Poussin paintings. Nicolas Poussin - French artist, founder of the "classicism" style

Nicolas Poussin (French Nicolas Poussin; in Italy he was called Niccolò Pussino (Italian Niccolò Pussino); 1594, Les Andelys, Normandy - November 19, 1665, Rome) - french artist, one of the founders of classicism painting. He spent a significant part of his active creative life in Rome, where he was from 1624 and enjoyed the patronage of Cardinal Francesco Barberini. Drawing the attention of King Louis XIII and Cardinal Richelieu, he was awarded the title of the first painter of the king. In 1640 he arrived in Paris, but could not adapt to the situation at the royal court and experienced a number of conflicts with leading French artists. In 1642, Poussin returned to Italy, where he lived until his death, fulfilling orders from the French royal court and a small group of enlightened collectors. He died and was buried in Rome.

Jacques Thuillier's 1994 catalog lists 224 paintings by Poussin whose attribution is beyond doubt, as well as 33 works whose authorship may be disputed. The artist's paintings are made on historical, mythological and biblical subjects, marked by strict rationalism of composition and choice. artistic means. Landscape became an important means of self-expression for him. One of the first artists, Poussin, appreciated the monumentality of the local color and theoretically substantiated the superiority of line over color. After his death, his statements became theoretical basis academicism and activities of the Royal Academy of Painting. His creative manner closely studied by Jacques-Louis David and Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres.
Throughout the 19th-20th centuries, assessments of Poussin's worldview and the interpretation of his work changed radically.

The most important primary source of the biography of Nicolas Poussin is the surviving correspondence - a total of 162 messages. 25 of them, written in Italian, were sent from Paris to Cassiano dal Pozzo - the artist's Roman patron - and dated from January 1, 1641 to September 18, 1642. Almost all other correspondence, from 1639 to the death of the artist in 1665, is a monument to his friendship with Paul Freard de Chantelou, court adviser and royal maitre d'. These letters are written in French and do not claim to be of a high literary style, being an important source of Poussin's daily activities. The correspondence with Dal Pozzo was first published in 1754 by Giovanni Bottari, but in a slightly revised form. The original letters are kept in the French national library. The publication of the artist's letters, issued by Didot in 1824, was called "falsified" by Poussin's biographer Paul Desjardins.

The first biographies of Poussin were published by his Roman friend Giovanni Pietro Bellori, who served as librarian to Queen Christina of Sweden, and André Felibien, who met the artist in Rome during his tenure as secretary of the French embassy (1647), and then as royal historiographer. Bellori's book Vite de "Pittori, Scaltori ed Architetti moderni was dedicated to Colbert and was published in 1672. Poussin's biography contains brief handwritten notes on the nature of his art, which were preserved in the manuscript in the library of Cardinal Massimi. Only in the middle of the 20th century did it become clear that "Remarks on painting", that is, the so-called "modes" of Poussin, are nothing more than extracts from ancient and Renaissance treatises. Vita di Pussino from Bellori's book was published on French only in 1903.

Félibien's Entretiens sur les vies et sur les ouvrages des plus excellents peintres anciens et modernes was published in 1685. Poussin is devoted to 136 pages in-quarto. According to P. Desjardins, this is “real hagiography”. The value of this work was given by five long letters published in its composition, including one addressed to Felibien himself. This biography of Poussin is also valuable in that it contained Felibien's personal memories of his appearance, manners and everyday habits. Felibien outlined the chronology of Poussin's work, based on the stories of his brother-in-law, Jean Duguet. However, both Bellori and Felibien were apologists for academic classicism. In addition, the Italian sought to prove the influence of the Italian academic school on Poussin.

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Not everyone can catch a bird of happiness by a multi-colored tail. And, alas, not everyone is destined to glorify their name as widely as it was possible for a talented person who had only a couple of brushes, a palette and a canvas in his arsenal. Nicolas Poussin- an outstanding French artist and one of the founding fathers who stood at the origins of classicism.

In 1594, in Normandy, near the town of Les Andelys, a boy was born who from childhood showed amazing success in drawing. Having reached the age of majority, Nikola went to the French capital to devote himself to the hard work of painting. In Paris, the young man's talent was spotted by the portrait painter Ferdinand Van Elle, who became Poussin's first teacher. After some time, the place of the teacher was taken by the painter Georges Lallement. This acquaintance brought Nicola a double benefit: in addition to the opportunity to hone his skills under the strict guidance of an eminent mentor, Poussin got access to the Louvre, where he copied paintings Italian artists the Renaissance.

By that time, the young artist's career was gaining momentum, and his head was spinning from the realization of what heights he could climb if he continued to work hard. Therefore, to improve his skills, Poussin went to Rome - a kind of Mecca for all artists of those years. Here the artist actively "nibbled on the granite of science", studying the works, and. Focusing on the great predecessors and communicating with contemporary artists, Poussin was actively engaged in antique and learned to measure the proportions of stone sculptures with fantastic accuracy.

The artist saw the source of his inspiration in poetry, theater, philosophical treatises and biblical topics. It was this cultural base that helped him covertly demonstrate the image of his contemporary era in his paintings. The hero of Nikola's works is an idealized person.

In Rome, Nicolas Poussin glorified his name, the authoritative master was entrusted with the painting of cathedrals, orders were made for canvases with classical or historical subjects. One of these was the painting "The Death of Germanicus", which is based on the work of the historian Tacitus. It was written in 1627, the artist depicted on it the last minutes of the life of the Roman commander.

The uniqueness of the canvas lies in the fact that it combined absolutely all the features of classicism, the beauty of which for Poussin was reflected in the proportionality of each part, the clarity of the composition and the sequence of actions.

After the "Death of Germanicus" and until 1629, the artist created several more paintings, among which the canvas "Descent from the Cross" occupies a special place.

In the painting, which is now in the Hermitage, Poussin paid great attention to the sad face of Mary, conveying the sorrow of the whole people for the deceased Savior. An ominous red background and a dark sky are symbols of the approaching hour of retribution for what has been done. But the snow-white clothes of Jesus Christ contrast even more strongly with the crimson background of the picture. The Savior's feet were mournfully embraced by innocent angels.

