian world in the prose of the 19th century.

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Depiction of reality in Russian literature of the 19th century.

1. Landscape. Functions and types.

2. Interior: detail problem.

3. The image of time in a literary text.

4. Motif of the road as a form of artistic development of the national picture of the world.

Landscape - not necessarily an image of nature, in literature it may involve a description of any open space. This definition corresponds to the semantics of the term. From French - country, area. In French art theory, the landscape description includes both the depiction of wildlife and the depiction of man-made objects.

The well-known typology of landscapes is based on the specifics of the functioning of this text component.

Firstly, landscapes stand out, which are the background of the story. These landscapes, as a rule, indicate the place and time against which the depicted events take place.

The second type of landscape- a landscape creating a lyrical background. Most often, when creating such a landscape, the artist pays attention to meteorological conditions, because this landscape should first of all influence the emotional state of the reader.

Third type- a landscape that creates/becomes a psychological background of existence and becomes one of the means of revealing the character's psychology.

Fourth type- a landscape that becomes a symbolic background, a means of symbolic reflection of the reality depicted in a literary text.

The landscape can be used as a means of depicting a particular artistic time or as a form of presence of the author.

This typology is not the only one. The landscape can be expositional, dual, etc. Modern critics isolate Goncharov's landscapes; it is believed that Goncharov used the landscape for an ideal representation of the world. For a person who writes, the evolution of the landscape skill of Russian writers is fundamentally important. There are two main periods:

· pre-Pushkin, during this period the landscapes were characterized by the completeness and concreteness of the surrounding nature;

Time in a literary text in the 19th century becomes discrete, intermittent. Heroes easily go into memories and whose fantasies rush into the future. There is a selectivity of the attitude to time, which is explained by the dynamics. Time in a literary text in the 19th century has a convention. The most conditional time in a lyrical work, with the predominance of the grammar of the present tense, for lyrics, the interaction of different time layers is especially characteristic. Artistic time is not necessarily concrete, it is abstract. In the 19th century, the depiction of historical color became a special means of concretizing artistic time.

One of the most effective means of depicting reality in the 19th century was the motif of the road, becoming part of the plot formula, a narrative unit. Initially, this motif dominated the travel genre. In the 11th-18th centuries, in the genre of travel, the motif of the road was used, first of all, to expand ideas about the surrounding space (cognitive function). In sentimentalist prose, the cognitive function of this motif is complicated by evaluativeness. Gogol uses travel to explore the surrounding space. The renewal of the functions of the road motif is associated with the name of Nikolai Alekseevich Nekrasov. "Silence" 1858

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The 19th century is called the "Golden Age" of Russian poetry and the century of Russian literature on a global scale. It should not be forgotten that the literary leap that took place in the 19th century was prepared by the entire course of the literary process of the 17th and 18th centuries. The 19th century is the time of the formation of the Russian literary language, which took shape largely thanks to A.S. Pushkin.
But the 19th century began with the heyday of sentimentalism and the formation of romanticism. These literary trends found expression primarily in poetry. Poetic works of poets E.A. Baratynsky, K.N. Batyushkova, V.A. Zhukovsky, A.A. Feta, D.V. Davydova, N.M. Yazykov. Creativity F.I. Tyutchev's "Golden Age" of Russian poetry was completed. However, the central figure of this time was Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin.
A.S. Pushkin began his ascent to the literary Olympus with the poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila" in 1920. And his novel in verse "Eugene Onegin" was called an encyclopedia of Russian life. Romantic poems by A.S. Pushkin's "The Bronze Horseman" (1833), "The Fountain of Bakhchisaray", "Gypsies" opened the era of Russian romanticism. Many poets and writers considered A. S. Pushkin their teacher and continued the traditions of creating literary works laid down by him. One of these poets was M.Yu. Lermontov. Known for his romantic poem "Mtsyri", poetic story "Demon", a lot of romantic poems. Interestingly, Russian poetry of the 19th century was closely connected with the social and political life of the country. Poets tried to comprehend the idea of their special purpose. The poet in Russia was considered a conductor of divine truth, a prophet. The poets urged the authorities to listen to their words. Vivid examples of understanding the role of the poet and influence on the political life of the country are the poems of A.S. Pushkin "Prophet", ode "Liberty", "The Poet and the Crowd", a poem by M.Yu. Lermontov "On the Death of a Poet" and many others.
The prose writers of the beginning of the century were influenced by the English historical novels of W. Scott, whose translations were very popular. The development of Russian prose of the 19th century began with the prose works of A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol. Pushkin, influenced by English historical novels, creates story "The Captain's Daughter" where the action takes place against the backdrop of grandiose historical events: during the Pugachev rebellion. A.S. Pushkin did an enormous job, exploring this historical period. This work was largely political in nature and was directed to those in power.
A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol identified the main artistic types that would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This is the artistic type of the “superfluous person”, an example of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A.S. Pushkin, and the so-called type of "little man", which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story "The Overcoat", as well as A.S. Pushkin in the story "The Stationmaster".
Literature inherited its publicism and satirical character from the 18th century. In a prose poem N.V. Gogol "Dead Souls" the writer in a sharp satirical manner shows a swindler who buys up dead souls, various types of landowners who are the embodiment of various human vices(influenced by classicism). Comedy is in the same vein. "Inspector". The works of A. S. Pushkin are also full of satirical images. Literature continues to satirically depict Russian reality. The tendency to depict the vices and shortcomings of Russian society is a characteristic feature of all Russian classical literature . It can be traced in the works of almost all writers of the 19th century. At the same time, many writers implement the satirical trend in a grotesque form. Examples of grotesque satire are the works of N.V. Gogol "The Nose", M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin "Gentlemen Golovlevs", "History of one city".
Since the middle of the 19th century, the formation of Russian realistic literature has been taking place, which is created against the background of the tense socio-political situation that prevailed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. The crisis of the feudal system is brewing, the contradictions between the authorities and the common people are strong. There is a need to create a realistic literature that sharply reacts to the socio-political situation in the country. Literary critic V.G. Belinsky marks a new realistic trend in literature. His position is being developed by N.A. Dobrolyubov, N.G. Chernyshevsky. A dispute arises between Westernizers and Slavophiles about the paths of Russia's historical development.
Writers turn to the socio-political problems of Russian reality. The genre of the realistic novel is developing. Their works are created by I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov. Socio-political and philosophical problems prevail. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism.
people.
The literary process of the late 19th century discovered the names of N. S. Leskov, A.N. Ostrovsky A.P. Chekhov. The latter proved to be a master of a small literary genre - a story, as well as an excellent playwright. Competitor A.P. Chekhov was Maxim Gorky.
The end of the 19th century was marked by the formation of pre-revolutionary sentiments. The realist tradition was beginning to fade. It was replaced by the so-called decadent literature, the hallmarks of which were mysticism, religiosity, as well as a premonition of changes in the socio-political life of the country. Subsequently, decadence grew into symbolism. This opens a new page in the history of Russian literature.

