The word as a genre of ancient Russian literature definition. Presentation on the topic "Old Russian literature

Let's start with the fact that they appeared along with the adoption of Christianity in Russia. The intensity of its distribution is irrefutable proof that the emergence of writing was caused by the needs of the state.

History of appearance

The writing was used in various fields public and public life, in legal field, international and domestic relations.

After the emergence of writing, the activities of scribes and translators were stimulated, various genres began to develop. ancient Russian literature.

It served the needs and needs of the church, consisted of solemn words, life, teachings. AT Ancient Russia secular literature appeared, chronicles began to be kept.

In the minds of the people of this period, literature was considered together with Christianization.

Old Russian writers: chroniclers, hagiographers, authors of solemn phrases, they all mentioned the benefits of enlightenment. At the end of X - beginning of XI century. in Russia, a huge amount of work was carried out aimed at translating from ancient Greek literary sources. Thanks to such activities, the Old Russian scribes managed to get acquainted with many monuments of the Byzantine period over two centuries, and on their basis create various genres of Old Russian literature. D. S. Likhachev, analyzing the history of the introduction of Russia to the books of Bulgaria and Byzantium, singled out two character traits such a process.

He confirmed the existence of literary monuments that became common to Serbia, Bulgaria, Byzantium, Russia.

Such intermediary literature included liturgical books, scriptures, chronicles, works of church writers, natural science materials. In addition, this list included some monuments historical narrative, for example, "The Romance of Alexander the Great."

Most of the ancient Bulgarian literature, the Slavic intermediary, was a translation from the Greek language, as well as works of early Christian literature written in the III-VII centuries.

It is impossible to mechanically subdivide ancient Slavic literature into translated and original, they are organically connected parts of a single organism.

Reading other people's books in Ancient Russia is evidence of secondary national culture in the area of artistic word. At first, among the written monuments there were a sufficient number of non-literary texts: works on theology, history, and ethics.

main view verbal art become folklore works. To understand the originality and originality of Russian literature, it is enough to familiarize yourself with works that are “outside the genre systems”: Vladimir Monomakh’s “Instruction”, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, “Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik.

Primary genres

The genres of ancient Russian literature include such works that have become building material for other directions. They include:

• teachings;
• stories;
• word;
• life.

Such genres of works of Old Russian literature include annalistic story, weather record, church legend, and chronicle legend.

life

It was borrowed from Byzantium. Life as a genre of ancient Russian literature has become one of the most beloved and widespread. Life was considered an obligatory attribute when a person was ranked among the saints, that is, they were canonized. It was created by people who directly communicate with a person, able to reliably tell about the bright moments of his life. The text was composed after the death of the one about whom it was said. He performed an essential educational function, since the life of the saint was perceived as a standard (model) of a righteous existence, imitated by him.

Life helped people overcome the fear of death, the idea of ​​immortality was preached human soul.

Canons of life

Analyzing the features of the genres of ancient Russian literature, we note that the canons according to which the life was created remained unchanged until the 16th century. First, it was said about the origin of the hero, then a place was given detailed story about his righteous life, about the absence of fear of death. The description ended with a glorification.

Arguing over which genres of ancient Russian literature considered the most interesting, we note that it was the life that made it possible to describe the existence of the holy princes Gleb and Boris.

Old Russian eloquence

Answering the question about what genres existed in ancient Russian literature, we note that eloquence was in three versions:

• political;
• didactic;
• solemn.

teaching

The system of genres of ancient Russian literature distinguished him as a variety of ancient Russian eloquence. In teaching, the chroniclers tried to single out a standard of behavior for all ancient Russian people: a commoner, a prince. The most striking example this genre considered to be "Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh" from "The Tale of Bygone Years", dated 1096. At that time, disputes for the throne between the princes reached their maximum intensity. In his lecture, Vladimir Monomakh gives recommendations on how to organize his life. He offers to seek the salvation of the soul in seclusion, calls to help people in need, to serve God.

Monomakh confirms the need for prayer before a military campaign with an example from own life. He proposes to build public relations in harmony with nature.

Sermon

Analyzing the main genres of ancient Russian literature, we emphasize that this oratorical church genre, which has a peculiar theory, was involved in the historical and literary study only in the form that was at some stages indicative of the era.

The sermon called "fathers of the church" Basil the Great, Augustine the Blessed, John Chrysostom, Gregory the Dialogist. Luther's sermons are recognized as an integral part of the study of the formation of new German prose, and the statements of Bourdalou, Bossuet, and other speakers of the 17th century are the most important examples of prose style. French classicism. The role of sermons in medieval Russian literature is high; they confirm the originality of the genres of ancient Russian literature.

Samples of Russian old pre-Mongol sermons, which give a complete picture of the creation of the composition and elements artistic style, historians consider the "Words" of Metropolitan Hilarion and Cyril of Turvosky. They skillfully used Byzantine sources, based on them they created quite good works of their own. They use a sufficient amount of antitheses, comparisons, personifications of abstract concepts, allegory, rhetorical fragments, dramatic presentation, dialogues, partial landscapes.