In the next few years, the master preferred mythological subjects. In a short time, the painting “Tancred and Erminia” was painted, which was based on the poem “The Liberated Jerusalem” by Torquatto Tasso and the painting “The Kingdom of Flora”, written under the influence of the works of Ovid.

Shortly after completing the work, at the invitation of Cardinal Richelieu, Nicolas Poussin returns to Paris to decorate the Louvre gallery. A year later, Louis XIII became interested in the artist's talent. Soon he made Poussin the first painter at court. The artist received the desired fame, and orders fell on him like from a cornucopia. But the sweet taste of Poussin's triumph was spoiled by envious gossipers from the artistic elite, who in 1642 forced Nicola to leave Paris and head back to Rome.

From that time until the end of his days, Poussin lived in Italy. This period became the most fruitful for the artist and rich in bright works, among which the cycle “The Seasons” occupies a special place.

The plot was based on the events described in the Old Testament, which the artist allegorically compared with the seasons, identifying each with the period of birth, growing up, aging and death. In one work, Poussin also showed the mountainous landscape of Canaan, famous for its fertility, and Abraham and Lot, who were gathering grapes, as a symbol of Divine generosity. And the artist depicted the end of a sinful life on last picture cycle, the appearance of which can amaze even the most persistent viewers.

AT last years Poussin actively painted landscapes and worked quickly in order to have time to finish the beginning of the picture. The artist did not have time to complete only the canvas "Apollo and Daphne".

Nicolas Poussin inscribed his name on a par with the glorious masters, on whose experience he once studied.

Almost all of his paintings are based on historical and mythological subjects. Master of chased, rhythmic composition. One of the first to appreciate the monumentality of the local color.

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Biography and creativity

Early years (1594-1616)

Nicolas Poussin was born on the farm of Villers near Les Andelys in Normandy. His father Jean comes from a family of a notary and a veteran of the army of King Henry IV; he gave his son a good education. His mother, Marie de Laisement, was the widow of a Vernon prosecutor and already had two daughters, Rene and Marie. There is no evidence of the artist's childhood, only the assumption that he studied with the Jesuits in Rouen, where he learned Latin.

There, in his homeland, Poussin also received his initial art education: in 1610 he studied with Quentin Varen (fr. Quentin Varin ‎; c. 1570-1634), who at that time was working on three canvases for the Andelisian Church of the Virgin Mary, and now decorating the church (fr. Collegiale Notre-Dame des Andelys‎) .

Around 1614-1615, after a trip to Poitou, he met in Paris with Alexandre Courtois (Alexandre Courtois), valet of the Dowager Queen Marie Medici, custodian of the royal art collections and library, Poussin got the opportunity to visit the Louvre and copy paintings by Italian artists there. Alexandre Courtois owned a collection of engravings from paintings by the Italians Raphael and Giulio Romano, which delighted Poussin. Once ill, Poussin spent some time with his parents before returning to Paris again.

Florence (1617-1618)

At the beginning of the 17th century, young foreigners flocked to Rome to get acquainted with the heritage of antiquity and the Renaissance. Poussin also makes a trip to Rome, but having reached Florence, he was forced to return to France.

Paris and Lyon (1618-1623)

In September 1618, Poussin lived on Saint-Germain-l'Auxerrois (fr. rue Saint-Germain-l "Auxerrois) with the goldsmith Jean Guillemen, who also dined. He moved out of address 9 June 1619. Around 1619-1620, Poussin creates the painting "St. Denis the Areopagite" (see Dionysius The Areopagite) for the Parisian church Saint-Germain-l'Auxerrois.

In 1622, Poussin again sets off on the road towards Rome, but stops in Lyon to fulfill an order: the Parisian Jesuit College instructed Poussin and other artists to write six large paintings on scenes from the life of St. Ignatius Loyola and St. Francis Xavier. Paintings executed in the a la détrempe technique have not survived. Poussin's work attracted the attention of the Italian poet and cavalier Marino, who lived in France, at the invitation of Marie Medici; 1569-1625). .

In 1623, probably commissioned by the Parisian Archbishop de Gondi (French Jean-François de Gondi ‎; 1584-1654), Poussin performed La Mort de la Vierge for the altar of the Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris. This canvas, which was considered lost in the 19th-20th centuries, was found in the church of the Belgian city of Sterrebeek. Cavalier Marino, with whom Poussin had a close friendship, returned to Italy in April 1623.

First long Italian period (1624-1640)

In 1624, already quite famous artist, Poussin went to Rome and, with the help of a friend, the cavalier Marino, became a member of the courts of the papal nephew, Cardinal Barberini and papal adviser Marcello Sacchetti ( Marcello Sacchetti). During this period, Poussin performed drawings and canvases on mythological themes. In Rome, the Cavalier Marino inspired Poussin with a love for the study of Italian poets, whose works provided the artist with abundant material for his compositions. He was influenced by Carracci, Domenichino, Raphael, Titian, Michelangelo, studied the treatises of Leonardo da Vinci and Albrecht Dürer, sketched and measured antique statues, studied anatomy and mathematics, which was reflected in paintings, mainly on the themes of ancient antiquity and mythology, which gave unsurpassed examples of geometrically accurate composition and thoughtful correlation of color groups.

In 1626, Poussin received his first commission from Cardinal Barberini: to paint the painting The Destruction of Jerusalem (not preserved). Later he painted the second version of this painting (1636-1638; Vienna, Museum of the History of Arts).