7. Literary situation at the end of the 19th century.

Realism

The second half of the 19th century is characterized by the undivided dominance of the realistic trend in Russian literature. basis realism as an artistic method is socio-historical and psychological determinism. The personality and fate of the depicted person appears as the result of the interaction of his character (or, more deeply, universal human nature) with the circumstances and laws of social life (or, more broadly, history, culture - as can be seen in the work of A.S. Pushkin).

Realism of the 2nd half of the 19th century. often call critical, or socially accusatory. Recently, in modern literary criticism, there have been more and more attempts to abandon such a definition. It is both too wide and too narrow; it levels the individual characteristics of the writers' creativity. The founder of critical realism is often called N.V. Gogol, however, in Gogol's work, social life, the history of the human soul is often correlated with such categories as eternity, supreme justice, the providential mission of Russia, the kingdom of God on earth. Gogol's tradition to one degree or another in the second half of the 19th century. picked up by L. Tolstoy, F. Dostoevsky, partly N.S. Leskov - it is no coincidence that in their work (especially later) there is a craving for such pre-realistic forms of comprehension of reality as a sermon, a religious and philosophical utopia, a myth, a life. No wonder M. Gorky expressed the idea of the synthetic nature of Russian classical realism, about its non-delimitation from the romantic direction. At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. the realism of Russian literature not only opposes, but also interacts in its own way with the emerging symbolism. The realism of the Russian classics is universal, it is not limited to the reproduction of empirical reality, it includes a universal content, a "mystical plan", which brings realists closer to the search for romantics and symbolists.

3. Satirical, grotesque realism(in the first half of the 19th century, it was partly represented in the works of N.V. Gogol, in the 60-70s it unfolded in full force in the prose of M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin). The grotesque does not appear as hyperbole or fantasy, it characterizes the method of the writer; he combines in images, types, plots what is unnatural, and is absent in life, but is possible in the world created by the creative imagination of the artist; similar grotesque, hyperbolic images emphasize certain patterns that prevail in life.

Introduction

The origin and development of the theme of "extra person" in Russian literature

Conclusion

Introduction

Fiction cannot develop without looking back at the path it has traveled, without commensurating its creative achievements of today with the frontiers of past years. Poets and writers at all times were interested in people who can be called strangers to everyone - "superfluous people". There is something fascinating and attractive in a person who is able to oppose himself to society. Of course, the images of such people have undergone significant changes in Russian literature over time. At first they were romantic heroes, passionate, rebellious natures. They could not stand dependence, not always realizing that their lack of freedom is in themselves, in their soul.

"Profound changes in the socio-political and spiritual life of Russia at the beginning of the 19th century, associated with two significant events - the Patriotic War of 1812 and the Decembrist movement - determined the main dominants of Russian culture of this period." Realistic works are born in which writers explore the problem of the relationship between the individual and society on a more high level. Now they are no longer interested in a person striving to be free from society. The subject of the study of the word artists is “the influence of society on the individual, self-worth human personality, her right to freedom, happiness, development and manifestation of her abilities.

Thus, one of the themes of classical Russian literature was born and developed - the theme of "an extra person."

The purpose of this work is to study the image of the superfluous person in Russian literature.

To implement this topic, we will solve the following work tasks:

1)we explore the issues of the origin and development of the theme of the "superfluous person" in Russian literature;

2)let us analyze in detail the image of the “extra person” using the example of the work of M.Yu. Lermontov "A Hero of Our Time".

1. The origin and development of the theme of "extra man" in Russian literature

extra person russian literature

In the middle of the 18th century, the dominant direction in the whole artistic culture became classicism. The first national tragedies and comedies appear (A. Sumarokov, D. Fonvizin). The most striking poetic works were created by G. Derzhavin.

At the turn of the 18th-19th centuries, the historical events of the era had a decisive influence on the development of literature, in particular, on the emergence of the theme of the “superfluous person”. In 1801, Tsar Alexander I came to power in Russia. The beginning of the 19th century was felt by everyone as a new period in the history of the country. Later, Pushkin wrote in verse: "The days of the Alexandrovs are a wonderful beginning." Indeed, it gave hope to many people and seemed wonderful. A number of restrictions were lifted in the field of book publishing, a liberal censorship charter and relaxed censorship. New educational institutions were opened: gymnasiums, universities, a number of lyceums, in particular the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum (1811), which played an important role in the history of Russian culture and statehood: it was from its walls that the most great poet Russia - Pushkin and her most outstanding statesman XIX century - the future chancellor Prince A. Gorchakov. A new accepted in Europe more rational system state institutions - ministries, in particular the Ministry of Public Education. Dozens of new magazines have appeared. The journal Vestnik Evropy (1802-1830) is especially characteristic. It was created and at first published by the remarkable figure of Russian culture N.M. Karamzin. The magazine was conceived as a conductor of new ideas and phenomena of European life. Karamzin followed them in his writing, asserting such a trend as sentimentalism (the story "Poor Liza"), with his idea of \u200b\u200bthe equality of people, however, only in the sphere of feelings: "peasant women know how to love." At the same time, it was Karamzin who, already in 1803, began work on the History of the Russian State, which clarifies the special role of Russia as a historically developed organism. It is no coincidence that the enthusiasm with which the volumes of this story were received upon their publication. The discovery of the beginning of the 19th century in the history of Russian culture (the Tale of Igor's Campaign was found and published in 1800) and Russian folk art (Kirsha Danilov's Songs were published - 1804) helped a lot to clarify this role of Russia.

