Types of creativity. What are the types of creativity? Decorative and applied art: species specificity, features of the artistic language, main issues, terminology

DECORATIVE AND APPLIED ART, an art form, the creation of products that combine artistic and utilitarian functions. Works of arts and crafts are associated with the everyday needs of people, they form an integral part of the human environment. The basis and source of arts and crafts is folk art. The sphere of arts and crafts includes products of traditional arts and crafts, art industry and professional author's art. The term “applied art” originated in the 18th century in England and was applied mainly to the creation of household products (painting dishes, fabrics, weapon finishing). In the 20th century, the term “decorative and applied art” was approved in Russian art history as a designation for the section of decorative arts, which also includes theatrical and decorative art and design.

A specific feature of works of decorative and applied art is inseparable bond utilitarian and artistic, the unity of utility and beauty, function and decoration. Utility allows us to classify works of arts and crafts according to their practical purpose (tools, furniture, utensils, etc.); the function of an object clearly determines its constructive scheme. The quality that gives the object of decorative and applied art the status of a work of art is decorativeness. It is realized not only in decorating an object with some particular details (decor), but also in its general compositional and plastic structure. Decor has its own emotional expressiveness, rhythm, proportions; he is able to change form. The decor can be sculptural-relief, picturesque-painted, graphic-carved (see also Engraving); he uses both an ornament (including decorative inscriptions - hieroglyphs, calligraphy, Slavic script, etc., revealing the meaning of images), and various pictorial elements and motifs ("world tree", birds and animals, plants, etc.) in accordance with a certain decorative and stylistic system (see also Bukrany, Griffin, Rose, Sphinx). In the lamellar system of arts and crafts, there is the possibility of using the so-called pure form as an antithesis to any decor: it can manifest itself in the inherent beauty of the material, revealing its structural, plastic, color qualities, harmony of proportions, elegance of silhouette and contours.

Vessel. Painted ceramics. 3rd millennium BC. Yangshao (China). Museum of Decorative and Applied Arts (Vienna).

Another fundamental feature of arts and crafts is synthesis, which implies the combination of different types of creativity (painting, graphics, sculpture) and different materials in one work. Synthetic in its intrinsic nature, a work of arts and crafts is often involved in the synthesis of arts, in an ensemble of artistic objects, and may depend on architecture (furniture, decorative sculpture, panels, tapestry, carpet, etc.). As a result of this dependence, arts and crafts in all eras sensitively and clearly followed changes in style and fashion.

In arts and crafts, the image of a thing is determined by the relationship between its aesthetic form and functional purpose. On the one hand, there is the concept of the utilitarian and non-figurative nature of arts and crafts as “making things”: a purely practical task does not imply creating a full-fledged image (for example, the goal of pottery or basket weaving is not to depict things, but to create the thing itself). However, other examples (anthropomorphic ceramics, etc.), bearing a mimetic beginning, allow us to speak of imagery as the primary task of creativity in decorative and applied art, manifested primarily in associations and analogies (the shape of an object can resemble a flower bud, a drop, a figure of a person or an animal, a sea wave, etc.). The dualism of aesthetic and functional tasks determines the figurative specificity of arts and crafts (limitation of the concreteness of images, the tendency to abandon chiaroscuro and perspective, the use of local colors, the flatness of images and silhouettes).

Decorative and applied art as a kind of artistic activity is associated with the manual labor of the master, which has become an independent branch of production. Further social division of labor leads to the replacement of handicraft production by machine production (manufactories, factories, plants); functional design and decoration become the work of different specialists. This is how the art industry arises, where the methods of “applied art” find their place - the decoration of products with painting, carving, inlay, embossing, etc.

The question of the ratio of manual and machine labor in the manufacture of objects of decorative and applied art was especially acute in the 2nd half of the 19th century, in the context of the problem of “depersonalization” (in the words of W. Morris) by the production of artistic crafts and theories of limited application popular in this era machines as prerequisites for the revival of national traditions. Contrasting folk handicrafts and mass production, Morris at the same time suggests ways of their synthesis, which allows creating a new type of arts and crafts. Design, which since the mid-19th century has become a new type of artistic activity in the field of industrial (mass) production, has limited arts and crafts mainly to the creation of small-circulation series of handicrafts (see also Production art).

Typology. Each field of arts and crafts has a wide variety of forms; their evolution is directly related to the development of technology, the discovery of new materials, the change in aesthetic ideas and fashion. Works of arts and crafts differ in functionality, form and material.

One of the oldest types of arts and crafts is tableware. Its forms varied depending on the material (wooden, metal, earthenware, porcelain, ceramic, glass, plastic) and purpose (ritual, domestic, dining, decorative; see also Artistic vessels). Decorative and applied art also includes: cult accessories (gonfalons, salaries, lampadas - in Christianity; Muslim vessels for ablution, prayer rugs "namazlyk", etc.; Judaic menorah candlesticks; Buddhist lotus thrones and temple incense burners); interior items (furniture, lighting fixtures, vases, mirrors, writing instruments, caskets, fans, snuff boxes, tiles, etc.); home craft utensils (spinning wheels, rollers, ruffles, rubels, spindles, etc.); works of glyptics; Jewelry Art; means of transportation (wagons, chariots, carriages, sledges, etc.); weapon; textiles (see also Batik, Embroidery, Lace, Heel, Weaving; textiles also include carpets, tapestries, tapestries, kilims, felt mats, etc.); clothes; partly - small plastic (primarily a toy).

The materials used in products of decorative and applied arts are just as diverse. The oldest are stone, wood, bone. Hard woods were used to build a dwelling, to make furniture, household products [pine, oak, walnut (in the art of the Renaissance), Karelian birch (in the era of Russian classicism and Empire), maple (especially in the modern era), mahogany, pear] ; soft varieties (for example, linden) - for the manufacture of dishes, spoons. From the 17th century, imported exotic woods began to be used in Europe.

Clay processing techniques such as freehand modeling, molding, were decisive in the creation of clay products on early stages. In the 3rd millennium BC, a potter's wheel appeared, allowing the manufacture of thin-walled dishes.