In 1627, Poussin painted The Death of Germanicus based on the plot of the ancient Roman historian Tacitus, which is considered the programmatic work of classicism; it shows the farewell of the legionnaires to the dying commander. The death of a hero is perceived as a tragedy public interest. The theme is interpreted in the spirit of the calm and severe heroism of the ancient narrative. The idea of ​​the picture is service to duty. The artist arranged figures and objects in a shallow space, dividing it into a series of plans. In this work, the main features of classicism were revealed: clarity of action, architectonicity, harmony of composition, opposition of groupings. The ideal of beauty in the eyes of Poussin consisted in the proportionality of the parts of the whole, in external order, harmony, clarity of composition, what would become characteristic features mature style of the master. One of the features creative method Poussin was rationalism, which was reflected not only in the plots, but also in the thoughtfulness of the composition. At this time, Poussin creates easel paintings mostly of medium size, but of high civic sound, which laid the foundations of classicism in European painting, poetic compositions on literary and mythological themes, marked by a sublime order of images, the emotionality of an intense, gently harmonized color "Inspiration of the poet", (Paris, Louvre), "Parnassus" , 1630-1635 (Prado, Madrid). The clear compositional rhythm prevailing in the works of Poussin in the 1630s is perceived as a reflection of a reasonable principle that gives greatness to the noble deeds of a person - “Saving Moses” (Louvre, Paris), “Moses purifying the waters of Merra”, “Madonna, who is St. James the Elder” (“Madonna on a Pillar”) (1629, Paris, Louvre).

In 1628-1629 the painter worked for the main temple catholic church- St. Peter's Cathedral; he was commissioned to paint The Torment of St. Erasmus" for the altar of the cathedral chapel with the reliquary of the saint.

In 1629-1630, Poussin created the remarkable in terms of power of expression and the most vitally truthful "Descent from the Cross" (St. Petersburg, Hermitage).

On September 1, 1630, Poussin married Anne-Marie Dughet, the sister of a French cook who lived in Rome and took care of Poussin during his illness.

In the period 1629-1633, the subject of Poussin's paintings changes: he rarely paints paintings on religious themes, referring to mythological and literary subjects: " Narcissus and Echo" (c. 1629, Paris, Louvre), " Selena and Endymion" (Detroit, Art Institute); and a cycle of paintings based on the poem by Torquatto Tasso "Liberated Jerusalem": "Rinaldo and Armida", 1625-1627, (The Pushkin Museum, Moscow); “Tancred and Erminia”, 1630s, (State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg).

Poussin was fond of the teachings of the ancient Stoic philosophers, who called for courage and dignity in the face of death. Thinking about death occupied important place in his work. The thought of the frailty of man and the problems of life and death formed the basis of an early version of the painting "The Arcadian Shepherds", about 1629-1630, (collection of the Duke of Devonshire, Chatsworth), to which he returned in the 50s (1650, Paris, Louvre). According to the plot of the picture, the inhabitants of Arcadia, where joy and peace reign, discover a tombstone with the inscription: "And I am in Arcadia." It is Death itself that speaks to the heroes and destroys their serene mood, forcing them to think about the inevitable future suffering. One of the women puts her hand on the shoulder of her neighbor, as if trying to help him come to terms with the thought of an inevitable end. However, despite the tragic content, the artist narrates about the collision of life and death calmly. The composition of the painting is simple and logical: the characters are grouped near the tombstone and linked by hand movements. The figures are painted using soft and expressive chiaroscuro, they are somewhat reminiscent of antique sculptures. In Poussin's painting, antique themes predominated. He imagined Ancient Greece as an ideally beautiful world inhabited by wise and perfect people. Even in the dramatic episodes of ancient history, he tried to see the triumph of love and supreme justice. On the canvas “Sleeping Venus" (c. 1630, Dresden, Art Gallery), the goddess of love is represented by an earthly woman, while remaining an unattainable ideal. One of the best works on the antique theme "The Kingdom of Flora" (1631, Dresden, Picture gallery), written based on the poems of Ovid, strikes with the beauty of the picturesque embodiment of ancient images. This is a poetic allegory of the origin of flowers, which depicts the heroes of ancient myths turned into flowers. In the picture, the artist collected the characters of Ovid's epic "Metamorphoses", which after death turned into flowers (Narcissus, Hyacinth and others). Dancing Flora is in the center, and the rest of the figures are arranged in a circle, their poses and gestures are subject to a single rhythm - thanks to this, the whole composition is permeated roundabout. Soft in color and gentle in mood, the landscape is written rather conventionally and looks more like a theatrical scenery. The connection of painting with theatrical art was natural for the artist of the 17th century - the heyday of the theater. The picture reveals an important thought for the master: the heroes who suffered and died untimely on earth found peace and joy in the magical garden of Flora, that is, from death, they are reborn new life, the cycle of nature. Soon another version of this painting was painted - Flora's Triumph (1631, Paris, Louvre).

In 1632, Poussin was elected a member of the Academy of St. Luke.

For several years (1636-1642) Poussin worked on the order of the Roman scientist and member of the Academy dei Lincei Cassiano dal Pozzo, a lover of antiquity and Christian archeology; for him, the painter painted a series of paintings about the seven sacraments ( Sept sacraments). Pozzo supported the French artist more than others as a patron of the arts. Some of the paintings were included in the collection of paintings of the Dukes of Rutlands.

Return to France (1640-1642)

The new superintendent of the royal buildings of France, François Sublet de Noyers (fr. François Sublet de Noyers ‎; 1589-1645; in office 1638-1645) surrounds himself with such specialists as Paul Flear de Chantelou (fr. Paul Fréart de Chantelou ‎; 1609-1694 ) and Roland Flear de Chambray (fr. Roland Fréart de Chambray ‎; 1606-1676), whom he instructs in every possible way to facilitate the return of Nicolas Poussin from Italy to Paris. For Flear de Chantleux, the artist executed the painting "Manna from Heaven", which later (1661) the king would acquire for his collection.

A few months later, Poussin nevertheless accepted the royal proposal - “nolens volens”, and arrived in Paris in December 1640. Poussin received the status of the first royal artist and, accordingly, the general direction of the erection of royal buildings, to the strong displeasure of the court painter Simon Vue.

Immediately upon Poussin's return to Paris in December 1640, Louis XIII commissions Poussin to depict the Eucharist on a large scale ( L'Institution de l'Eucharistie) for the altar of the royal chapel of Saint-Germain's Palace. At the same time, in the summer of 1641, Poussin draws the frontispiece for the edition of Biblia Sacra, where he depicts God overshadowing two figures: on the left - a feminine angel writing in a huge folio, looking at someone invisible, and on the right - completely veiled a figure (except for the toes) with a small Egyptian Sphinx in his hands.