At the same time, serfdom remained inviolable, albeit with some concessions: for example, it was forbidden to sell peasants without land. The autocracy, with all its strong and weaknesses. The centralization of the multi-component country was ensured, but the bureaucracy grew and arbitrariness persisted at all levels.

An enormous role in the life of Russia and in its awareness of its place in the world was played by the war of 1812, called the Patriotic War. “1812 was a great epoch in the life of Russia,” wrote the great critic and thinker V.G. Belinsky. And the point is not only in external victories, which ended with the entry of Russian troops into Paris, but precisely in the internal awareness of itself by Russia, which found expression, first of all, in literature.

Enlightenment realism became the most remarkable phenomenon in Russian literature of the early 19th century, reflecting the ideas and views of the enlighteners with the greatest completeness and consistency. The embodiment of the ideas of the rebirth of man meant the closest attention to inner world of a person, the creation of a portrait based on a penetrating knowledge of the psychology of the individual, the dialectics of the soul, the complex, sometimes elusive life of his inner “I”. After all, a person in fiction is always conceived in the unity of personal and social life. Sooner or later, every person, at least in certain moments of life, begins to think about the meaning of his existence and spiritual development. Russian writers clearly showed that human spirituality is not something external, it cannot be acquired through education or imitation even best examples.

Here is the hero of the comedy A.S. Griboyedov (1795-1829) "Woe from Wit" Chatsky. His image reflects typical features Decembrist: Chatsky is ardent, dreamy, freedom-loving. But his views are far from real life. Griboyedov, creator of the first realistic play, it was quite difficult to cope with its task. Indeed, unlike his predecessors (Fonvizin, Sumarokov), who wrote plays according to the laws of classicism, where good and evil were clearly separated from each other, Griboedov made each hero an individual, a living person who tends to make mistakes. The main character of the comedy, Chatsky, turns out, for all his intelligence and positive qualities, to be a person who is superfluous for society. After all, a person is not alone in the world, he lives in society and constantly comes into contact with other people. Everything that Chatsky believed in - in his mind and advanced ideas - not only did not help win the heart of his beloved girl, but, on the contrary, pushed her away from him forever. In addition, it is precisely because of his freedom-loving opinions that the Famus society rejects him and declares him crazy.

The immortal image of Onegin, created by A.S. Pushkin (1799-1837) in the novel "Eugene Onegin", is the next step in the development of the image of the "superfluous person".

"You, as the first love, Russia's heart will not forget! ..". A lot has been said over more than a century and a half of wonderful words about Pushkin the man and Pushkin the poet. But no one, perhaps, said so poetically sincerely and so psychologically accurately as Tyutchev in these lines. And at the same time, what is expressed in them in the language of poetry is fully consistent with the truth, confirmed by time, by the strict judgment of history.

The first Russian national poet, the founder of all subsequent Russian literature, the beginning of all its beginnings - such is the recognized place and importance of Pushkin in the development domestic art the words. But there is one more important thing to add to this. Pushkin was able to achieve all this because for the first time - at the highest aesthetic level he had achieved - he raised his creations to the level of "enlightenment of the century" - the European spiritual life of the 19th century, and thereby fully introduced Russian literature as another and most significant national-original literature in the family of the world's most advanced literatures by that time.

Almost throughout the 1820s, Pushkin worked on his greatest work, the novel Eugene Onegin. This is the first realistic novel in the history of not only Russian, but also world literature. "Eugene Onegin" - the pinnacle of Pushkin's creativity. Here, as in none of Pushkin's works, Russian life was reflected in its movement and development, the change of generations and, along with this, the change and struggle of ideas. Dostoevsky noted that in the image of Onegin, Pushkin created “a type of Russian wanderer, a wanderer to this day and in our day, the first to guess him with his ingenious instinct, with his historical fate and with his great significance in our group fate ...”.

In the image of Onegin, Pushkin showed the duality of the worldview of a typical noble intellectual of the 19th century. A man of high intellectual culture, hostile to vulgarity and emptiness environment, Onegin at the same time carries character traits this environment.

At the end of the novel, the hero comes to a terrifying conclusion: all his life he was "a stranger to everyone ...". What is the reason for this? The answer is the novel itself. From its first pages, Pushkin analyzes the process of formation of Onegin's personality. The hero receives a typical upbringing for his time under the guidance of a foreign tutor, he is separated from the national environment, it is not for nothing that he even knows Russian nature from walks in summer garden. Onegin perfectly studied the "science of tender passion", but it gradually replaces in him the ability to feel deeply. Describing Onegin's life in St. Petersburg, Pushkin uses the words "to be hypocritical", "to appear", "to appear". Yes, indeed, Eugene understood very early the difference between the ability to seem and to be in reality. If Pushkin's hero were an empty man, perhaps he would be satisfied that he spent his life in theaters, clubs and balls, but Onegin is a thinking person, he quickly ceases to be satisfied with secular victories and "everyday pleasures." He is seized by the "Russian melancholy". Onegin is not accustomed to work, "languishing with spiritual emptiness", he tries to find entertainment in reading, but does not find in books that which could reveal to him the meaning of life. By the will of fate, Onegin ends up in the village, but these changes also do not change anything in his life.