Ceramics (fired clay) includes terracotta (plain and lacquered), majolica, semi-faience, faience, opaque, porcelain, biscuit, the so-called stone mass. The main ways of decorating ceramics are moldings, burnishing, polishing, color painting, engraving, glazing, etc.

Fabrics have been widely used since the Neolithic era. Outstanding examples of decorative and applied arts are ancient Egyptian multi-colored linen fabrics, in the technique of batik heeling - Coptic; Chinese silk fabrics, Indian muslins, Venetian damask.

Masters of arts and crafts often used precious, semi-precious and colored semi-precious stones: diamonds, rubies, emeralds, sapphires, jade, lapis lazuli and carnelian, malachite, jasper, etc. (amber also belongs to ornamental materials). Among the various types of processing, cabochons (rounded stones) dominated for a long time, then faceted stones appeared. There are complex techniques - the so-called Florentine mosaic (images from marble and semi-precious stones), Russian mosaic (pasting the rounded surface of vases with plates of colored stones), etc.

Box with the image of the crucifix and angels. Wood, silver, enamel. 1st quarter of the 13th century. Limoges (France). Hermitage (St. Petersburg).

Among metals, precious (gold, silver, platinum), non-ferrous (copper, tin), alloys (bronze, electr, pewter), as well as steel, cast iron and aluminum are distinguished. Along with noble metals, almost all ancient civilizations processed copper, bronze, and later iron. Gold and silver were originally the main metals in arts and crafts, and their shortage was compensated various techniques(galvanic silvering and gilding; from the middle of the 19th century - electroplating). The main metalworking techniques are niello, granulation, chasing, shotting, artistic casting, artistic forging, basma (a type of jewelry technique that imitates chasing), embossing.

A special technique and at the same time a material is enamel, the oldest examples of which are found in China. Enamel, as a rule, was used as an integral part of complex works of decorative and applied art (for example, the technique of covering images engraved on metal with multi-colored transparent enamel or decorative painting with enamel paints).

Salary of the so-called Gospel from Lorsch. Ivory. 9th century Aachen. Victoria and Albert Museum (London).

According to its technological parameters, glass is divided into transparent and opaque, colorless and colored, etc. There are also original forms made of free-blown, blown glass (“winged” Venetian glasses), cut English crystal, pressed crystal (appeared in 1820 in the USA), colored laminated or milky glass, filigree glass, engraved, carved polished or with color. Glass processing techniques include interglass gilding, painting, millefiori, artistic etching, iridescence.

The birthplace of artistic varnishes is the Ancient East. In Europe they have been known since the 16th century; in the 17th century, Dutch craftsmen began to paint wooden boxes with gilded ornaments on a black background. Later, the production of painted varnishes arose in many countries. Lacquered papier-mâché products appeared in Europe in the 18th century and reached their peak of popularity in the 19th century, especially in England, Germany and Russia. In the 20th century, Russia became the main center of lacquer art (Fedoskino, Palekh, Kholuy and Mstyora).

The use of tortoiseshell and ivory began in antiquity; then their use was revived in European art in the Middle Ages and, especially, at the end of the 18th century (English and French snuff boxes and tea caddies, Kholmogory bone carving). Mother-of-pearl came into fashion in the 1st half of the 19th century for decorating papier-mâché and lacquer items, and finishing cutlery.

Historical essay. The first artistically processed objects appeared in the Paleolithic era. During the Neolithic period, pottery became widespread. AT different cultures vases are created with virtuoso graphic art solutions, expressive sacred and mythological plot, painted ceramics with ornamental and other motifs (for example, Chinese vessels of the Neolithic era, 5-3 millennium BC; ceramics from Susa, 4 millennium BC ; Trypillian ceramics, the end of the 3rd millennium BC).

The most ancient eastern civilizations in the development of arts and crafts reached the same high level as in the field of architecture and sculpture (artistic processing of stone, metal, wood, jewelry, ivory carving, etc.). Jewelers of Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia mastered various finest techniques for processing precious metals. Ancient Oriental art produced unsurpassed samples of polychrome glazed ceramics; in Egypt, faience products (based on silica) were produced - architectural details, sculpture, necklaces, bowls and goblets. The Egyptians (along with the Phoenicians) also made glass objects (around the 3rd millennium BC); the heyday of glass workshops, like other crafts, falls on the New Kingdom (vessels of various shapes made of blue or polychrome glass, etc.). Egyptian furniture was made from local ebony (ebony) wood and imported species (cedar, cypress), decorated with blue and black faience inserts, covered with gold leaf and inlaid with ivory and painting (some of its forms subsequently strongly influenced the European Empire style). In many parts of China, thin-walled vessels (cups, vases, jugs, and goblets) have been found that are distinguished by their stylistic originality, variety of shapes, and bizarre zoomorphic images. In India, the highly developed urban civilization of the Bronze Age left expressive objects household items, painted ceramics, fabrics discovered during excavations in Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. In Western Iran, in Luristan, a culture developed, represented by Luristan bronzes.

The originality of the arts and crafts of the Aegean world (see Aegean culture) influenced the art of other countries (Egypt of the New Kingdom, the Middle East) - jewelry, chased goblets and bowls, rhytons. The leading type of artistic craft is ceramics (polychrome with a stylized pattern, plant motifs, with images of marine animals and fish). Among the highest achievements in the history of decorative and applied arts is ancient Greek ceramics - first of all, red and black-figure lacquered vessels, where the form is organically connected with the plot painting and ornament, has a clear tectonics, richness of the rhythm of lines and proportions (see Vase painting). Ceramics and jewelry of Greek work were exported to many countries of the world, thanks to which the Greek artistic traditions were widely expanded. In the arts and crafts of the nomadic tribes of Asia and Europe, the Thracians, the Celts, and some Finno-Ugric tribes, various forms of the animal style developed; in the middle of the 1st millennium AD, its peculiar form appears among the Germans, the traditions of the animal style were preserved in medieval art.