From François Sublet de Noyer, an order is received for the painting “The Miracle of St. Francis Xavier" ( Le Miracle de saint Francois-Xavier) for the novitiate premises of the Jesuit College. The Christ in this image was criticized by Simon Vouet, who said that Jesus "looked more like a thundering Jupiter than a merciful God".

Second Italian period (1642-1665)

In 1642, Poussin returned to Rome, to his patrons: Cardinal Francesco Barberini and Academician Cassiano dal Pozzo, and lived there until his death. From now on, the artist works with only medium-sized formats ordered by great art lovers - dal Pozzo, Chantlou ( Freart de Chantelou), Pointeille ( Jean Pointel) or Serisier ( Serizier) .

Returning to Rome, Poussin completes work commissioned by Cassiano dal Pozzo on a series of paintings “The Seven Sacraments”, in which he revealed the deep philosophical meaning of Christian dogmas: “Landscape with”, “Landscape with a high road”, “Judgment of Solomon”, “Arcadian shepherds ”, the second self-portrait. The themes of his paintings of this period were the virtues and valor of rulers, biblical or ancient heroes. In his canvases, he showed perfect heroes, faithful to civic duty, selfless, generous, while demonstrating the absolute universal ideal of citizenship, patriotism, and spiritual greatness. Creating ideal images based on reality, he consciously corrected nature, taking the beautiful from it and discarding the ugly.

Around 1644, he paints the canvas "Baby Moses trampling on the crown of the pharaoh" ( Moïse enfant foulant aux pieds la couronne de pharaon), is the first of 23 destined for his Parisian friend and philanthropist Jean Pointel ( Jean Pointel). Biblical Moses occupies an important place in the works of the painter. For bibliophile Jacques Auguste de Thou ( Jacques-Auguste II de Thou; 1609-1677) working on The Crucifixion ( La Crucifixion), recognizing in correspondence the whole difficulty of this work, which brought him to a painful state.

In 1649 he created the painting "Moses cutting water from the rock" ( Le Frappement du rocher) for a friend and fellow artist Jacques Stella .

AT last period creativity (1650-1665) Poussin increasingly turned to the landscape, his characters were associated with literary, mythological subjects: "Landscape with Polyphemus" (Moscow, Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts). But their figures of mythical heroes are small and almost invisible among the huge mountains, clouds and trees. The characters of ancient mythology act here as a symbol of the spirituality of the world. The same idea is expressed by the composition of the landscape - simple, logical, orderly. Spatial plans are clearly separated in the paintings: the first plan is a plain, the second is giant trees, the third is mountains, sky or sea surface. The division into plans was also emphasized in color. This is how a system appeared, later called the “landscape tricolor”: in the painting of the first plan, yellow and brown colors predominate, in the second - warm and green, in the third - cold, and above all blue. But the artist was convinced that color is only a means to create volume and deep space; it should not distract the viewer's eye from the jewelry-accurate drawing and harmoniously organized composition. As a result, an image of an ideal world was born, arranged according to the higher laws of reason. Since the 1650s, ethical and philosophical pathos has been intensifying in Poussin's work. Turning to the plots of ancient history, likening the biblical and gospel characters to the heroes of classical antiquity, the artist achieved the fullness of the figurative sound, the clear harmony of the whole (“Rest on the Flight into Egypt”, 1658, Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg).

In the period 1660-1664, he creates a series of landscapes "The Four Seasons" with biblical scenes symbolizing the history of the world and mankind: "Spring", "Summer", "Autumn" and "Winter". Poussin's landscapes are multifaceted, the alternation of plans was emphasized by stripes of light and shadow, the illusion of space and depth gave them epic power and grandeur. As in historical paintings, the main characters are usually located in the foreground and are perceived as an inseparable part of the landscape. Having studied the landscapes of the Bologna school of painting and those who lived in Italy Dutch painters, Poussin created the so-called "heroic landscape", which, being arranged according to the rules of a balanced distribution of masses, with its pleasant and majestic forms, served for him as a stage for depicting an idyllic golden age. The landscapes of Poussin are imbued with a serious, melancholy mood. In the depiction of figures, he kept to the antiques, through which he determined the further path that the French school of painting followed after him. As a historical painter, Poussin had a deep knowledge of drawing and a gift for composition. In the drawing, he is distinguished by strict consistency of style and correctness.

The work of Poussin for the history of painting is difficult to overestimate: he is the founder of such a style of painting as classicism. French artists before him were traditionally familiar with the art of the Italian Renaissance. But they were inspired by the works of the masters of Italian mannerism, baroque, caravaggism. Poussin was the first French painter who embraced the tradition classical style Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael. Turning to the themes of ancient mythology, ancient history, the Bible, Poussin revealed the themes of his contemporary era. With his works, he brought up a perfect personality, showing and singing examples of high morality, civic prowess. The clarity, constancy and orderliness of Poussin's visual techniques, the ideological and moral orientation of his art later made his work a standard for the Academy of Painting and Sculpture of France, which took up the development of aesthetic norms, formal canons and generally binding rules artistic creativity(so-called "

Nicolas Poussin (fr. Nicolas Poussin, 1594, Les Andelys, Normandy - November 19, 1665, Rome) was a French artist who stood at the origins of classicism painting. For a long time he lived and worked in Rome. Almost all of his paintings are based on historical and mythological subjects. Master of chased, rhythmic composition. One of the first to appreciate the monumentality of the local color.

BIOGRAPHY OF THE ARTIST

Nicolas Poussin was born in 1594 in the Normandy town of Les Andelys. Already in his youth he received a good general education and at the same time began to study painting. At the age of 18 he went to Paris, where he continued his studies under the guidance of the famous portrait painter Van Elle at that time, and then with other masters. They helped him greatly to hone his technique - visiting the Louvre, where he copied the paintings of the Italians of the Renaissance.

During this period, Poussin gains some recognition. To further improve his skills, he went to Rome, which at that time was a Mecca for painters of all countries. Here he continued to hone his knowledge, studying treatises and, studying in detail and measuring the proportions antique sculptures by interacting with other artists. It was during this period that his work acquires the features of classicism, one of the pillars of which Nicolas Poussin is still considered to be.