“Whoever lived and thought cannot but despise people in his soul,” Pushkin leads us to such a bitter conclusion. Of course, the trouble is not that Onegin thinks, but that he lives at a time when thinking person inevitably doomed to loneliness, turns out to be an "extra person". He is not interested in what mediocre people live, but he cannot find application for his strength, and he does not always know why. As a result - the complete loneliness of the hero. But Onegin is lonely not only because he was disappointed in the world, but also because he gradually lost the opportunity to see the true meaning in friendship, love, the closeness of human souls.

An extra person in society, “a stranger to everyone,” Onegin is burdened by his existence. For him, proud in his indifference, there was no business, he "did not know how to do anything." In the absence of any goal or work that makes life meaningful, this is one of the reasons for Onegin’s inner emptiness and longing, revealed with such brilliance in his reflections on his fate in excerpts from Journey:

“Why am I not wounded by a bullet in the chest?

Why am I not a frail old man,

How is this poor farmer?

Why, as a Tula assessor,

Am I paralyzed?

Why can't I feel in my shoulder

Even rheumatism? - ah, Creator!

I am young, my life is strong;

What should I expect? longing, longing!

Onegin's skeptical-cold worldview, devoid of an active life-affirming principle, could not indicate a way out of the world of lies, hypocrisy, emptiness in which the heroes of the novel live.

The tragedy of Onegin is the tragedy of a lonely person, but not a romantic hero running away from people, but a person who is cramped in a world of false passions, monotonous entertainment and empty pastime. Therefore, Pushkin's novel becomes a condemnation not of Onegin's "superfluous person", but of the society that forced the hero to live just such a life.

Onegin and Pechorin (the image of Pechorin's "extra person" will be described in more detail below) are the heroes in whose image the features of the "extra person" were embodied most prominently. However, even after Pushkin and Lermontov, this topic continued to develop. Onegin and Pechorin begin a whole long series of social types and characters generated by Russian historical reality. This is Beltov, and Rudin, and Agarin, and Oblomov.

In the novel "Oblomov" I.A. Goncharov (1812-1891) presented two types of life: life - in motion and life - in a state of rest, sleep. It seems to me that the first type of life is characteristic of people with strong character, energetic and purposeful. And the second type - for natures calm, lazy, helpless in the face of life's difficulties. Of course, the author, in order to more accurately portray these two types of life, slightly exaggerates the character traits and behavior of the characters, but the main directions of life are indicated correctly. I believe that both Oblomov and Stolz live in every person, but one of these two types of characters still prevails over the other.

According to Goncharov, the life of any person depends on his upbringing and on his heredity. Oblomov was brought up in a noble family with patriarchal traditions. His parents, like their grandfathers, lived a lazy, carefree and carefree life. They did not need to earn their living, they did nothing: the serfs worked for them. With such a life, a person plunges into an unawakening sleep: he does not live, but exists. Indeed, in the Oblomov family, everything boiled down to one thing: eat and sleep. The peculiarities of the life of the Oblomov family also influenced him. And although Ilyushenka was a living child, the constant guardianship of his mother, relieving him of the difficulties that arose before him, the weak-willed father, the constant sleep in Oblomovka - all this could not but affect his character. And Oblomov grew up as sleepy, apathetic and not adapted to life, like his fathers and grandfathers. As for heredity, the author accurately captured the character of a Russian person with his laziness, careless attitude to life.

Stolz, on the contrary, came from a family belonging to the most lively and efficient class. His father was the manager of a rich estate, and his mother was an impoverished noblewoman. Therefore, Stoltz had great practical ingenuity and diligence as a result of his German upbringing, and from his mother he received a rich spiritual inheritance: a love of music, poetry, and literature. His father taught him that the main thing in life is money, rigor and accuracy. And Stolz would not have been the son of his father if he had not achieved wealth and respect in society. Unlike the Russian people, the Germans are characterized by extreme practicality and accuracy, which is constantly manifested in Stolz.

So at the very beginning of life, a program was laid for the main characters: vegetation, sleep - for Oblomov's "extra person", energy and vital activity - for Stolz.

The main part of Oblomov's life was spent on the couch, in a dressing gown, inactive. Undoubtedly, the author condemns such a life. Oblomov's life can be compared with the life of people in Paradise. He does nothing, everything is brought to him on a “silver platter”, he does not want to solve problems, he sees wonderful dreams. He is led out of this Paradise, first by Stolz, and then by Olga. But Oblomov cannot stand real life and dies.

The features of the “superfluous person” are also manifested in some of the heroes of L.N. Tolstoy (1828 - 1910). Here it must be taken into account that Tolstoy, in his own way, "builds the action on spiritual fractures, drama, dialogues, disputes." It is appropriate to recall the reasoning of Anna Zegers: “Long before the masters of modernist psychologism, Tolstoy was able to convey in all immediacy the stream of vague, semi-conscious thoughts of the hero, but with him this did not go to the detriment of the integrity of the picture: he recreated the spiritual chaos that took possession of one or another character in one or another acutely dramatic moments of life, but he himself did not succumb to this chaos.

Tolstoy is a master of the image of the "dialectics of the soul". He shows how sharp a person’s discovery of himself can be (“The Death of Ivan Ilyich”, “Posthumous Notes of the Elder Fyodor Kuzmich”). From the point of view of Leo Tolstoy, egoism is not only evil for the egoist himself and those around him, but lies and disgrace. Here is the plot of the story "The Death of Ivan Ilyich." This plot, as it were, unfolds the entire spectrum of inevitable consequences and properties of egoistic life. The impersonality of the hero, the emptiness of his existence, indifferent cruelty to his neighbors and, finally, the incompatibility of egoism with reason are shown. "Egoism is madness." This idea, formulated by Tolstoy in the Diary, is one of the main ones in the story and was clearly manifested when Ivan Ilyich realized that he was dying.