The Etruscans, being under strong Greek influence, were able to create an equally distinctive culture with their "buccero" ceramics, painted terracotta, and jewelry. Their craving for demonstrative luxury embodied in objects of decorative and applied art was passed on to their successors - the ancient Romans. They borrowed from the Etruscans relief ceramics, decoration of fabrics, from the Greeks - forms and ornaments. In the Roman decor there is a lot of excessive, devoid of Greek taste: lush garlands, bucrania, griffins, winged cupids. In the era of the empire, vases made of semi-precious stones (agate, sardonyx, porphyry) came into fashion. The highest achievement of Roman arts and crafts was the invention of glass blowing (1st century BC), the production of transparent, mosaic, engraved, two-layer, imitating cameo, and gilded glass. Among the metal products are silver vessels (for example, the treasure from Hildesheim), bronze lamps (found during excavations of the city of Pompeii).

The stability of traditions distinguishes the Far Eastern and Indian cultures as a whole, where characteristic types and forms of decorative and applied arts were preserved in the medieval era (ceramics and varnishes in Japan, wood, metal and textile products in India, batik in Indonesia). China is characterized by stable images and traditions of stone-cutting, pottery and jewelry, a variety of materials: silk, paper, bronze, jade, ceramics (primarily the invention of porcelain), etc.

In ancient (pre-Columbian) America, there were several civilizations (Olmecs, Totonacs, Maya, Aztecs, Zapotecs, Incas, Chimu, Mochica, etc.), which had a high material culture. The main crafts were pottery, artistic processing of stone, including semi-precious rocks, using the original technique of turquoise mosaic on wood, textiles, and jewelry. Ceramics is one of the best achievements of ancient American art, unlike others that did not know the potter's wheel (burial urns of the Zapotecs, Toltec vases, Mixtec polychrome vases, vessels with engraved Maya ornaments, etc.).

Feature medieval art countries of the Middle East, North Africa (Maghrib) and areas of Europe inhabited by Arabs - a craving for colorfulness, for self-valuable decor, geometric ornament(with floral motifs stylized to abstraction, see Arabesque); in the decorative and applied arts of Iran, the pictorial tradition was also preserved. The main types of decorative and applied arts of the Muslim countries were ceramics, weaving, production of weapons and luxury goods. Ceramics (mainly ornamental, covered with a chandelier or polychrome painting on a white and colored background) was produced in Iraq (Samarra), Iran (Susa, Ray), medieval Egypt (Fustat), Syria (Rakka), Central Asia (Samarkand, Bukhara). Hispano-Moorish ceramics (faiences of Valencia) had a great influence on European arts and crafts of the 15th and 16th centuries. Blue-white Chinese porcelain influenced the ceramics of the Golden Horde, Iran, etc. In the 16th century, Turkish polychrome faience from Iznik flourished. Muslim culture also left many examples of artistic glass, metal (decorated with engraving, chasing, enamel), and weapons. The Islamic world has traditionally used carpets more than furniture; they were produced in many countries (in the Caucasus, India, Egypt, Turkey, Morocco, Spain, Central Asia); The leading place in carpet weaving belongs to Iran. In Egypt, they produced multi-colored woolen trellis fabrics, linen fabrics, and heels; in Syria, in Spain during the time of the Caliphate of Cordoba and Arab craftsmen in Sicily - silk, brocade; in Turkey (in Bursa) - velvet; in Iran (in Baghdad) - silk draperies; in Damascus - the so-called Damascus fabrics.

Byzantium became the heir to many artistic crafts of antiquity: glassmaking, mosaic art, bone carving, etc., and also masterfully mastered new ones - the technique of cloisonné enamel, etc. Cult objects and (under the influence of Eastern cultures) luxury items became widespread here; accordingly, the style of Byzantine arts and crafts was refined, decorative and opulent at the same time. The influence of this culture extended to the states of Europe (including Ancient Russia), as well as the Transcaucasus and the Middle East (in Russia, reminiscences of this influence were preserved until the Russian-Byzantine style of the 19th century).

In Europe, new forms of decorative and applied arts developed in the era of the "Carolingian Renaissance" under the influence of Byzantium and the countries Arab world. In the culture of the Romanesque era, monasteries and urban guild corporations play an important role: stone and wood carving, the manufacture of metal products, forged doors and household utensils were practiced. In Italy, where the traditions of late antiquity continued to be preserved, bone and stone carving, the art of mosaic and glyptics, and jewelry art developed; in all these areas the masters have achieved the highest perfection. Gothic inherited many crafts characteristic of that era; the features of the Gothic style were clearly manifested in ivory and silver products, in enamels, tapestries and furniture [including wedding chests (in Italy - cassone, decorated with carvings and paintings)].

In Ancient Russia, special achievements belonged to jewelry, wood and stone carving. The characteristic types of Russian furniture were caskets, tower-tables, case-cases, chests, tables. The authors of pictorial compositions in the form of " herbal pattern"there were icon painters -" bannermen ", they also painted chests, tables, boards for gingerbread cakes, chess, gilded chariots, etc.; the decorative "carving" of the 17th century was called "fryazh herbs". Utensils, dishes, tiles, religious objects were produced in the workshops of Kyiv, Novgorod, Ryazan, Moscow (Patriarchal workshops, the Silver Chamber, from the 2nd half of the 17th century - the Armory of the Moscow Kremlin), Yaroslavl, Kostroma, also in Kirillo-Belozersky, Spaso -Prilutsky, Sergiev Posad monasteries. From the 2nd half of the 17th century, the rapid development of folk crafts began in Russian decorative and applied arts (tile production, wood carving and painting, lace weaving and weaving, silversmithing and pottery).

In the Renaissance, artistic craft acquires a fundamentally authorial and predominantly secular character. New types of arts and crafts appear, genres and techniques forgotten since ancient times are being revived. The most significant changes are taking place in the production of furniture (wardrobes with a folding front board, a chest-bench with a back and armrests, etc.); the decor uses a classic order and a characteristic ornament - grotesques. Silk weaving of Genoa, Florence and Milan, Venetian glass, Italian majolica, glyptics, jewelry art (B. Cellini), artistic metalworking ["lobed style" in Dutch and German silver (Jamnitser family)], enamels, glass and French ceramics (production of Saint-Porcher; master B. Palissy).