The artist drew inspiration from the work of classical and contemporary poets, in theatrical performances, in philosophical treatises, in biblical topics. But even the canonical plots allowed him to depict the reality around him, filling the canvases with impeccably executed characteristic images, landscapes and plans. The skill and already established style of his own brought the artist recognition in Rome, he was invited to paint cathedrals, commissioned him to paint classical and historical plots. It is to this period that the program canvas “Death of Germanicus” belongs, which brought together all the features inherent in European classicism.

In 1639, at the invitation of Cardinal Richelieu, Poussin came to Paris again to decorate the Louvre Gallery. A year later, Louis XIII, impressed by the talent of the artist, appoints him as his first painter. Poussin was recognized at court, they began to vying with him to order paintings for their castles and galleries.

But the intrigues of the envious local artistic elite forced him to leave Paris again in 1642 and go to Rome. Here he lived until the end of his days, and the last years of his life, of course, became the most fruitful stage in ego creativity. Poussin at this time began to pay more attention to the image of the surrounding nature, spending a lot of time drawing from life. Undoubtedly, one of the best embodiments of this trend in his work was the cycle "The Seasons", completed shortly before his death.

Like other paintings by the painter, these canvases harmoniously combined naturalism and idealism, which throughout the entire creative life of Nicolas Poussin did not leave his works.

The artist died in the autumn of 1665 in Rome.

CREATION

Creativity Poussin for the history of painting is difficult to overestimate.

He is the founder of such a style of painting as classicism.

French artists before him were traditionally familiar with art Italian Renaissance. But they were inspired by the works of the masters of Italian mannerism, baroque, caravaggism. Poussin was the first French painter who adopted the tradition of the classical style and. Turning to the themes of ancient mythology, ancient history, the Bible, Poussin revealed the themes of his contemporary era. With his works, he brought up a perfect personality, showing and singing examples of high morality, civic prowess. The clarity, constancy and orderliness of Poussin's visual techniques, the ideological and moral orientation of his art later made his work a standard for the Academy of Painting and Sculpture of France, which took up the development of aesthetic norms, formal canons and obligatory rules of artistic creativity (the so-called "academism").

Poussin's quest has come a long way.

Already in one of his early paintings, The Death of Germanicus (1626-1628, Minneapolis, Institute of Arts), he turns to the techniques of classicism and anticipates many of his later works in the area of history painting. Germanicus - a courageous and valiant commander, the hope of the Romans - was poisoned by order of the suspicious and envious emperor Tiberius. The painting depicts Germanicus on his deathbed, surrounded by his family and loyal warriors. But not personal grief, but civic pathos - serving the motherland and duty - is figurative meaning this canvas. Germanicus, who is dying, takes an oath of allegiance and revenge from the Roman legionnaires, harsh, strong and full of dignity people. All actors are located like a relief.

Having embarked on the path of classicism, Poussin sometimes went beyond its borders. His paintings of the 1620s The Massacre of the Innocents (Chantilly, Condé Museum) and The Martyrdom of St. Erasmus (1628-1629, Vatican, Pinacoteca) are close to caravagism and baroque in their exaggeratedly dramatic interpretation of the situation and images, devoid of ideality. The tension of facial expressions and the swiftness of movement are distinguished by the expressive “Descent from the Cross” in the Hermitage (c. 1630) and “Lamentation” in the Munich Pinakothek (c. 1627). At the same time, the construction of both paintings, in which plastically tangible figures are included in the overall rhythm of the composition, is flawless. The color scheme is subject to a well-thought-out ratio of colorful spots. The Munich canvas is dominated by various shades gray, with which blue-blue and bright red tones are exquisitely contrasted.

Poussin rarely portrayed the suffering of Christ. The bulk of his works are connected with biblical, mythological and literary subjects.

The antique theme of his early works, in which the passion for color has affected, affirms the bright joy of life.

The figures of swarthy satyrs, charming nymphs, cheerful cupids are full of that soft and smooth movement, which the master called "body language". The painting “The Kingdom of Flora” (1631, Dresden, Art Gallery), inspired by the motives of Ovid’s Metamorphoses, depicts the heroes of ancient myths who, after their death, gave life to various flowers that adorned the fragrant kingdom of the goddess Flora. The death of Ajax throwing himself at the sword, the doom of the mortally wounded Adonis and Hyacinth, the suffering of the lovers Smila and Krokon do not overshadow the reigning jubilant mood. The blood flowing from Hyacinth's head turns into falling petals of wonderful blue flowers, a red carnation grows from Ajax's blood, Narcissus admires his reflection in a vase of water held by the nymph Echo.

Like a colorful living wreath, the characters of the picture surround the dancing goddess. The canvas of Poussin embodies the idea of ​​the immortality of nature, which gives life eternal renewal.

This life is brought to the heroes by the laughing goddess Flora, showering them with white flowers, and the radiant light of the god Helios, who makes his fiery run in golden clouds.

The theme of life and death runs through all of Poussin's work.

In the Kingdom of Flora, it acquired the character of a poetic allegory; in The Death of Germanicus, it was associated with ethical, heroic issues. In the paintings of the 1640s and later, this theme was saturated with philosophical depth. The myth of Arcadia, a country of serene happiness, was often embodied in art. But Poussin expressed in this idyllic plot the idea of ​​the transience of life and the inevitability of death. The artist depicted shepherds who unexpectedly discovered a tomb with the inscription "And I was in Arcadia ..." - a reminder of the fragility of life, of the coming end. In an early version (1628-1629, Chatsworth, the meeting of the Dukes of Devonshire), more emotional, full of movement and drama, the confusion of young shepherds is strongly expressed, who seemed to face death invading their bright world.

The image of nature as the personification of the highest harmony of being runs through all of Poussin's work. Walking in the vicinity of Rome, he studied the landscapes of the Roman Campagna with his usual inquisitiveness. His lively impressions are conveyed in wonderful landscape drawings from nature, full of freshness of perception and subtle lyricism. The picturesque landscapes of Poussin are devoid of this sense of immediacy, the ideal beginning is more pronounced in them.

Poussin's landscapes are imbued with a sense of the grandeur and grandeur of the world.