The knowledge of the truth of life, according to Tolstoy, requires from a person not intellectual abilities, but courage and moral purity. A person does not accept evidence, not out of stupidity, but out of fear of the truth. The bourgeois circle to which Ivan Ilyich belonged worked out a whole system of deceit that concealed the essence of life. Thanks to her, the heroes of the story do not realize the injustice of the social system, cruelty and indifference to their neighbors, the emptiness and meaninglessness of their existence. The reality of social, social, family and any other collective life can be revealed only to a person who really accepts the essence of his personal life with its inevitable suffering and death. But it is precisely such a person who becomes “superfluous” for society.

Tolstoy continued the critique of the selfish lifestyle begun by The Death of Ivan Ilyich in The Kreutzer Sonata, focusing exclusively on family relationships and marriage. As you know, he attached great importance to the family in both personal and social life, being convinced that "the human race develops only in the family." Not a single Russian writer XIX century, we will not find so many bright pages depicting a happy family life, like Tolstoy.

The heroes of L. Tolstoy always interact, influence each other, sometimes decisively, change: moral efforts are the highest reality in the world of the author of The Death of Ivan Ilyich. A person lives a true life when he does them. The misunderstanding that separates people is considered by Tolstoy as an anomaly, as the main reason for the impoverishment of life.

Tolstoy is a staunch opponent of individualism. He portrayed and evaluated in his works the private existence of a person, in no way connected with the world of the universal, as flawed. The idea of the need for human suppression of the animal nature in Tolstoy after the crisis was one of the main ones both in journalism and in artistic creativity. The egoistic path of a person who directs all efforts towards achieving personal well-being, in the eyes of the author of The Death of Ivan Ilyich, is deeply erroneous, completely hopeless, never, under any circumstances, reaching the goal. This is one of those problems that Tolstoy pondered over the years with amazing tenacity and perseverance. "To regard one's life as the center of life is for a person madness, insanity, an aberration." The conviction that personal happiness is unattainable by an individual lies at the heart of the book On Life.

The resolution of a deeply personal experience of the inevitability of death is performed by the hero in an ethical and social act, which has become the main feature of Tolstoy's works. last period. It is no coincidence that “Notes of a Madman” remained unfinished. There is every reason to believe that the story did not satisfy the writer by the very idea. The prerequisite for the crisis of the hero was the special qualities of his personality, which manifested themselves in early childhood when he unusually acutely perceived manifestations of injustice, evil, cruelty. The hero is a special person, not like everyone else, superfluous for society. And the sudden fear of death experienced by him, a thirty-five-year-old healthy person, is assessed by others as a simple deviation from the norm. The singularity of the hero somehow led to the idea of the exclusivity of his fate. The idea of the story lost its general validity. The exclusivity of the hero became the flaw due to which the reader left the circle of the writer's arguments.

Tolstoy's heroes are primarily absorbed in the search for personal happiness, and they come to world problems, common only if they are led to them by the logic of the search for personal harmony, as was the case with Levin or Nekhlyudov. But, as Tolstoy wrote in his Diary, “it is impossible to live for oneself alone. This is death." Tolstoy reveals the failure of egoistic existence as a lie, ugliness and evil. And this gives his criticism a special power of persuasiveness. “... If a person’s activity is sanctified by the truth,” he wrote on December 27, 1889 in his Diary, “then the consequences of such activity are good (good for oneself and others); the manifestation of goodness is always beautiful.

So, the beginning of the 19th century is the time of the birth of the image of the “superfluous person” in Russian literature. And then, throughout the entire "golden age of Russian culture", we find in the works of great poets and writers vivid images of heroes who have become superfluous for the society in which they lived. One of such vivid images is the image of Pechorin.

The image of the "superfluous person" in the novel by M.Yu. Lermontov "A Hero of Our Time"

Bright image superfluous person was created by M.Yu. Lermontov (1814-1841) in the novel A Hero of Our Time. Lermontov is the pioneer of psychological prose. His "Hero of Our Time" is the first prose socio-psychological and philosophical novel in Russian literature. "A Hero of Our Time" absorbed the traditions laid down by Griboyedov ("Woe from Wit") and Pushkin ("Eugene Onegin").

Lermontov defines the disease of his time - existence outside the past and future, the lack of connections between people, the spiritual fragmentation of man. The author collects a whole "mournful house" in the novel, both literally and symbolically. So, Mary is being treated for something on the waters, Grushnitsky and Werner are lame, the smuggler girl behaves like a mentally ill ... And among them Pechorin involuntarily becomes a “moral cripple”, incapable of ordinary human feelings and impulses. Pechorin's world has a typically romantic divergence into two spheres: the main character and everything that is outside him and opposes him. The image of Pechorin expressed Lermontov's attitude to his contemporary generation, which the author considered inactive, existing without a goal at a time when it was necessary to transform society. Pechorin - outstanding personality released from the environment; at the same time, in his character, Lermontov notes the typical features of a secular person: emptiness, spiritual callousness, vanity.

The image of Pechorin embodied both the artistic and philosophical reflections of Lermontov on these problems, and the specific historical content. In Pechorin, the process of development of public and personal self-consciousness in Russia in the 30s of the 19th century is captured. The restrictions imposed by the post-December reaction on social activity contributed to a certain self-deepening of the personality, a turn from social problems to the philosophical. However, in conditions of alienation from active social self-realization, this process of deepening and complication often turned out to be dangerous for the individual. Painful individualism, hypertrophied reflection, moral split - these are the consequences of the disturbed balance between the internal and external capabilities of a person, between contemplation and activity. Moral split, reflection, individualism - all these features that characterize the type of "extra person", the type to which Pechorin is attributed.