The decorative and applied art of the Baroque era is characterized by a special pomp and dynamics of compositions, an organic connection between all elements and details (dishes and furniture), preference is given to voluminous, large forms. In the production of furniture (wardrobes, cabinets, chests of drawers, sideboards, etc.), polished wood, gilded bronze fittings and Florentine mosaics, inlay (laid bronze, marquetry using ebony, metal, mother-of-pearl, tortoise shell, etc.) were used. - in the products of the workshop of A. Sh. Bul). Tapestry manufactories of Europe were influenced by the Flemish carpet art (Brussels manufactories); Genoa and Venice were famous for their woolen fabrics and printed velvet. Delft faience arose in imitation of Chinese. In France, the production of soft porcelain, faience (Rouen, Moustier) and ceramics (Nevers), textiles (manufactory in Lyon), the manufacture of mirrors, and tapestries are developing.

In the Rococo era (18th century), fragile and sophisticated asymmetrical lines prevail in the forms and decorations of objects. In England, silverware (P. Lamery), candelabra, etc. are produced. In Germany, among metal products, magnificent rocaille forms (I. M. Dinglinger) are found. There are new forms of furniture - a bureau (desk-desk, bureau-boards and bureau-cylinder), different types tables, upholstered bergere armchair with closed back, 2-piece dressing table; pictorial panels, marquetry, inlay are used for decoration. New types of fabrics appear (moiré and chenille). In England, T. Chippendale made furniture in the Rococo style (chairs, tables and bookcases), using gothic and chinoiserie motifs. At the beginning of the 18th century, the first European porcelain manufactory was opened in Meissen (Saxony) (sculptor I. Kendler). The chinoiserie style penetrates both European porcelain (Meissen, Chantilly, Chelsea, Derby, etc.), and Russian (Imperial Porcelain Factory near St. Petersburg), as well as textiles, glass and furniture ((French varnishes of the Martin brothers). In the 1670s, a new composition of lead glass (the so-called English crystal) appeared in England; the technique of its production was widely spread in the Czech Republic, Germany, and France.

The arts and crafts of the classicism era of the 2nd half of the 18th century, later and the Empire, were influenced by archaeological excavations in the cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii (see Pompeian style). The style created by the Adam brothers (England), which affirmed the unity of external decor and interior decoration, breathed new life into arts and crafts, in particular, into furniture (works by J. Heplwhite, T. Sheraton, T. Hope, brothers Jacob, J. A Riziner), plastic jewelry (French gilded bronze by P.F. Tomir), artistic silver (cups and dishes by P. Storr), carpets and fabrics, jewelry art. Simplicity and clarity distinguish the glass decanters of the Cork Glass Company, baccarat vases, and crystal cascade chandeliers. In porcelain, by the end of the 18th century, Meissen was losing its status as the main European porcelain manufacturer to French Sevres porcelain, and outstanding samples were being created at factories in Vienna, St. Petersburg and Berlin. In England, the factory of J. Wedgwood "Etruria" appears, producing ceramics in imitation of antique cameos and vases. In Russia, many prominent architects were involved in the creation of works of decorative and applied art (A. N. Voronikhin and K. I. Rossi designed furniture and vases, M. F. Kazakov and N. A. Lvov designed chandeliers).

In the era of Biedermeier, works of arts and crafts reflected the desire for a comfortable life, which led to the appearance of comfortable simple furniture of rounded, unsophisticated forms from local types of wood (walnut, cherry, birch), elegant faceted glass jugs and glasses with elegant painting (works by A. Kotgasser and etc.). The period of eclecticism (mid-19th century) manifested itself in the stylistic diversity of the historical styles used, as well as in the unification of approaches and artistic techniques. The Neo-Rococo was inspired by the decor of 18th century art; in Russia, it manifested itself in the porcelain products of the A. G. Popov factory with its polychrome flower painting on a colored background. The revival of Gothic (Neo-Gothic) was due to the desire of artists to bring a romantically sublime style into decorative and applied art and only indirectly reproduced truly Gothic motifs; rather, elements of ornament were borrowed rather than forms of Gothic art (Bohemian glass by D. Biman, works in porcelain and glass for the palace of Nicholas I "Cottage" in Peterhof). The Victorian style in England was reflected in the creation of heavy furniture and the widespread use of its "small forms" (shelves, umbrella holders, gaming tables, etc.). Unglazed porcelain imitating marble became popular again. New types and techniques have appeared in glass (primarily in Bohemian glass) - laminated colored flash glass, cameo opaque and black (chialite) glass imitating litialyl gemstones. Since the mid-1840s, in France, at the glass factories of Baccarat, Saint-Louis and Clichy, and later in England, Bohemia and the USA, a new direction has appeared (the creation of millefiore paperweights, etc.). The fusion of elements of various styles determined the development of furniture and the emergence of new industrial technologies and materials: forms made of glued and bent wood (M. Thonet), papier-mâché, carved wood and cast iron.

The protest against eclecticism, initiated in the UK by the Arts and Crafts Society, contributed to the formation of the Art Nouveau style at the end of the 19th century; it has blurred the boundaries between decorative, applied and fine arts and has taken different forms in many countries. Art Nouveau decor is most often likened to ornamental motifs of natural forms; curved lines, wavy contours, asymmetric designs were widely used (furniture by V. Horta, L. Majorelle, E. Guimard, artistic laminated colored glass with floral and landscape motifs by E. Galle, O. Daum, L. Tiffany, jewelry by R. Lalique ). The artists of the Vienna Secession, like the Scot C. R. Mackintosh, on the contrary, used symmetry and restrained rectilinear forms. The works of J. Hoffmann, often made in collaboration with G. Klimt (furniture, glass, metal, jewelry), are distinguished by elegance and sophistication. In the European production of porcelain, the underglaze paintings of the Copenhagen Royal Manufactory occupied a leading position. In Russian modernity, in its national-romantic branch, the neo-Russian style manifested itself - especially in the activities of the Abramtsevo art circle (works by V. M. Vasnetsov, M. A. Vrubel, E. D. Polenova), the Talashkino workshop of Princess M. K. Tenisheva, workshops of the Stroganov School.