The following examples of a sermon, designed in an unusual stylistic design, are considered by professionals to be the "Words" of Serapion Vladimirsky, the "Words" of Maxim the Greek. The heyday of the practice and theory of preaching art came in the 18th century, they dealt with the struggle between Ukraine and Poland.

Word

Analyzing the main genres of Old Russian literature, we will pay special attention to the word. It is a kind of genre of ancient Russian eloquence. As an example of its political variability, let's call The Tale of Igor's Campaign. This work many historians is a matter of considerable controversy.

Old Russian literature, to which the "Tale of Igor's Campaign" can be attributed, is striking in its unusual methods and artistic means.

This work violates chronological order. traditional version storytelling. The author is first transferred to the past, then mentions the present, uses digressions, which make it possible to enter various episodes: the lamentation of Yaroslavna, the dream of Svyatoslav.

"Word" contains different elements oral traditional folk art, characters. It contains epics, fairy tales, and there is also a political background: the Russian princes united in the fight against a common enemy.

"The Tale of Igor's Campaign" is one of the books that reflect the early feudal epic. It is on a par with other works:

• "Song of the Nibelungs";
• "The Knight in the Panther's Skin";
• "David of Sasun".

These works are considered one-stage, belong to the same stage of folklore and literary formation.

The Word combines two folk genre: lamentation and glory. Through the whole work there is mourning dramatic events, the glorification of the princes.

Similar techniques are typical for other works of Ancient Russia. For example, "The Word about the destruction of the Russian land" is a combination of the lamentation of the dying Russian land with the glory of the mighty past.

The Sermon on Law and Grace, authored by Metropolitan Hilarion, serves as a solemn variation of ancient Russian eloquence. This work appeared at the beginning of the 11th century. The reason for writing was the completion of the construction of military fortifications in Kyiv. The work contains the idea of ​​the complete independence of Russia from the Byzantine Empire.

Under the "Law" Illarion notes the Old Testament, given to the Jews, not suitable for the Russian people. God gives a New Covenant called "Grace". Illarion writes that, as Emperor Constantine is revered in Byzantium, the Russian people also respect Prince Vladimir the Red Sun, who baptized Russia.

Tale

Having considered the main genres of ancient Russian literature, we will also pay attention to the stories. These are the lyrics epic look narrating about military exploits, princes, their deeds. Examples of such works are:

• "The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky";
• "The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu Khan";
• The Tale of the Battle on the Kalka River.

The most common genre in ancient Russian literature was the genre of the military story. were published various lists works related to him. Many historians paid attention to the analysis of stories: D. S. Likhachev, A. S. Orlova, N. A. Meshchersky. Despite the fact that traditionally the genre of the military story was considered the secular literature of Ancient Russia, it inalienably belongs to the circle of church literature.

The versatility of the themes of such works is explained by the combination of the heritage of the pagan past with the new Christian worldview. These elements give rise to a new perception of a military feat that combines heroic and worldly traditions. Among the sources that influenced the formation of this genre at the beginning of the 11th century, experts single out translated works: “Alexandria”, “Deed of Devgen”.

N. A. Meshchersky, engaged in a deep study of this literary monument, believed that to the maximum extent "History" had an impact on the formation of the military story of Ancient Russia. He confirms his opinion with a significant number of quotations used in various ancient Russian literary works: "The Life of Alexander Nevsky", the Kyiv and Galicia-Volyn chronicles.

Historians admit that military epics were also used in the formation of this genre.

The warrior was endowed with courageous valor and holiness. The idea of ​​it is similar to the description epic hero. The essence of the military feat has changed, the desire for death for great faith comes first.

A separate role was assigned to the princely service. The desire for self-realization passes into humble self-sacrifice. The implementation of this category is carried out in connection with the verbal and ritual forms of culture.

chronicle

It is a story about historical events. Chronicle is considered one of the first genres of ancient Russian literature. In Ancient Russia, it played a special role, because it not only reported on some historical event, but was also a legal and political document, it was a confirmation of how to behave in certain situations. The Tale of Bygone Years, which has come down to us in the 16th century, is considered to be the most ancient chronicle. She talks about the origin Kyiv princes, about the emergence of the ancient Russian state.

Chronicles are considered "unifying genres", which subjugate the following components: military, historical story, the life of a saint, words of praise, teachings.

Chronograph

These are texts that contain detailed description time of the XV-XVI centuries. One of the first such works historians consider "Chronograph according to the great presentation." This work has not reached our time in full, so information about it is rather contradictory.

In addition to those genres of ancient Russian literature that are listed in the article, there were many other directions, each of which had its own distinctive characteristics. The variety of genres is a direct confirmation of the versatility and originality literary works created in Ancient Russia.