Proudly, Pechorin's mind always opens up some kind of dark depth that eludes his understanding. Of course, much is given to him in the process of self-knowledge. But with all this, Pechorin remains not completely unraveled, not only by Maxim Maksimych, but also by himself. Lermontov reveals in the novel one of the root diseases of the people of his generation, which has a purely spiritual source. The “love of wisdom” of the 1830s was fraught with the danger of the “arrogance” of the mind, the pride of the human mind. When you read the novel carefully, you involuntarily notice that a significant part of Pechorin's spiritual world all the time "runs away" from his self-knowledge, the mind does not quite cope with his feelings. And the more self-confident the hero's claims to full knowledge of himself and people, the sharper his clash with the mystery that reigns both in the world around and in his soul.

At the moment of the last explanation with Princess Mary, the self-satisfied mind tells Pechorin that he does not seem to have any heartfelt feelings for his victim: “the thoughts were calm, the head was cold.” But in the process of explaining, a surge of unknown, uncontrollable feelings shakes Pechorin's inner world. “It became unbearable, another minute and I would have fallen at her feet. So, you see for yourself,” I said in as firm a voice as I could and with a forced smile, “you see for yourself that I cannot marry you.”

Pechorin's mind is unable to know the full depth of feelings that elude him. And the more intense, the bolder the autocratic pretensions of reason, the more irreversible is the process of the hero's mental devastation. There is some significant flaw in the very quality of Pechorin's mind. Worldly wisdom reigned in Pechorin's mind, his mind was proud, proud and sometimes envious. Weaving a network of intrigues around Princess Mary, entering into a thoughtful love game with her, Pechorin says: “But there is immense pleasure in the possession of a young, barely blossoming soul! She is like a flower whose best fragrance evaporates towards the first ray of the sun, it must be plucked at that moment and, after breathing it to its fullest, leave it on the road: maybe someone will pick it up. I feel in myself this insatiable greed that consumes everything that comes my way, I look at the suffering and joy of others only in relation to myself, as food that supports my spiritual strength.

Pechorin's intellect, as we see, is oversaturated with the energy of a destructive, inquisitive mind. Such a mind is far from selfless. Pechorin does not conceive of cognition without the egoistic possession of a cognizable object. Therefore, his intellectual games with people bring them only misfortune and grief. Vera suffers, Princess Mary is offended in the best of feelings, Grushnitsky is killed in a duel. Such an outcome of the “games” cannot but puzzle Pechorin: “Is it really, I thought, that my only purpose on earth is to destroy other people's hopes? Since I have been living and acting, fate has somehow always led me to the denouement of other people's dramas, as if without me no one could die or despair. I was the necessary face of the fifth act, involuntarily I played the pitiful role of an executioner or a traitor. What purpose did fate have for this?

It is no coincidence that the worldview of the “ancient and wise” people does not leave Pechorin alone, his proud mind and devastated heart disturb him. Remembering the “wise people”, laughing at their belief that “the luminaries of heaven take part” in human affairs, Pechorin nevertheless remarks: “But what strength of will gave them the confidence that the whole sky with its countless inhabitants on them looks with participation, although mute, but unchanged! .. And we, their miserable descendants, wandering the earth without conviction and pride, without pleasure and fear, except for that involuntary fear that squeezes the heart at the thought of an inevitable end, we are no longer capable of great sacrifices neither for the good of mankind, nor even for our own happiness, because we know its impossibility and indifferently pass from doubt to doubt, as our ancestors rushed from one error to another, having, like them, neither hope, nor even that indeterminate, although the true pleasure that the soul meets in any struggle with people or with fate.

Here Lermontov comes to an explanation of the deepest ideological sources that feed Pechorin's individualism and egoism: they are contained in his unbelief. It is this that is the ultimate cause of the crisis experienced by Pechorin's humanism. Pechorin is a man left to himself, who imagines himself the creator of his own destiny. "I" for him is the only god who can be served and who involuntarily becomes on the other side of good and evil. The fate of Pechorin shows the tragedy of a modern humanist who imagines himself a "self-legislator" of morality and love. But, being captured by its contradictory, darkened nature, such “humanism” sows grief and destruction around, and leads its soul to devastation and self-incineration. Giving philosophical and religious meaning to the conflict of the novel in The Fatalist, Lermontov extends his hand to Dostoevsky, whose heroes, through the temptation of absolute freedom and self-will, come to the discovery of the eternal truth through the temptation of absolute freedom: “If there is no God, then everything is allowed.” Pechorin attracts the reader by the fact that the bitter truths that he discovers in the process of testing the possibilities of his proud, inquisitive mind bring the hero not reassurance, not complacency, but burning suffering, which grows more and more as the novel moves to the finale.

It is noteworthy that in the finale of the novel, Pechorin decides to check the correctness of his thoughts with the opinion of Maxim Maksimych. He, like a Russian, “does not like metaphysical debates” and declares about fatalism that this, of course, is “a rather tricky thing.” Is it by chance that the novel opens and ends with the words of Maxim Maksimych? What makes it possible for Lermontov to separate himself from Pechorin and look at him from the outside? What life-giving forces of Russian life remained alien to Pechorin, but intimately close to Lermontov?

According to Lermontov's philosophy, people are always likened to a place of residence. His constant comparisons are not accidental (like a cat, like a wild chamois, like rivers), but the world of the writer's images is comprehensive, so all his people, and the novel itself, are similar to the "arrangement" of the Earth (first the surface and only then lava, core and nucleolus ). What "lies" on the surface of the work? Undoubtedly, the whole novel is defined by the three words that make up the title (“A Hero of Our Time”). Moreover, Lermontov, as a brilliant philologist, beats them in all possible meanings. “A hero” for him and “a person outstanding for his courage, valor, selflessness” (but isn’t Pechorin like that? Isn’t he brave, stealing Bela, fighting smugglers ... and simply challenging fate? Isn’t he valiant, no wonder Bela notices him the only one among all the "oncoming and transverse" at the wedding? Isn't he selfless? How he longs for the fulfillment of his whims, how he "sacrifices" for himself).