The latest history of arts and crafts begins not only with the revival of handicrafts (W. Morris and others), but also with the appearance at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries throughout Europe and in the USA of a new type creative activity- design and its further active development in the 1920s (Bauhaus, Vkhutemas). Art Deco design became the basis of almost all domestic interiors that cultivated understated luxury and comfort (geometric shapes, stylized and simplified ornamentation, exotically veneered rectilinear furniture, functional dinnerware and flower vases).

Russian art after 1917 developed on a new ideological and aesthetic basis.

Artists tried by means of art to convey the spirit of the era (the so-called propaganda porcelain), to create a complex rational environment for the general population. Since the late 1950s, in Soviet arts and crafts, along with the active development of the art industry (Leningrad porcelain factories, Verbilok, Dulevo porcelain factory, Konakovo faience factory, Leningrad glass factory, Gusevsky crystal factory, etc.) and folk crafts (Gzhel ceramics , Zhostovo painting, Skopinskaya ceramics, Dymkovo toy, etc.; see Artistic crafts), the author's art also reached a high level.

The development of arts and crafts in the 20th century is due to the coexistence and interpenetration of traditional and avant-garde principles. Subtle expressive possibilities of new materials, imitation and creative citation acquired great importance. In the era of postmodernism, a special attitude arises towards a decorative artifact as an autonomous entity that is demonstratively "not interested" in serving a person, alienated from him. As a result, this led to a "crisis of self-identification" of arts and crafts, caused by the emergence of competition from related arts (primarily design). However, this crisis paradoxically opens up new prospects for arts and crafts in terms of expanding and revising its own figurative specificity, mastering new genres and materials (ceramic plastics, fiberglass, textile plastics, mini-tapestry, mosaics in wooden frames, etc.).

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T. L. Astrakhantseva.

Arts and Crafts

Section of decorative arts; covers a number of branches of creativity that are devoted to the creation of artistic products intended mainly for everyday life. Works of decorative and applied art can be: various utensils, furniture, fabrics, tools, weapons, as well as other products that are not works of art according to their original purpose, but acquire artistic quality thanks to the application of the work of the artist to them; clothes, all kinds of jewelry. Along with the division of works of decorative and applied art according to their practical purpose in scientific literature from the second half of the 19th century. the classification of branches of decorative and applied arts was established according to material (metal, ceramics, textiles, wood, etc.) or according to the technique of execution (carving, painting, embroidery, printing, casting, embossing, intarsia, etc.). This classification is due to the important role of the constructive-technological principle in arts and crafts and its direct connection with production. Solving together, like architecture, practical and artistic tasks, decorative and applied art belongs simultaneously to the spheres of creation of both material and spiritual values. Works of decorative and applied art are inseparable from material culture contemporary epoch, are closely connected with the way of life that corresponds to it, with one or another of its local ethnic and national characteristics, social group and class differences. Composing an organic part of the subject environment with which a person comes into daily contact, works of arts and crafts with their aesthetic merits, figurative structure, character constantly affect the state of mind of a person, his mood, are an important source of emotions that affect his attitude to the world around him. Aesthetically saturating and transforming the environment surrounding a person, works of arts and crafts at the same time, as it were, are absorbed by it, as they are usually perceived in conjunction with its architectural and spatial solution, with other objects included in it or their complexes (service, furniture set , costume, jewelry set). Therefore, the ideological significance of works of arts and crafts can be most fully understood only with a clear idea (real or mentally recreated) of these relationships between the object, the environment and the person.

The architectonics of an object, determined by its purpose, design capabilities and plastic properties of the material, often plays a fundamental role in the composition of an artistic product. Often in the arts and crafts, the beauty of the material, proportional ratios parts, rhythmic structure serve as the only means of embodying the emotional-figurative content of the product (for example, glassware or other untinted materials without decor). Here, the special significance for arts and crafts of purely emotional, non-pictorial means of artistic language is clearly manifested, the use of which makes arts and crafts related to architecture. An emotionally meaningful image is often activated by an image-association (comparison of the shape of an item with a drop, a flower, a figure of a person, an animal, its individual elements, with some other item - a bell, a baluster, etc.). The decor, appearing on the product, also significantly affects its figurative structure. Often, it is thanks to its decor that a household item becomes a work of arts and crafts. Possessing its own emotional expressiveness, its own rhythm and proportions (often contrasting in relation to the form, as, for example, in the products of Khokhloma masters, where the modest, simple form of the object and the elegant, festive surface painting are different in their emotional sound), the decor visually modifies the form and at the same time merges with it in a single artistic image. In decorative and applied arts, ornament and elements (separately or in various combinations) of fine arts (sculpture, painting, less often graphics) are widely used to create decor. The means of fine arts and ornament serve in arts and crafts not only to create decor, but sometimes penetrate into the shape of an object (furniture details in the form of palmettes, volutes, animal paws, heads; vessels in the form of a flower, fruit, bird, animal, figure person). Sometimes an ornament or an image becomes the basis for the formation of products (lattice pattern, lace; weaving pattern of fabric, carpet). The need to harmonize the decor with the form, the image with the scale and nature of the product, with its practical and artistic purpose leads to the transformation of pictorial motifs, to the conventions of interpretation and combination of elements of nature (for example, the use of lion paw motifs, eagle wings and swan head motifs in the design of a table leg) .

In the unity of the artistic and utilitarian functions of the product, in the interpenetration of form and decor, fine and tectonic principles, the synthetic nature of decorative and applied art is manifested. Works of arts and crafts are designed for perception by sight and touch. Therefore, revealing the beauty of the texture and plastic properties of the material, the skillfulness and variety of methods of its processing acquire the significance of especially active means of aesthetic influence in the arts and crafts.