Heaping rocks, lush trees, crystal-clear lakes, cool springs flowing among stones and shady bushes are combined in a plastically whole, integral composition based on the alternation of spatial plans, each of which is located parallel to the plane of the canvas. The restrained range of colors is usually based on a combination of cold blue and bluish tones of the sky, water and warm brownish tones of soil and rocks.

The works of Poussin, saturated with deep thought, first of all conquer with the vital fullness of images. He was attracted to beauty human feelings, reflections on the fate of man, the theme of poetic creativity. Especially importance for the philosophical and artistic conception of Poussin had the theme of nature as the highest embodiment of reasonable and natural harmony.

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On a slightly different plane, the development of classicism painting took place, the founder and main representative of which was the greatest French artist of the 17th century. Nicholas Poussin.

The artistic theory of painting of classicism, based on the conclusions of Italian theorists and the statements of Poussin, which in the second half of the 17th century turned into a consistent doctrine, ideologically has much in common with the theory of classic literature and dramaturgy. It also highlights public beginning, the triumph of reason over feeling, the significance of ancient art as an indisputable model. According to Poussin, a work of art should remind a person "of the contemplation of virtue and wisdom, with the help of which he will be able to remain firm and unshakable before the blows of fate."

In accordance with these tasks, a system of artistic means was developed, which was used in the fine arts of classicism, and a strict regulation of genres. The leading genre was the so-called historical painting, which included compositions on historical, mythological and biblical subjects. A step below were a portrait and a landscape. household genre and still life in the painting of classicism were virtually absent.

But Poussin's lesser degree than French playwrights, attracted to the formulation of the problems of the social existence of a person, to the topic of civic duty. To a greater extent, he was attracted by the beauty of human feelings, reflections on the fate of a person, about his attitude to the world around him, the theme of poetic creativity. Particularly noteworthy is the importance of the theme of nature for the philosophical and artistic conception of Poussin. Nature, which Poussin perceived as the highest embodiment of rationality and beauty, is the living environment for his heroes, the arena of their action, an important, often dominant component in the figurative content of the picture.

For Poussin, ancient art was least of all the sum of canonical devices. Poussin caught the main thing in ancient art - its spirit, its vital basis, the organic unity of high artistic generalization and a sense of the fullness of being, figurative brightness and great social content.

Creativity Poussin falls on the first half of the century, marked by the rise of social and artistic life in France and active social struggle. Hence the general progressive orientation of his art, the richness of its content. A different situation developed in the last decades of the 17th century, during the period of the greatest intensification of absolutist oppression and the suppression of progressive phenomena of social thought, when centralization spread to artists united in the Royal Academy and forced to serve with their art the glorification of the monarchy. Under these conditions, their art lost its deep social content, and the weak, limited features of the classic method came to the fore.

And the artists of classicism and "painters real world"The advanced ideas of the era were close - a high idea of ​​​​the dignity of a person, the desire for an ethical assessment of his actions and a clear perception of the world, cleansed of all random. Because of this, both directions in painting, despite the differences between them, were in close contact with each other.

Poussin was born in 1594 near the town of Andely in Normandy into a poor military family. Very little is known about Poussin's youthful years and his early work. Perhaps his first teacher was the wandering artist Kanten Varen, who visited Andeli during these years, meeting with whom was of decisive importance for determining the artistic vocation of the young man. Following Varen, Poussin secretly leaves his native city and leaves for Paris. However, this trip does not bring him luck. Only a year later, he again enters the capital and spends several years there. Already in his youth, Poussin reveals a great sense of purpose and an indefatigable thirst for knowledge. He studies mathematics, anatomy, ancient literature, gets acquainted with the engravings of the works of Raphael and Giulio Romane.

In Paris, Poussin meets the fashionable Italian poet Cavalier Marino and illustrates his poem Adonis. These illustrations that have survived to this day are the only reliable works of Poussin of his early Parisian period. In 1624 the artist left for Italy and settled in Rome. Although Poussin was destined to live almost his entire life in Italy, he passionately loved his homeland and was closely associated with traditions French culture. He was alien to careerism and not inclined to seek easy success. His life in Rome was devoted to persistent and systematic work. Poussin sketched and measured antique statues, continued his studies in science, literature, studied the treatises of Alberti, Leonardo da Vinci and Dürer. He illustrated one of the lists of Leonardo's treatise; At present, this most valuable manuscript is in the Hermitage.

Creative searches of Poussin in the 1620s. were very difficult. The master went a long way to create his artistic method. ancient art and the artists of the Renaissance were for him the highest examples. Among the contemporary Bolognese masters, he appreciated the most strict of them - Domenichino. Having a negative attitude towards Caravaggio, Poussin nevertheless did not remain indifferent to his art.

During the 1620s Poussin, having already embarked on the path of classicism, often sharply went beyond it. His paintings such as The Massacre of the Innocents (Chantilly), The Martyrdom of St. Erasmus ”(1628, Vatican Pinakothek), marked by features of proximity to caravagism and baroque, a well-known reduced images, an exaggeratedly dramatic interpretation of the situation. The Hermitage Descent from the Cross (c. 1630) is unusual for Poussin in its heightened expression in conveying a feeling of heartbreaking grief. The drama of the situation here is enhanced by the emotional interpretation of the landscape: the action unfolds against a stormy sky with reflections of a red, ominous dawn. A different approach characterizes his works, made in the spirit of classicism.

The cult of reason is one of the main qualities of classicism, and therefore none of the great masters of the 17th century. the rational principle does not play such an essential role as in Poussin. The master himself said that the perception of a work of art requires concentrated deliberation and hard work of thought. Rationalism is reflected not only in Poussin's purposeful adherence to the ethical and artistic ideal, but also in the visual system he created. He built a theory of so-called modes, which he tried to follow in his work. By modus, Poussin meant a kind of figurative key, the sum of devices of figurative-emotional characteristics and compositional-pictorial solutions that most corresponded to the expression of a particular theme. These modes Poussin gave names coming from the Greek names of various modes musical order. So, for example, the theme of a moral feat is embodied by the artist in strict severe forms, united by Poussin in the concept of "Dorian mode", the themes of a dramatic nature - in the corresponding forms of the "Phrygian mode", joyful and idyllic themes - in the forms of "Ionian" and " Lydian" modes. The strong side of Poussin's works are the clearly expressed idea, clear logic, and a high degree of completeness of the idea achieved as a result of these artistic techniques. But at the same time, the subordination of art to certain stable norms, the introduction of rationalistic elements into it, also posed a great danger, since this could lead to the predominance of unshakable dogma, the deadening of the living creative process. This is exactly what all the academicians came to, following only the external methods of Poussin. Subsequently, this danger arose before Poussin himself.