The hero is “the protagonist of a dramatic work” (already in the first preface, Pechorin is compared with “tragic and romantic villains”, which gives rise to an associative connection with the drama, which throughout the novel becomes more and more important; for example, the motif of drapery and dressing permeates the whole work (Pechorin “dresses up” for a greater psychological effect of parting with Bela, Grushnitsky “dresses” in a gray overcoat in order to better play his role, Princess Mary and her mother are dressed in fashion: “nothing superfluous ...”), and the costume is always Lermontov symbolizes the inner state of a person at a certain moment, it is no coincidence that Mary’s leg, tied at the ankle, is said to be “so cute”, and this description echoes her subsequent “light” and “charming” movements); the motive of the mask and the game is also important, and Lermontov again beats him in all meanings, starting with card, love, life and ending with a game with fate, Pechorin himself is the director of such a multi-level action (“There is a plot!” He exclaims. - Oh denouement of this comedy, we will pat).

It is interesting that even five stories resemble five acts of drama, and the narration itself is completely built on action and dialogue, all the characters immediately appear on the stage, and the concept of the character system is unusual (the main character appears as an off-stage character, but acting on the stage, and only in the second story becomes real, and then only in the memoirs, the rest never appear at all, except for Maxim Maksimych, of course, but arise only from the words of the narrators). Even the landscape, which does not change throughout one story, resembles theatrical scenery. And finally, for the writer, the hero is "a person who embodies the characteristic features of the era ...".

It turns out that time is divided into two spheres (external and internal), but the question arises: in which of these spheres does Lermontov talk about “his time”, that is, about the relationship of people in his era, because this is main question novel. Undoubtedly, the time "acting" in the book is internal; there is no external at all as such (past, present and future are mixed up and, it seems, not observed at all). Let's pay attention to the tenses of the verbs (by the way, this is another “hypostasis” of the word in the work): in the descriptions, the verbs are used in the past tense (I “ride”, “the sun has already started”, “I laughed internally”, “the scene was repeated”), but as soon as the narrative acquires a dialogic character, our awareness of what is happening is transferred from the past to the present (“you know”, “I want”), Pechorin’s “present” after death is especially strange. It is possible that even the past and future in the novel are the present, in philosophical terms, of course, because there is no time in eternity, which is why time in the novel swirls and does not “unfold” linearly.

Thus, it turns out that not only the main theme (modernity) is already outlined in the title, but the plot and purpose of the hero are generally defined.

The stories are arranged chronologically incorrectly. According to the period of Pechorin's life, which is presented in the novel, it would be more correct to arrange them like this: "Taman" - "Princess Mary" - "Bela" or "Fatalist" - "Maxim Maksimych". However, in the life of Pechorin there are moments when his time disappears and the hero himself disappears into space. And in general, regarding his subjective time in Bel, Pechorin is much younger than, for example, in Taman. By the way, isn’t it strange that, leaving for the Caucasus, Pechorin buys a cloak in St. Petersburg, and it’s also unknown from whom he receives a dagger as a gift. It turns out that for some reason Lermontov needs a “confused” chronology. What emerges is not the sequence of Pechorin's life, but the sequence of events in the life of the narrator (the wandering officer). Thus, Pechorin is at the center of the novel (a symbol of modernity and time, even as a philosophical concept, for he is also divided into “inner” and “outer man, also objective, real and subjective”).

So, how does Lermontov reveal his task, set in the preface (to show the illness of his generation)? Pechorin and other characters are shown in the writer’s usual concept of portraying a person (the opinion of others about him - a portrait - thoughts and inner world), this is how we learn about Pechorin first from the lips of Maxim Maksimych (he becomes the narrator of Bela), then we see through his eyes of a wandering officer and, finally, we read his own thoughts and feelings, we plunge into the most terrible circles of his soul. Azamat also appears (Maxim Maksimych talks about him, then his portrait is given, and only after that he reveals his "feelings" when talking with Kazbich), Bela (Maxim Maksimych's thoughts about her - a portrait - her thoughts and actions), Kazbich, princess Mary, Werner... However, even with such a detailed examination of the characters, it is still impossible to penetrate into the very "nucleolus" of their souls, to fully understand them. Therefore, Pechorin does not become understandable at all even at the end of the novel, an interesting proportional dependence arises in the disclosure of his image (the closer to the core, to the inner world, the more incomprehensible).

In general, the composition is not aimed at explaining the hero. Pechorin is shown from several angles at once; different facets of his soul coexist at the same time. Such a double composition and "double" heroes "make" the main literary device works of antithesis. Undoubtedly, it fits perfectly with the thoughts of both Pechorin, the wandering officer, and Lermontov himself. The very first line in the book (“the preface is the first and at the same time the last thing”) begins a chain of antitheses, both semantic and intonational and phonetic. Lermontov's antithesis splits all phenomena into two opposite concepts and at the same time, as it were, combines them into one whole, transforms "incompatibilities" into "joint", that is, the very meaning of the antithesis is already ambiguous (to separate and combine at the same time). It is according to this principle that the system of characters in the novel is built. On the one hand, they are all Pechorin's twin characters, both in terms of the internal perception of the world and in terms of appearance (this is especially evident in the portrait antitheses of the characters), on the other hand, they are independent, because they carry a certain semantic load in the novel. This duality is the disease of time, according to Lermontov. His heroes are contradictory both in action, in appearance, and in thoughts, therefore they do not have an inner core.