Having arisen at the earliest time in the development of human society, arts and crafts for many centuries was the most important, and for a number of tribes and nationalities, the main area of ​​artistic creativity. The oldest (belonging to the prehistoric era) works of decorative and applied art, covering the most wide circle ideas about the world and man, are characterized by exceptional content of images, attention to the aesthetics of the material and to the aesthetics of materialized labor, to the rational construction of the form, emphasized by the decor. This trend was sustained by the traditional folk art (cm. also Folk art crafts) up to the present day. But with the beginning of the class stratification of society in the stylistic evolution of decorative and applied art, its special branch begins to play a leading role, designed to serve the needs of the ruling social strata and meet their tastes and ideology. Gradually, interest in the richness of material and decor, in their rarity and sophistication, is becoming increasingly important. Products that serve the purposes of representativeness are singled out (items for cult rituals or court ceremonies, for decorating the houses of the nobility), in which, in order to increase their emotional sound, craftsmen often sacrifice the everyday expediency of building a form. However, until the middle of the XIX century. masters of decorative and applied arts preserve the integrity of plastic thinking and the clarity of the idea of ​​aesthetic connections between the object and the environment for which it is intended. Formation, evolution and change artistic styles in decorative and applied art proceeded synchronously with their evolution in other art forms. Eclectic trends in artistic culture second half of the 19th century lead to a gradual impoverishment of the aesthetic quality and emotional and figurative content of arts and crafts. The connection between decor and form is lost, an artistically designed object is replaced by a decorated one. The dominance of bad taste and the depersonalizing effect on arts and crafts of intensively developing mass machine production ( cm. Art industry) artists tried to contrast the unique items made according to their projects in the conditions of handicraft (workshops of W. Morris in the UK, the "Darmstadt artists' colony" in Germany) or factory (Werkbund) labor, to revive the emotional-figurative integrity and ideological content of the artistically meaningful environment ( cm. Modern). These attempts were developed on new ideological and aesthetic foundations after the October Revolution of 1917, which opened up prospects for creating an artistically content environment for the work and life of the broadest masses. Its ideas and goals inspired artists who saw art as one of the most effective means of revolutionary agitation (for example, the so-called propaganda porcelain of 1918-25). The task of creating a comprehensive furnishing of a worker's apartment, workers' dormitories, clubs, canteens, comfortable overalls, rational equipment of the workplace, designed for mass factory production, opened the way for creative searches for constructivists in the USSR, functionalists in Germany (from m. Bauhaus) and other countries, which largely preceded the appearance of design. The foreground in artistic creativity of the formal-technological side in the early 1920s. led to its absolutization, the identification of artistic creativity with the production of things, the denial of the role of decor in creating an artistic image of a work of arts and crafts. The revival of folk crafts in the USSR and awakened in the 30s. interest in the Russian artistic heritage played a prominent role in the development of a number of technological and artistic traditions of the past by Soviet masters of arts and crafts. However, the approach to works of arts and crafts with the standards of easel art, the pursuit of splendor of products, which made themselves felt especially strongly in the late 40s and early 50s, noticeably hampered the development of arts and crafts. Since the mid 50s. in the USSR, along with the search for functional and artistically expressive forms and decor for everyday household items produced in a factory way, artists are busy creating unique works in which the emotionality of the image is combined with a variety of processing techniques for the simplest materials, with the desire to reveal all the richness of their plastic and decorative possibilities . Such works (as well as elegant, unique works of folk arts and crafts due to their handicraft) are designed to serve as visual accents in artistic organized environment, formed mainly by less individualized in form, factory-made art products and objects that are created on the basis of design design.

About separate branches, varieties and types of technology of arts and crafts cm. articles Batik , Vase , Fan , Embroidery , Tapestry , Toy , Inlay , Intarsia , Ceramics , Carpet , Forging , Lace , Varnishes , Majolica , Marquetry , Furniture , Printing , Notch , Carving , Decorative painting , Glass , Terracotta , Embossing , Fabrics , Porcelain , Faience , Filigree , Crystal , Embossing , Niello , Tapestry , Enamels , Jewelry art .

Literature: D. Arkin, Art of everyday things, M., 1932; M. S. Kagan, On applied art, L., 1961; A. V. Saltykov, Selected Works, Moscow, 1962; A. K. Chekalov, Fundamentals of understanding arts and crafts, M., 1962; A. Moran, History of arts and crafts from ancient times to the present day, translated from French, M., 1982; Magne L. et H. M., L "art appliqué aux métiers, v. 1-8, P., 1913-28; Geschichte des Kunstgewerbes aller Zeiten und Völker, hrsg. Von H. Th. Bossert, Bd 1-6 , V., 1929-35; Marangoni G., Clementi A., Storia dell "arredamento, v. 1-3, Mil., 1951-52; Fleming J., Honor H., The Penguin dictionary of the decorative arts, L., 1977; Bunte Welt der Antiquitäten, Dresden, 1980; Lucie-Smith E., The story of craft, Ithaca (N. Y.), 1981.

(Source: Popular art encyclopedia." Ed. Field V.M.; M.: Publishing house "Soviet Encyclopedia", 1986.)

Creation of artistic products that have a practical purpose (household utensils, dishes, fabrics, toys, jewelry, etc.), as well as artistic processing of utilitarian items (furniture, clothing, weapons, etc.). Masters of arts and crafts use a wide variety of materials - metal (bronze, silver, gold, platinum, various alloys), wood, clay, glass, stone, textiles (natural and artificial fabrics), etc. Making products from clay is called ceramics, from precious metals and stones jewelry art.

In the process of creating art works from metal, casting, forging, chasing, engraving techniques are used; textiles are decorated with embroidery or prints (a painted wooden or copper board is applied to the fabric and hit with a special hammer, getting an imprint); wooden objects - carvings, inlays and colorful paintings. The painting of ceramic dishes is called vase painting.

Decorative and applied products should be, first of all, convenient to use and beautiful. They create an objective environment around a person, influencing his state of mind and mood. Works of decorative and applied art are designed for perception both by sight and touch, therefore, revealing the beauty of the texture and plastic properties of the material, the skillfulness of processing play the most important role in it. In the form of a vase, a toy, a piece of furniture, in the system of their decorations, the master seeks to reveal the transparency of glass, the plasticity of clay, the warmth of wood and the texture of its surface, the hardness of stone and the natural pattern of its veins. At the same time, the shape of the product can be both abstract and resemble a flower, a tree, a figure of a person or an animal.