Let's start with the fact that they appeared along with the adoption of Christianity in Russia. The intensity of its distribution is indisputable evidence that the emergence of writing was caused by the needs of the state.

History of appearance

Writing was used in various spheres of public and state life, in the legal sphere, international and domestic relations.

After the emergence of writing, the activities of scribes and translators were stimulated, and various genres of ancient Russian literature began to develop.

It served the needs and needs of the church, consisted of solemn words, life, teachings. Secular literature appeared in Ancient Russia, chronicles began to be kept.

In the minds of the people of this period, literature was considered together with Christianization.

Old Russian writers: chroniclers, hagiographers, authors of solemn phrases, they all mentioned the benefits of enlightenment. At the end of X - beginning of XI century. in Russia, a huge amount of work was carried out aimed at translating literary sources from the ancient Greek language. Thanks to such activities, the Old Russian scribes managed to get acquainted with many monuments of the Byzantine period over two centuries, and on their basis create various genres of Old Russian literature. D.S. Likhachev, analyzing the history of the introduction of Russia to the books of Bulgaria and Byzantium, singled out two characteristic features of such a process.

He confirmed the existence of literary monuments that became common to Serbia, Bulgaria, Byzantium, Russia.

Such intermediary literature included liturgical books, sacred writings, chronicles, works of church writers, and natural science materials. In addition, this list included some monuments of historical narration, for example, "The Romance of Alexander the Great."

Most of the ancient Bulgarian literature, the Slavic intermediary, was a translation from the Greek language, as well as works of early Christian literature written in the 3rd-7th centuries.

It is impossible to mechanically subdivide ancient Slavic literature into translated and original, they are organically connected parts of a single organism.

Reading other people's books in Ancient Russia is evidence of the secondary nature of national culture in the field of artistic expression. At first, among the written monuments there were a sufficient number of non-literary texts: works on theology, history, and ethics.

Folklore works became the main type of verbal art. To understand the originality and originality of Russian literature, it is enough to familiarize yourself with works that are “outside the genre systems”: Vladimir Monomakh’s “Instruction”, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, “Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik.

Primary genres

The genres of ancient Russian literature include such works that have become building material for other areas. They include:

• teachings;
• stories;
• word;
• life.

Such genres of works of Old Russian literature include annalistic story, weather record, church legend, and chronicle legend.

life

It was borrowed from Byzantium. Life as a genre of ancient Russian literature has become one of the most beloved and widespread. Life was considered an obligatory attribute when a person was ranked among the saints, that is, they were canonized. It was created by people who directly communicate with a person, able to reliably tell about the bright moments of his life. The text was composed after the death of the one about whom it was said. He performed an essential educational function, since the life of the saint was perceived as a standard (model) of a righteous existence, imitated by him.

Life helped people overcome the fear of death, the idea of ​​the immortality of the human soul was preached.

Canons of life

Analyzing the features of the genres of ancient Russian literature, we note that the canons according to which the life was created remained unchanged until the 16th century. First, the origin of the hero was discussed, then a place was given to a detailed story about his righteous life, about the absence of fear of death. The description ended with a glorification.

Arguing over which genres of ancient Russian literature considered the most interesting, we note that it was the life that made it possible to describe the existence of the holy princes Gleb and Boris.

Old Russian eloquence

Answering the question about what genres existed in ancient Russian literature, we note that eloquence was in three versions:

• political;
• didactic;
• solemn.

teaching

The system of genres of ancient Russian literature distinguished him as a variety of ancient Russian eloquence. In teaching, the chroniclers tried to single out a standard of behavior for all ancient Russian people: a commoner, a prince. The most striking example of this genre is the Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh from The Tale of Bygone Years, dated 1096. At that time, disputes for the throne between the princes reached their maximum intensity. In his lecture, Vladimir Monomakh gives recommendations on how to organize his life. He offers to seek the salvation of the soul in seclusion, calls to help people in need, to serve God.

Monomakh confirms the need for prayer before a military campaign with an example from his own life. He proposes to build social relations in harmony with nature.

Sermon

Analyzing the main genres of ancient Russian literature, we emphasize that this oratorical church genre, which has a peculiar theory, was involved in historical and literary study only in the form that was indicative of the era at some stages.

The sermon called "fathers of the church" Basil the Great, Augustine the Blessed, John Chrysostom, Gregory the Dialogist. Luther's sermons are recognized as an integral part of the study of the formation of New German prose, and the statements of Bourdalou, Bossuet, and other speakers of the 17th century are the most important examples of the prose style of French classicism. The role of sermons in medieval Russian literature is high; they confirm the originality of the genres of ancient Russian literature.

Historians consider the “Words” of Metropolitan Hilarion and Kirill Turvosky to be examples of Russian old pre-Mongolian sermons, which give a complete picture of the creation of the composition and elements of the artistic style. They skillfully used Byzantine sources, based on them they created quite good works of their own. They use a sufficient amount of antitheses, comparisons, personifications of abstract concepts, allegory, rhetorical fragments, dramatic presentation, dialogues, partial landscapes.