Poussin. Death of Germanicus. 1626-1627 Minneapolis Institute of the Arts.

One of the characteristic examples of the ideological and artistic program of classicism is Poussin's composition The Death of Germanicus (1626/27; Minneapolis, Institute of Arts). Here, the very choice of the hero is indicative - a courageous and noble commander, the stronghold of the best hopes of the Romans, who was poisoned by order of the suspicious and envious emperor Tiberius. The painting depicts Germanicus on his deathbed, surrounded by his family and warriors devoted to him, overwhelmed by a general feeling of excitement and grief.

Very fruitful for Poussin's work was the passion for the art of Titian in the second half of the 1620s. The appeal to the Titian tradition contributed to the disclosure of the most vital aspects of Poussin's talent. The role of Titian's colorism was also great in the development of Poussin's pictorial talent.

Poussin. Kingdom of Flora. Fragment. OK. 1635 Dresden, Art Gallery.

In his Moscow painting "Rinaldo and Armida" (1625-1627), the plot of which is taken from Tasso's poem "Jerusalem Liberated", an episode from the legend of medieval chivalry is interpreted rather as a motif of ancient mythology. The sorceress Armida, having found the sleeping crusader knight Rinaldo, takes him to her magical gardens, and the horses of Armida, dragging her chariot through the clouds and barely restrained by beautiful girls, look like the horses of the sun god Helios (this motif is later often found in Poussin's paintings). The moral height of a person is determined for Poussin by the correspondence of his feelings and actions to the reasonable laws of nature. Therefore, the ideal of Poussin is a man living a single happy life with nature. The artist devoted such canvases of the 1620s-1630s to this theme, such as Apollo and Daphne (Munich, Pinakothek), Bacchanalia in the Louvre and the London National Gallery, The Kingdom of Flora (Dresden, Gallery). He resurrects the world of ancient myths, where swarthy satyrs, slender nymphs and cheerful cupids are depicted in unity with beautiful and joyful nature. Never later in the work of Poussin did such serene scenes appear, such lovely female images.

The construction of paintings, where plastically tangible figures are included in the overall rhythm of the composition, has clarity and completeness. The always clearly found movement of the figures is especially expressive, this, according to Poussin, “body language”. The color scheme, often saturated and rich, also obeys a well-thought-out rhythmic ratio of colorful spots.

In the 1620s created one of the most captivating images of Poussin - the Dresden "Sleeping Venus". The motif of this picture - the image of the goddess immersed in a dream surrounded by a beautiful landscape - goes back to the examples of the Venetian Renaissance. However, in this case, the artist took from the masters of the Renaissance not the ideality of the images, but their other essential quality - a huge vitality. In Poussin's painting, the very type of the goddess, a young girl with a face turned pink from sleep, with a slender graceful figure, is full of such naturalness and some special intimacy of feeling that this image seems to be snatched straight from life. In contrast to the serene peace of the sleeping goddess, thunderous tension is felt even more strongly. hot day. In the Dresden canvas, more clearly than anywhere else, the connection between Poussin and the colorism of Titian is palpable. In comparison with the general brownish, saturated dark gold tone of the picture, the shades of the naked body of the goddess stand out especially beautifully.

Poussin. Tancred and Erminia. 1630s Leningrad, Hermitage.

The Hermitage painting Tancred and Erminia (1630s) is devoted to the dramatic theme of the love of the Amazonian Erminia for the crusader knight Tancred. Its plot is also taken from Tasso's poem. AT desert area, on stony ground, Tancred, wounded in a duel, is stretched out. With caring tenderness, he is supported by his faithful friend Vafrin. Erminia, having just dismounted, rushes to her lover and with a quick swing of a sparkling sword cuts off a strand of her blond hair in order to bandage his wounds. Her face, her gaze riveted on Tancred, the swift movements of her slender figure are inspired by a great inner feeling. The emotional elation of the image of the heroine is emphasized by the color scheme of her clothes, where contrasts of steel-gray and deep blue tones sound with increased strength, and the general dramatic mood of the picture finds its echo in the landscape filled with the flaming brilliance of the evening dawn. The armor of Tancred and the sword of Erminia reflect in their reflections all this richness of colors.

Further emotional moment in Poussin's work it turns out to be more connected with the organizing principle of the mind. In the works of the mid-1630s. the artist achieves a harmonious balance between reason and feeling. Leading value acquires the image of a heroic, perfect man as the embodiment of moral greatness and spiritual strength.

An example of a deeply philosophical disclosure of the theme in the work of Poussin is given by two versions of the composition “The Arcadian Shepherds” (between 1632 and 1635, Chesworth, collection of the Duke of Devonshire, see illustrations and 1650, Louvre). The myth of Arcadia, a country of serene happiness, was often embodied in art. But Poussin in this idyllic plot expressed a deep idea of ​​the transience of life and the inevitability of death. He imagined the shepherds, who suddenly saw a tomb with the inscription "And I was in Arcadia ...". At the moment when a person is filled with a feeling of cloudless happiness, he seems to hear the voice of death - a reminder of the fragility of life, of the inevitable end.

Poussin. Arcadian shepherds. Between 1632 and 1635 Chasworth, collection of the Duke of Devonshire.

In the first, more emotional and dramatic London version, the confusion of the shepherds is more pronounced, as if suddenly faced with death that invaded their bright world. In the second, much later Louvre version, the faces of the heroes are not even clouded, they remain calm, perceiving death as a natural pattern. This idea is embodied with particular depth in the image of a beautiful young woman, whose appearance the artist gave the features of stoic wisdom.

Poussin. Poet's inspiration. Between 1635 and 1638 Paris, Louvre.