In jewelry, various ornaments. Often it is the decor that turns a household item into a work of art (a Khokhloma bowl of a simple shape, painted with bright patterns on gold; a dress of a modest style, decorated with embroidery or lace). At the same time, it is very important that ornaments and figurative images do not contradict the shape of the product, but reveal it. So, in ancient Greek vases, patterned stripes separate the body (central part) from the stem and neck, the painting of the body emphasizes its bulge.

Decorative and applied art has existed since ancient times. Artistic products are closely related to the way of life and customs of a certain era, people or social group (nobles, peasants, etc.). Already primitive craftsmen decorated dishes with carvings and patterns, made primitive ornaments from animal fangs, shells and stones. These objects embodied the ideas of ancient people about beauty, about the structure of the world and about the place of man in it. The traditions of ancient art continue to live in folklore, in products handicrafts. In the future, utensils for the performance of sacred rites and luxury items are allocated, designed to emphasize the wealth and imperious power of their owners. Rare, precious materials and rich decor were used in these products. The development of industrial production in the 19th century. allowed to create works of arts and crafts for the mass consumer. At the same time, the idea, the sketch of the painting, the form for manufacturing, etc., belonged to big masters, and finished products were replicated by workers of factories and plants ( tapestries according to the sketches of famous masters, products porcelain factories etc.). The application of industrial technology marked the beginning of art design.

In modern art history, a certain system of classification of arts has developed, although it can also be called relative. According to this system, all types of art can be divided into three groups.

The first group: spatial or plastic arts: fine, arts and crafts, architecture, photography.

The second group: temporary or dynamic arts: music, literature.

The third group represents spatio-temporal types: choreography, literature, theatrical art, film art.

Decorative Arts (DI) like architecture, and the fine arts belong to the plastic arts. However, this is a special kind of artistic creativity, the goals of which differ from the goals of other types. plastic arts. Together with architecture, decorative art forms the material and spatial environment surrounding a person, introducing into it an aesthetic ideological and figurative beginning. DI includes:

• monumental and decorative art directly related to architecture (decorative reliefs, statues, murals, stained-glass windows, frescoes, mosaics in interiors and on facades, architectural decor, fountains, park sculpture, etc.)
• decorative and applied art (household items)
• decoration art (decoration of exhibitions, showcases, festivities)

1.Monumental and decorative art (MDI) is always associated with a certain architectural design and is considered as an ensemble phenomenon, as an indissoluble harmony of architecture, sculpture and painting. The material-spatial environment is an important structure for a person that is in contact with him. Aesthetics and functionality of an open space for the life and activities of people are one of the main tasks of MDI. Frescoes, mosaics, panels, stained-glass windows organically enter the architecture, complementing and enriching the decoration of the interior or the entire building. This is manifested in stylistic unity, in compositional construction, in accordance with the ideological and thematic design of the monumental work to the functional purpose and plastic image architectural structure.

Monumental and decorative art is a part of monumental art, which is characterized by realistic objects dedicated to important historical events and famous personalities. monumental sweapons are distinguished by their ideological, political or socially significant content, embodied in a large-scale, expressive majestic (or majestic) plastic form, they are created from durable materials. Architectonic and ornamental qualities and a desire for aestheticization are characteristic of MDI works. MDI solves problems on the decorative organization of various architectural elements, walls, facades and ceilings, landscape gardening ensembles or the landscape itself. And yet, it is difficult to draw a strict line between monumental art and monumentally decorative art. This is especially true for monumental painting. In some cases, monumental painting is integral integral part architectural ensemble, and in some cases it can be found as a decorating surface on walls, facades or various ceilings. It is no coincidence that wall painting is also called monumental and decorative, thereby emphasizing its huge role in the mission. decorative paintings. Excellent examples of monumental painting are the frescoes of Raphael in the Vatican Palace, the paintings by Michelangelo in the Sistine Chapel. Monumental painting reached its highest level in Byzantine and Old Russian art.

Mural "The Creation of Adam" by Michelangelo

In our time, monumental painting is widely used in palaces of culture, clubs, theaters, metro stations, railway stations, etc. The “muralism” movement, the monumental art of modern Mexico, has won international fame. This movement originated in the 20s of the XX century, in our time it has been developed in other countries, where it has sparkled with new colors.

Mural "Girl in vyshyvanka" by Guido van Helten. Kyiv, 2015

Concepts: monumental and monumental-decorative art are not applied to folk architecture. This is due to the intimacy of the volumes of architectural structures, the small size of the piers, architraves, hens, etc., their comparability with household items, the applied nature of the imagery of a peasant or suburban environment.

2. Arts and crafts - a section of fine arts, covering the creation of artistic products that have a utilitarian and artistic purpose. This is a collective term that conditionally combines two types of arts: decorative and applied .

Items applied arts: furniture, utensils, dishes, jewelry are artistically expressive mainly due to the aesthetic perfection of their form: the beauty of the silhouette, proportions, elegance of lines, masterful processing of the material, and then artistic design. Whereas decorative works: wall paintings, decorative sculptural reliefs, small figurines, tapestries, embroideries, carpets, carved decorations, etc. are inherently pictorial, plot compositions or ornamental decorations.

The Latin "decorare" translates as "to decorate", in the sense of "exalt, glorify". It is believed that the concept of "decor" appeared in ancient Rome. The richest empire reveled in its power and glorified its victories. The cult of embellishment reigned everywhere.

However decor- not only the traditional definition of the system of jewelry, but also a way of reflecting spiritual experience in the human mind.Decorative art, in fact, existed in prehistoric times, when a caveman decorated his dwelling with rock paintings.

At all times, artisans were professionals in their activities, from generation to generation they improved their skills, carefully guarded the secrets within the family. Creating household items - clothes, furniture, dishes, craftsmen decorated them with ornaments, patterns, carvings, encrusted with precious stones, turning them into real works of art.