The following examples of a sermon, designed in an unusual stylistic design, are considered by professionals to be the "Words" of Serapion Vladimirsky, the "Words" of Maxim the Greek. The heyday of the practice and theory of preaching art came in the 18th century, they dealt with the struggle between Ukraine and Poland.

Word

Analyzing the main genres of Old Russian literature, we will pay special attention to the word. It is a kind of genre of ancient Russian eloquence. As an example of its political variability, let's call The Tale of Igor's Campaign. This work of many historians causes serious controversy.

The historical genre of ancient Russian literature, to which The Tale of Igor's Campaign can be attributed, is striking in its unusual methods and artistic means.

In this work, the chronological traditional version of the narrative is violated. The author is first transferred to the past, then mentions the present, uses lyrical digressions that make it possible to enter various episodes: Yaroslavna's lament, Svyatoslav's dream.

The "Word" contains various elements of oral traditional folk art, symbols. It contains epics, fairy tales, and there is also a political background: the Russian princes united in the fight against a common enemy.

"The Tale of Igor's Campaign" is one of the books that reflect the early feudal epic. It is on a par with other works:

• "Song of the Nibelungs";
• "The Knight in the Panther's Skin";
• "David of Sasun".

These works are considered one-stage, belong to the same stage of folklore and literary formation.

The Lay combines two folklore genres: lamentation and glory. Through the whole work there is a lamentation of dramatic events, the glorification of the princes.

Similar techniques are typical for other works of Ancient Russia. For example, "The Word about the destruction of the Russian land" is a combination of the lamentation of the dying Russian land with the glory of the mighty past.

The Sermon on Law and Grace, authored by Metropolitan Hilarion, serves as a solemn variation of ancient Russian eloquence. This work appeared at the beginning of the 11th century. The reason for writing was the completion of the construction of military fortifications in Kyiv. The work contains the idea of ​​the complete independence of Russia from the Byzantine Empire.

Under the "Law" Illarion notes the Old Testament, given to the Jews, not suitable for the Russian people. God gives a New Covenant called "Grace". Illarion writes that, as Emperor Constantine is revered in Byzantium, the Russian people also respect Prince Vladimir the Red Sun, who baptized Russia.

Tale

Having considered the main genres of ancient Russian literature, we will also pay attention to the stories. These are texts of an epic type, telling about military exploits, princes, and their deeds. Examples of such works are:

• "The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky";
• "The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu Khan";
• The Tale of the Battle on the Kalka River.

The most common genre in ancient Russian literature was the genre of the military story. Various lists of works relating to him have been published. Many historians paid attention to the analysis of stories: D. S. Likhachev, A. S. Orlova, N. A. Meshchersky. Despite the fact that traditionally the genre of the military story was considered the secular literature of Ancient Russia, it inalienably belongs to the circle of church literature.

The versatility of the themes of such works is explained by the combination of the heritage of the pagan past with the new Christian worldview. These elements give rise to a new perception of a military feat that combines heroic and worldly traditions. Among the sources that influenced the formation of this genre at the beginning of the 11th century, experts single out translated works: “Alexandria”, “Deed of Devgen”.

N. A. Meshchersky, who is engaged in a deep study of this literary monument, believed that the “History” had an influence on the formation of the military story of Ancient Russia to the maximum extent. He confirms his opinion with a significant number of quotations used in various ancient Russian literary works: "The Life of Alexander Nevsky", the Kyiv and Galicia-Volyn chronicles.

Historians admit that Icelandic sagas and military epics were used in the formation of this genre.

The warrior was endowed with courageous valor and holiness. The idea of ​​him is similar to the description of the epic hero. The essence of the military feat has changed, the desire for death for great faith comes first.

A separate role was assigned to the princely service. The desire for self-realization passes into humble self-sacrifice. The implementation of this category is carried out in connection with the verbal and ritual forms of culture.

chronicle

It is a kind of narration about historical events. Chronicle is considered one of the first genres of ancient Russian literature. In Ancient Russia, it played a special role, because it not only reported on some historical event, but was also a legal and political document, it was a confirmation of how to behave in certain situations. The Tale of Bygone Years, which has come down to us in the Ipatiev Chronicle of the 16th century, is considered to be the oldest chronicle. It tells about the origin of the Kyiv princes, about the emergence of the ancient Russian state.

Chronicles are considered "unifying genres", which subjugate the following components: a military, historical story, the life of a saint, laudatory words, teachings.

Chronograph

These are texts that contain a detailed description of the time of the XV-XVI centuries. One of the first such works is considered by historians to be the Chronograph according to the Great Presentation. This work has not reached our time in full, so information about it is rather contradictory.

In addition to those genres of ancient Russian literature that are listed in the article, there were many other directions, each of which had its own distinctive characteristics. The variety of genres is a direct confirmation of the versatility and originality of literary works created in Ancient Russia.