Note that in Pechorin's soul there was no place for that system of thoughts and feelings, which was reflected in Lermontov's "Borodino" and "Motherland", "Song about the merchant Kalashnikov ..." and "Cossack lullaby", "Prayer" and "Palestine Branch" . Does this motif of Pechorin's tragic alienation from the indigenous, Orthodox foundations of Russian life enter into the text of the novel? Certainly enters, and it is connected precisely with the image of Maxim Maksimych. Usually, the role of an ingenuous staff captain is reduced to the fact that this hero, not understanding the depth of Pechorin's character, is called upon to give him the first, most approximate description. It seems, however, that the significance of Maxim Maksimych in the system of images of the novel is more weighty and significant. Even Belinsky saw in him the embodiment of Russian nature. This is the "purely Russian" type. With his heartfelt, Christian love for his neighbor, Maxim Maksimych vividly sets off the brokenness and painful splitting of Pechorin's character, and at the same time the entire “water society”. “The picture comes out especially bright thanks to the architectonics of the novel,” A.S. Dolinin. - Maxim Maksimych was drawn earlier, and when the characters from Pechorin's Diary pass later, they are constantly confronted by his magnificent figure in all its purity, unconscious heroism and humility - with those features that found their further deepening in Tolstoy in Platon Karataev , Dostoevsky in humble images from The Idiot, The Teenager, The Brothers Karamazov. The Russian intellectual hero of the second half of the 19th century will discover in these “humble” people religious depth and resources for his renewal. Lermontovsky Pechorin - "an extra person" - met with such a person and - passed by.

The significance of Lermontov's work in the history of Russian literature is enormous. In his lyrics, he opened up space for introspection, self-deepening, for the dialectics of the soul. These discoveries would later be used by Russian poetry and prose. It was Lermontov who solved the problem of "poetry of thought", which was mastered with such difficulty by the "wise-minded" and poets of Stankevich's circle. In his lyrics, he opened the way to a direct, personally colored word and thought, placing this word and thought in a specific life situation and in direct dependence on the spiritual and spiritual state of the poet at every given moment. Lermontov's poetry threw off the burden of ready-made poetic formulas of the school of harmonic accuracy, which had exhausted themselves by the 1830s. Like Pushkin, but only in the sphere of introspection, reflection, psychologism, Lermontov opened the way for a direct objective word, accurately conveying the state of the soul in a given dramatic situation.

In the novel A Hero of Our Time, Lermontov achieved great success in the further development and improvement of the language of Russian prose. Developing the artistic achievements of Pushkin's prose, Lermontov did not discard the creative discoveries of romanticism, which helped him in finding means psychological image person. Refusing the annoying metaphorization of language, Lermontov still uses words and expressions in prose in a figurative, metaphorical sense, helping him to convey the mood of the character.

Finally, the novel Hero of Our Time "opened the way for the Russian psychological and ideological novel 1860s from Dostoevsky and Tolstoy to Goncharov and Turgenev. Developing Pushkin's tradition in depicting the "superfluous person". Lermontov not only complicated psychological analysis in the outline of his character, but also gave the novel an ideological depth, a philosophical sound.

Conclusion

All Russian literature of the 19th century is about love and the meaning of life. These two themes torment every writer, and everyone is looking for a way to understand and explain them. At the beginning of the 19th century, realistic literary works appeared, in which writers explore the problem of the relationship between the individual and society at a higher level. The closest attention in the works of writers of the 19th century is paid to the inner world of man. Griboedov and Pushkin, Lermontov and Tolstoy - they and many other great Russian poets and writers reflected on the meaning of human life. And with all the individual characteristics of their work, they sought to show that man is an active force that decisively influences social development. The true meaning of life lies in the promotion of urgent tasks of social development, in creative work and socially transformative activity.

Russian literature of the 19th century is characterized by the creation of a portrait based on a penetrating knowledge of the psychology of the individual, the dialectics of the soul, the complex, sometimes elusive life of his inner self. After all, a person in fiction is always conceived in the unity of personal and social life. Sooner or later, every person, at least in certain moments of life, begins to think about the meaning of his existence and spiritual development. Russian writers clearly showed that human spirituality is not something external, it cannot be acquired through education or imitation of even the best examples.

The heroes of Griboedov, Pushkin, Lermontov, with all their positive qualities, are not in demand by society, alien to it and superfluous in it. The disease of the society of that time was the lack of connections between people, the spiritual fragmentation of a person. The “superfluous person” is outside this society and opposes it.

Of course, attempts to divide people into “necessary” and “superfluous” are inherently vicious, because their implementation inevitably gives rise to arbitrariness, leading to the degradation of both man and society. The value of the human person is, in a certain sense, higher than anything he does or says. this person. It cannot be reduced to work or creativity, to recognition by society or a group of people. At the same time, a person, although he lives in the historical, and not natural world, is deprived of the opportunity to consciously solve common problems - state and public: after all, history develops according to laws unknown to man, according to the will of providence. This inevitably leads to the rejection of the moral assessment of the activities of the state, social phenomena and historical events. It is in this sense that one must understand the image of the “superfluous person” - a person who is looking for and not finding his place in the society in which he lives.

List of used literature

1)Berkovsky I.Ya. On the global significance of Russian literature. - L., 1975.

)Bushmin A.S. Continuity in the development of literature. - L., 1975.

3)Vinogradov I.I. On a Living Trail: Spiritual Quests of Russian Classics. Literary-critical articles. - M., 1987.

)Ginzburg L. Ya. About a literary hero. - L., 1979.

5)Goncharov I.A. Oblomov. - M., 1972.

6)Griboyedov A.S. Woe from the mind. - M., 1978.

)Izmailov N.V. Essays on Pushkin's work. - L., 1975.

8)Lermontov M.Yu. Sobr. op. V. 4 vol. - M., 1987.

9)Linkov V.Ya. The world and man in the works of L. Tolstoy and I. Bunin. - M., 1989.

)Literary Dictionary. - M., 1987.

)Pushkin A.S. Sobr. op. V. 10 t. - M., 1977.

)The development of realism in Russian literature: In 3 volumes - M., 1974.

13)Skaftymov A.P. Moral quests of Russian writers. - M., 1972.

)Tarasov B.N. Analysis of bourgeois consciousness in L.N. Tolstoy "The Death of Ivan Ilyich" // Questions of Literature. - 1982. - No. 3.

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