The Louvre painting "Inspiration of a Poet" is an example of how an abstract idea is embodied by Poussin in deep, powerful images. In essence, the plot of this work seems to border on allegory: we see a young poet crowned with a wreath in the presence of Apollo and the Muse, but least of all in this picture is allegorical dryness and far-fetchedness. The idea of ​​a picture - the birth of beauty in art, its triumph - is perceived not as an abstract, but as a concrete, figurative idea. Unlike common in the 17th century. allegorical compositions, the images of which are united externally and rhetorically, the Louvre painting is characterized by an internal unification of images by a common system of feelings, the idea of ​​the sublime beauty of creativity. The image of the beautiful muse in Poussin's painting brings to mind the most poetic female images in the art of classical Greece.

The compositional structure of the painting is in its way exemplary for classicism. It is distinguished by its great simplicity: the figure of Apollo is placed in the center, the figures of the muse and the poet are symmetrically located on both sides of it. But in this decision there is not the slightest dryness and artificiality; slight subtly found shifts, turns, movements of figures, a tree pushed aside, a flying cupid - all these techniques, without depriving the composition of clarity and balance, bring into it that sense of life that distinguishes this work from the conventionally schematic creations of academicians who imitated Poussin .

In the process of formation of the artistic and compositional concept of Poussin's paintings great importance had his wonderful drawings. These sepia sketches, made with exceptional breadth and boldness, based on the juxtaposition of spots of light and shadow, play a preparatory role in turning the idea of ​​​​the work into a complete pictorial whole. Lively and dynamic, they seem to reflect all the richness of the artist's creative imagination in his search for a compositional rhythm and an emotional key that correspond to the ideological concept.

Poussin. Bacchanalia. Picture. Italian pencil, bistre. 1630s-1640s Paris, Louvre.

In subsequent years, the harmonic unity of the best works of the 1630s. is gradually lost. In Poussin's painting, the features of abstractness and rationality are growing. The brewing crisis of creativity sharply intensifies during his trip to France.

The glory of Poussin reaches the French court. Having received an invitation to return to France, Poussin in every possible way delays the trip. Only a coldly imperative personal letter from King Louis XIII makes him submit. In the autumn of 1640, Poussin left for Paris. A trip to France brings the artist a lot of bitter disappointment. His art met with fierce resistance from the representatives of the decorative Baroque trend, headed by Simon Vouet, who worked at the court. A network of dirty intrigues and denunciations of "these animals" (as the artist called them in his letters) entangles Poussin, a man of impeccable reputation. The whole atmosphere of court life inspires him with squeamish disgust. The artist, according to him, needs to break out of the noose that he put on his neck in order to again engage in real art in the silence of his studio, because “if I stay in this country,” he writes, “I will have to turn into a dirty like others who are here." The royal court fails to attract a great artist. In the autumn of 1642, under the pretext of his wife's illness, Poussin leaves back for Italy, this time for good.

The work of Poussin in the 1640s marked by deep crisis. This crisis is explained not so much by the indicated facts of the artist's biography as, first of all, by the internal inconsistency of classicism itself. The living reality of that time was far from consistent with the ideals of rationality and civic virtue. The positive ethical program of classicism began to lose ground.

Working in Paris, Poussin could not completely abandon the tasks assigned to him as a court painter. The works of the Parisian period are of a cold, official character, they tangibly express the features of baroque art aimed at achieving an external effect (“Time saves Truth from Envy and Discord”, 1642, Lille, Museum; “The Miracle of St. Francis Xavier”, 1642, Louvre) . It was this kind of work that was subsequently perceived as a model by the artists of the academic camp, headed by Charles Le Brun.

But even in those works in which the master strictly adhered to the classicist artistic doctrine, he no longer reached the former depth and vitality of the images. Rationalism, normativity, the predominance of an abstract idea over feeling, the striving for ideality, characteristic of this system, receive a one-sidedly exaggerated expression in him. An example is the "Generosity of Scipio" Museum of Fine Arts. A. S. Pushkin (1643). Depicting the Roman commander Scipio Africanus, who renounced his rights to the captive Carthaginian princess and returned her to her fiancé, the artist glorifies the virtue of the wise commander. But in this case, the theme of the triumph of moral duty has received a cold, rhetorical incarnation, the images have lost their vitality and spirituality, the gestures are conditional, the depth of thought has been replaced by far-fetchedness. The figures seem frozen, the coloring is variegated, with a predominance of cold local colors, the painting style is distinguished by an unpleasant slickness. Similar features are characterized by those created in 1644-1648. paintings from the second cycle of the Seven Sacraments.

The crisis of the classical method affected primarily plot compositions Poussin. Already from the end of the 1640s. the highest achievements of the artist are manifested in other genres - in the portrait and in the landscape.

Poussin. Self-portrait. Fragment. 1650 Paris, Louvre

By 1650, one of the most significant works Poussin - his famous Louvre self-portrait. The artist for Poussin is first of all a thinker. In an era when the features of external representativeness were emphasized in the portrait, when the significance of the image was determined by the social distance separating the model from mere mortals, Poussin sees the value of a person in the strength of his intellect, in creative power. And in a self-portrait, the artist retains strict clarity compositional construction and clarity of linear and volumetric solutions. The depth of ideological content and remarkable completeness of Poussin's "Self-Portrait" significantly exceeds the works of French portrait painters and belongs to the best portraits European art of the 17th century.

Poussin's fascination with landscape is associated with change. his worldview. Undoubtedly, Poussin lost that integral idea of ​​a person, which was characteristic of his works of the 1620-1630s. Attempts to embody this idea in the plot compositions of the 1640s. led to failure. The figurative system of Poussin from the late 1640s. built on different principles. In the works of this time, the focus of the artist's attention is the image of nature. For Poussin, nature is the personification of the highest harmony of being. Man has lost his dominant position in it. He is perceived only as one of the many creations of nature, the laws of which he is forced to obey.

The picturesque landscapes of Poussin do not have the same sense of immediacy that is inherent in his drawings. In his paintings, the ideal, generalizing principle is more strongly expressed, and nature appears in them as the bearer of perfect beauty and grandeur. Saturated with great ideological and emotional content, Poussin's landscapes belong to the highest achievements of the 17th-century painting. the so-called heroic landscape.