Genres of Old Russian Literature A genre is a historically established type of literary work, an abstract model, on the basis of which the texts of specific literary works are created. The system of genres in the literature of Ancient Russia was significantly different from the modern one. Old Russian literature developed largely under the influence of Byzantine literature and borrowed from it a system of genres, reworking them on a national basis: the specificity of the genres of Old Russian literature lies in their connection with traditional Russian folk art. Genres of Old Russian literature are usually divided into primary and unifying. Primary genres These genres are called primary because they served as building material for unifying genres. Primary genres: Life Word Instruction Tale The weather record, chronicle story, chronicle legend and church legend are also referred to primary genres. Life The genre of life was borrowed from Byzantium. This is the most widespread and favorite genre of Old Russian literature. Life was an indispensable attribute when a person was canonized, i.e. were considered saints. Life was created by people who directly communicated with a person or could reliably testify to his life. Life was always created after the death of a person. It performed a huge educational function, because the life of the saint was perceived as an example of a righteous life, which must be imitated. In addition, life deprived a person of the fear of death, preaching the idea of ​​the immortality of the human soul. Life was built according to certain canons, from which they did not depart until the 15th-16th centuries. Canons of life The pious origin of the hero of life, whose parents must have been righteous. The saint's parents often begged God. A saint was born a saint, not made one. The saint was distinguished by an ascetic way of life, spent time in solitude and prayer. A mandatory attribute of life was a description of the miracles that occurred during the life of the saint and after his death. The saint was not afraid of death. The life ended with the glorification of the saint. One of the first works hagiographic genre in ancient Russian literature there was the life of the holy princes Boris and Gleb. Old Russian eloquence This genre was borrowed by Old Russian literature from Byzantium, where eloquence was a form of oratory. In ancient Russian literature, eloquence appeared in three varieties: Didactic (instructive) Political Solemn Instruction Instruction is a variety of the genre of ancient Russian eloquence. Teaching is a genre in which ancient Russian chroniclers tried to present a model of behavior for any ancient Russian man : both for the prince and for the commoner. The most striking example of this genre is the Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh included in The Tale of Bygone Years. In The Tale of Bygone Years, the Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh dates back to 1096. At this time, the strife between the princes in the battle for the throne reached its climax. In his teaching, Vladimir Monomakh gives advice on how to organize your life. He says that there is no need to seek the salvation of the soul in seclusion. It is necessary to serve God by helping those in need. Going to war, you should pray - God will definitely help. Monomakh confirms these words with an example from his life: he took part in many battles - and God kept him. Monomakh says that one should look at how the natural world works and try to arrange social relations along the lines of a harmonious world order. The teaching of Vladimir Monomakh is addressed to posterity. Word Word - is a kind of genre of ancient Russian eloquence. An example of the political variety of ancient Russian eloquence is the "Tale of Igor's Campaign". This work causes a lot of controversy about its authenticity. This is because the original text of The Tale of Igor's Campaign has not been preserved. It was destroyed by fire in 1812. Only copies have survived. Since that time, it has become fashionable to refute its authenticity. The word tells about the military campaign of Prince Igor against the Polovtsy, which took place in history in 1185. Researchers suggest that the author of the Tale of Igor's Campaign was one of the participants in the described campaign. Disputes about the authenticity of this work were conducted, in particular, because it is knocked out of the system of genres of ancient Russian literature by the unusualness of the artistic means and techniques used in it. The traditional chronological principle of narration is violated here: the author is transported to the past, then returns to the present (this was not typical for ancient Russian literature), the author makes lyrical digressions, insert episodes appear (Svyatoslav's dream, Yaroslavna's lament). There are a lot of elements of traditional oral folk art, symbols in the word. There is a clear influence of a fairy tale, an epic. The political background of the work is obvious: in the fight against a common enemy, the Russian princes must be united, disunity leads to death and defeat. Another example of political eloquence is the "Word about the destruction of the Russian land", which was created immediately after the Mongol-Tatars came to Russia. The author glorifies the bright past and mourns the present. An example of a solemn variety of ancient Russian eloquence is Metropolitan Hilarion's "Sermon on Law and Grace", which was created in the first third of the 11th century. The word was written by Metropolitan Hilarion on the occasion of the completion of the construction of military fortifications in Kyiv. The word carries the idea of ​​the political and military independence of Russia from Byzantium. Under the "Law" Illarion understands the Old Testament, which was given to the Jews, but it does not suit the Russian and other peoples. Therefore, God gave the New Testament, which is called "Grace." In Byzantium, Emperor Constantine is revered, who contributed to the spread and establishment of Christianity there. Illarion says that Prince Vladimir Krasno Solnyshko, who baptized Russia, is no worse than the Byzantine emperor and should also be revered by the Russian people. The case of Prince Vladimir is continued by Yaroslav the Wise. The main idea of ​​the "Word about Law and Grace" is that Russia is as good as Byzantium. The Tale The Tale is a text of an epic nature, telling about princes, about military exploits, about princely crimes. Examples of military stories are "The Tale of the Battle on the Kalka River", "The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu Khan", "The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky". Unifying genres The primary genres were part of the unifying genres, such as the chronicle, the chronograph, the cheti-menei, and the patericon. A chronicle is a narrative of historical events. This is the most ancient genre of ancient Russian literature. In Ancient Russia, the chronicle played a very important role, because. not only reported on the historical events of the past, but was also a political and legal document, testified to how to act in certain situations. The oldest chronicle is The Tale of Bygone Years, which has come down to us in the lists of the Laurentian Chronicle of the 14th century and the Ipatiev Chronicle of the 15th century. The chronicle tells about the origin of the Russians, about the genealogy of the Kyiv princes and about the emergence of the ancient Russian state. Chronograph - these are texts containing a description of the time of the 15th-16th centuries. Cheti-Minei (literally “reading by months”) is a collection of works about holy people. Patericon - a description of the life of the holy fathers. Separately, it should be said about the genre of apocrypha. Apocrypha - literally translated from ancient Greek as "hidden, secret." These are works of a religious-legendary nature. Apocrypha became especially widespread in the 13th-14th centuries, but the church did not recognize this genre and does not recognize it to this day. (Source - http://lerotto.com.ua/modules.php?name=Pages&pa=showpage&pid=151) *** Literature of ancient Russia General characteristics of the period Old Russian literature went through a long period of development, which is 7 centuries: from the 9th to the 15th centuries. Scientists associate the formation of ancient Russian literature with the adoption of Christianity in Russia in 988. This year is the starting point for the periodization of literature. It is authentically known that writing in Russia existed even before the adoption of Christianity. But very few monuments of pre-Christian writing have been found. According to the available monuments, it cannot be said that before the adoption of Christianity in Russia there was literature and books. Spreading Christian religion in Russia involved the study of Holy Scripture and Christian rites. To preach Christian canons, it was necessary to translate religious books from ancient Greek and Latin into a language that the Slavs understood. This language became the Old Church Slavonic language. Scientists talk about special status Old Church Slavonic. Old Church Slavonic is literary language all Slavs. It was not spoken, but only written and read books. The Old Church Slavonic language was created by the Christian preachers Cyril and Methodius on the basis of the Thessalonica dialect of the Old Bulgarian language specifically in order to make the canons of the Christian religion understandable to the Slavs and to preach these canons in the language of the Slavs. Books in the Old Slavonic language were copied in different territories inhabited by Slavs, where they spoke differently: in different dialects. Gradually, the features of the speech of the Slavs began to be reflected in the letter. So, on the basis of the Old Church Slavonic language, the Church Slavonic language arose, reflecting the features of speech Eastern Slavs , and then the ancient Russian man. Christian preachers arrived in Russia, who created schools. The schools taught reading, writing and the canons of Orthodox Christianity. Over time, a layer of people appeared in Russia who could read and write. They rewrote the holy scripture, translated it into the Old Slavonic language. Over time, these people began to write down the historical events that took place in Russia, make generalizations, use images of oral folk art, and evaluate the events and facts described. This is how the original ancient Russian literature gradually took shape. Old Russian literature was fundamentally different from what we are accustomed to understand as literature at the present time. Literature in ancient Russia was closely connected with the spread of the Christian religion and served as an instrument for preaching and strengthening Christianity in Russia. This determined a special attitude to the book as a sacred subject, and to reading as a sacred process of communion with God's Word. How were ancient Russian books written? Old Russian books were huge folios, the pages of which were made of cowhide. Books were bound into boards, which were covered with leather and decorated. Dressed cowhide was an expensive material that had to be saved. That is why ancient Russian books were written in a special way: there were no intervals between words in books. Naturally, reading such books was very difficult. In addition, many frequently used words were not written in full. For example, BG - God, BGTS - Mother of God, NB - sky. Above such words they put the sign "titla" - an abbreviation. Because of the high cost of the material, the books cost entire villages. Only wealthy princes could afford to have books. The book is a source of divine grace One of the differences between ancient Russian literature and modern literature is that ancient Russian books do not and could not have an author. In Ancient Russia, the concept of authorship did not exist at all, it appeared much later. It was believed that God leads the hand of the scribe. Man is only an intermediary through which God conveys His Word to people. Putting your name in a book was considered a great sin. Faith in this was strong, so for a long time no one dared to put their name in the books. But some could not resist and put an inconspicuous, but so important for them, inscription like "Az the multi-criminal (name) put his hand to it." Strong was the belief that the book had a miraculous effect on a person, giving him divine grace. Communicating with the book, the ancient Russian man believed that he was communicating with God. That is why it was customary to fast and pray for at least a week before reading books. Historicism of Old Russian Literature Old Russian authors were aware of their special historical mission - the mission of witnesses of the times. They believed that they were obliged to record all the events that took place on their land in order to convey history to posterity through a book. In addition, the texts included many traditions, legends that had oral existence. So in ancient Russian texts, along with Christian saints, pagan deities are mentioned. This meant that Christianity existed in Russia with the original religion of the Slavs, which is usually called paganism, although the pagans themselves did not call themselves that. Folklore greatly enriched ancient Russian literature. There was no lyricism in ancient Russian literature. Ancient Russian literature, bearing an exclusively religious character, placed the preaching of the laws of Christian morality at the forefront. That is why it did not pay any attention privacy person. Maximum objectivity is one of the main canons of ancient Russian literature. Among the genres in ancient Russian literature, the lives of the saints, chronicles, chronographs, chapels, patericons, and apocrypha predominated. Old Russian literature was distinguished by religiosity and historicism. Many Old Russian books have not reached us: they were destroyed by fires, some were taken to Poland and Lithuania, and some were destroyed by the scribes themselves - the old inscriptions were washed away, and new ones were written on top. This was done in order to save expensive material from which the books were made.

life
The genre of life was borrowed from Byzantium. This is the most widespread and favorite genre of Old Russian literature. Life was an indispensable attribute when a person was canonized, i.e. were considered saints. Life was created by people who directly communicated with a person or could reliably testify to his life. Life was always created after the death of a person. It performed a huge educational function, because the life of the saint was perceived as an example of a righteous life, which must be imitated. In addition, life deprived a person of the fear of death, preaching the idea of ​​the immortality of the human soul. Life was built according to certain canons, from which they did not depart until the 15th-16th centuries. Primary genres
These genres are called primary because they served as building material for unifying genres. Primary genres:
life
Word
teaching
Tale

The primary genres also include the weather record, chronicle story, chronicle legend and church legend.
Canons of life
The pious origin of the hero of life, whose parents must have been righteous. The saint's parents often begged God.
A saint was born a saint, not made one.
The saint was distinguished by an ascetic way of life, spent time in solitude and prayer.
A mandatory attribute of life was a description of the miracles that occurred during the life of the saint and after his death.
The saint was not afraid of death.
The life ended with the glorification of the saint.
One of the first works of the hagiographical genre in ancient Russian literature was the life of the holy princes Boris and Gleb.
Old Russian eloquence
This genre was borrowed by ancient Russian literature from Byzantium, where eloquence was a form of oratory. In ancient Russian literature, eloquence appeared in three varieties:
Didactic (instructive)
Political
Solemn
teaching
teaching - a kind of genre of ancient Russian eloquence. Teaching is a genre in which ancient Russian chroniclers tried to present a model of behavior for any ancient Russian person: both for a prince and for a commoner. The most striking example of this genre is the Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh included in The Tale of Bygone Years. In The Tale of Bygone Years, the Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh dates back to 1096. At this time, the strife between the princes in the battle for the throne reached its climax. In his teaching, Vladimir Monomakh gives advice on how to organize your life. He says that there is no need to seek the salvation of the soul in seclusion. It is necessary to serve God by helping those in need. Going to war, you should pray - God will definitely help. Monomakh confirms these words with an example from his life: he took part in many battles - and God kept him. Monomakh says that one should look at how the natural world works and try to arrange social relations along the lines of a harmonious world order. The teaching of Vladimir Monomakh is addressed to posterity.
Word
The word is a kind of genre of ancient Russian eloquence. An example of the political variety of ancient Russian eloquence is the "Tale of Igor's Campaign". This work causes a lot of controversy about its authenticity. This is because the original text of The Tale of Igor's Campaign has not been preserved. It was destroyed by fire in 1812. Only copies have survived. Since that time, it has become fashionable to refute its authenticity. The word tells about the military campaign of Prince Igor against the Polovtsy, which took place in history in 1185.
Tale
The story is a text of an epic nature, telling about princes, about military exploits, about princely crimes. Examples of military stories are "The Tale of the Battle on the Kalka River", "The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu Khan", "The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky".

Uniting genres
The primary genres acted as part of the unifying genres, such as the chronicle, the chronograph, the cheti-menei, and the patericon.

chronicle It is a story about historical events. This is the most ancient genre of ancient Russian literature. In Ancient Russia, the chronicle played a very important role, because. not only reported on the historical events of the past, but was also a political and legal document, testified to how to act in certain situations. The oldest chronicle is The Tale of Bygone Years, which has come down to us in the lists of the Laurentian Chronicle of the 14th century and the Ipatiev Chronicle of the 15th century. The chronicle tells about the origin of the Russians, about the genealogy of the Kyiv princes and about the emergence of the ancient Russian state.

Chronograph - these are texts containing a description of the time of the 15th-16th centuries.

Chet's Menaion (literally "reading by months") - a collection of works about holy people.

patericon - a description of the life of the holy fathers.

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A genre is a historically established type of literary work, an abstract model, on the basis of which the texts of specific literary works are created. The system of genres in the literature of Ancient Russia was significantly different from the modern one. Old Russian literature developed largely under the influence of Byzantine literature and borrowed from it a system of genres, reworking them on a national basis: the specificity of the genres of Old Russian literature lies in their connection with traditional Russian folk art. Genres of Old Russian literature are usually divided into primary and unifying.

Primary genres

These genres are called primary because they served as building material for unifying genres. Primary genres:

• life
• Word
• teaching
• Tale

The primary genres also include the weather record, chronicle story, chronicle legend and church legend.

life

The genre of life was borrowed from Byzantium. This is the most widespread and favorite genre of Old Russian literature. Life was an indispensable attribute when a person was canonized, i.e. were considered saints. Life was created by people who directly communicated with a person or could reliably testify to his life. Life was always created after the death of a person. It performed a huge educational function, because the life of the saint was perceived as an example of a righteous life, which must be imitated. In addition, life deprived a person of the fear of death, preaching the idea of ​​the immortality of the human soul. Life was built according to certain canons, from which they did not depart until the 15th-16th centuries.

Canons of life

• The pious origin of the hero of life, whose parents must have been righteous. The saint's parents often begged God.
• A saint was born a saint, not made one.
• The saint was distinguished by an ascetic way of life, spent time in solitude and prayer.
• A mandatory attribute of life was a description of the miracles that occurred during the life of the saint and after his death.
• The saint was not afraid of death.
• The life ended with the glorification of the saint.

One of the first works of the hagiographical genre in ancient Russian literature was the life of the holy princes Boris and Gleb.

Old Russian eloquence

This genre was borrowed by ancient Russian literature from Byzantium, where eloquence was a form of oratory. In ancient Russian literature, eloquence appeared in three varieties:

• Didactic (instructive)
• Political
• Solemn

teaching

Teaching is a kind of genre of ancient Russian eloquence. Teaching is a genre in which ancient Russian chroniclers tried to present a model of behavior for any ancient Russian person: both for a prince and for a commoner. The most striking example of this genre is the Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh included in The Tale of Bygone Years. In The Tale of Bygone Years, the Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh dates back to 1096. At this time, the strife between the princes in the battle for the throne reached its climax. In his teaching, Vladimir Monomakh gives advice on how to organize your life. He says that there is no need to seek the salvation of the soul in seclusion. It is necessary to serve God by helping those in need. Going to war, you should pray - God will definitely help. Monomakh confirms these words with an example from his life: he took part in many battles - and God kept him. Monomakh says that one should look at how the natural world works and try to arrange social relations along the lines of a harmonious world order. The teaching of Vladimir Monomakh is addressed to posterity.

Word

The word is a kind of genre of ancient Russian eloquence. An example of the political variety of ancient Russian eloquence is the "Tale of Igor's Campaign". This work causes a lot of controversy about its authenticity. This is because the original text of The Tale of Igor's Campaign has not been preserved. It was destroyed by fire in 1812. Only copies have survived. Since that time, it has become fashionable to refute its authenticity. The word tells about the military campaign of Prince Igor against the Polovtsy, which took place in history in 1185. Researchers suggest that the author of the Tale of Igor's Campaign was one of the participants in the described campaign. Disputes about the authenticity of this work were conducted, in particular, because it is knocked out of the system of genres of ancient Russian literature by the unusualness of the artistic means and techniques used in it. The traditional chronological principle of narration is violated here: the author is transported to the past, then returns to the present (this was not typical for ancient Russian literature), the author makes lyrical digressions, insert episodes appear (Svyatoslav's dream, Yaroslavna's lament). There are a lot of elements of traditional oral folk art, symbols in the word. There is a clear influence of a fairy tale, an epic. The political background of the work is obvious: in the fight against a common enemy, the Russian princes must be united, disunity leads to death and defeat.

Another example of political eloquence is the "Word about the destruction of the Russian land", which was created immediately after the Mongol-Tatars came to Russia. The author glorifies the bright past and mourns the present.

An example of a solemn variety of ancient Russian eloquence is Metropolitan Hilarion's "Sermon on Law and Grace", which was created in the first third of the 11th century. The word was written by Metropolitan Hilarion on the occasion of the completion of the construction of military fortifications in Kyiv. The word carries the idea of ​​the political and military independence of Russia from Byzantium. Under the "Law" Illarion understands the Old Testament, which was given to the Jews, but it does not suit the Russian and other peoples. Therefore, God gave the New Testament, which is called "Grace." In Byzantium, Emperor Constantine is revered, who contributed to the spread and establishment of Christianity there. Illarion says that Prince Vladimir Krasno Solnyshko, who baptized Russia, is no worse than the Byzantine emperor and should also be revered by the Russian people. The case of Prince Vladimir is continued by Yaroslav the Wise. The main idea of ​​the "Word about Law and Grace" is that Russia is as good as Byzantium.