AT academic literature the concept of "decorative art" appeared only in50s of the 19th century. At this time, the industrial revolution took place. As a result of the rapid growth of machine production, the manufacture of goods from the hands of the majority of artisans passed to factories and factories. Products have become unified, have lost their uniqueness and attractiveness. Her main feature only rough functionality turned out to be. Under these conditions, the products that artisans continued to make significantly gained in aesthetics and originality, and had a high artistic value. Masters applied his art, creating exclusive decorated household items, which, in the conditions of industrial take-off, began to be in special demand among wealthy buyers.

decorative painting has much in common with easel painting.If a picturesque picture performed on the walls and plafonds of the building mainly with an ornamental purpose (wall and plafond painting, frescoes) and in it the main element is, then we are talking about decorative painting. These can be beautiful combinations of geometric lines and figures, as well as combinations of forms of the animal kingdom and the vegetable kingdom, stylized or realistic (for example, wall paintings in the houses of Pompeii, Moorish arabesques of the Alhambra, grotesques of the Raphael lodges in the Vatican, etc.).

Arabesques. Palace of the Alhambra. Spain in the 14th century

Also, painting, which is intended to decorate or reveal the design and purpose of an object and does not have a clearly independent meaning, will also be called decorative. These are artistically made furniture, dishes, clothes, fabrics, carpets, embroidery, jewelry, etc.

Decorative painting. Tula samovar.

Over time, the motives of decorative painting changed, it depended on the development of culture and art, on the taste and architectural style that prevailed at a certain time and different peoples. The French came into use in the 19th century with the name decorative arts(fr. l’art decoratif), in relation to various branches of handicraft industries that need the help of art. Such as the manufacture of elegant furniture, carpets, lace, glass and pottery, jewelry, bronze, wallpaper and other luxury and comfort items - in a word, for everything that the Germans usually call "small arts", and in Russia - applied arts or art industry.

Appliedart- the field of art, covering a number of branches of creativity dedicated to the creation of artistic products intended

mainly for home use. However, the phrase "applied art" should be applied only to those objects of creative activity that carry not only artistic and imaginative content, but are of a spiritual nature, cause a certain emotional state.

Word " applied” arose with the advent of art, called easel, from the word “machine” (easel) on which the work was created. Easel art is independent, not tied to furniture or furnishings, it is addressed directly to the viewer and depends only on the feelings of the artist and the means of artistic expression chosen by him. Size and format easel work, as a rule, are chosen by the artist himself, regardless of the future neighborhood with the works of other authors.

In the ancient world, the term "applied art" was not used, there was no difference between the concepts of "technology" and "art", since all the functions of art were inseparable. In ancient Greece, statues were not objects for admiration, as in a museum. They were worshiped, offered food and drink, decorated with flowers, dressed in expensive fabrics, and made requests.

In the middle of the XV century. the artist with apprentices and students, in addition to making paintings, painted signs for shops, flags, gift plates for the day of confirmation and Christmas, sculpture, made intarsias, heraldic mottos, drawings for carpets. The fulfillment of such orders was not yet considered as something unacceptable for the reputation of the artist. In the Middle Ages, such activities were called "artistic crafts" or "small forms of art", for example, "small forms" of the traditional art of China and Japan.

Crown Reliquary of Louis Saint King of France from 1226

During the XV century. the position of Italian artists has changed. Painting from among the "mechanical arts" is gradually acquiring the status of "free". Not without the influence of humanists, a wide range of customers begin to appreciate not the craft quality of things, but the mastery of design and execution. During the era of the Italian and Northern Renaissance, painting and sculpture tended to be more serious than decorative.

Trays for the birth of a child 14-15th century. in Tuscany

But in the 16th century, the decline of the urban economy, which engulfed almost all the countries of this region, led to a crisis in artistic life. In Italy, art workshops are losing their former importance. In some cities, workshops are subordinate state power, in others they are liquidated altogether, and the artists find themselves without the usual class support, left to their own devices.

The result of the difficult situation of the fine arts, which developed in connection with the spread of the Reformation, was an influx of artistic forces into applied art: jewelry, silver and carpentry, the manufacture of earthenware and pewter, etc. flourished. Oftenartistic craft was intertwined with the craft of a mechanic, a locksmith, a gunsmith (luxuriously designed watches, navigational instruments, weapons and armor). characteristic feature In the 16th century, in the northern European countries, the subordination of fine arts masters to applied arts began: draftsmen and engravers made special ornamental patterns, sculptors made models for decorating furniture, appliances, and dishes. Handicraft methods of work are spreading: replicating sculptural samples, using the etching technique in engraving in order to speed up the processing of a copper plate, etc.

Works of decorative and applied arts have become interactive to participate in the process of historical development. At the end of an era Italian Renaissance with the delimitation of architecture, painting and sculpture and the formation of easel art, a picturesque picture, sculpture, not associated with a specific place in the architectural environment, appeared. Since that time, a separate sphere of arts and crafts has emerged.

Due to the variety of material processing techniques in the manufacture of products, DPI is very closely related to other types of art: painting, graphics, sculpture. For example, the technology of decorating DPI objects with multi-color painting is the same as in painting, carving decoration is a technique characteristic of sculpture, engraving of DPI products is the same as in graphics.

Modern products of arts and crafts are created taking into account both folk traditions and today's fashion trends. Until now, the most popular objects of this art, covered in a haze of ancient traditions, are steel and bronze products, handmade carpets and decorated with traditional ornaments - in eastern countries; ceramics, objects from sea shells - in the south; ritual masks - in Africa; amber products - in the Baltic region; porcelain, cloisonne enamel, fabrics painted with flowers, fruits, fantastic animals - in China and Japan, Korea.

Modern Isfahan carpet.Iran Handmade

A modern piece of amber

Such areas as design, decorating art, fashion design, the main content of which are not artistic, but aesthetic values, should not be called applied art. Contrary to the literal reading of the term, art is not applied anywhere, it exists by definition. Artistic value is not attached to the material, but one goes into the other.

3.Design art

Design art, using the expressive means of fine art and lighting technology, creates samples of the synthesis of arts that are distinguished by an emotional impact on a person. Design art usually includes programmatic, specific, visual and propaganda content.

It is related to theatrical and decorative; but if in a traditional theater the scenery and other elements of the performance are perceived from the outside from auditorium, then in the design art the viewer is usually located inside a multifaceted space (for example, an exhibition) or he himself becomes a participant in an artistically decided action. Design art is a fast, often journalistically sharp reaction to today, in which the laconicism of images is combined with the lightness of materials, the mobility of structures, the sharpness of spatial and color solutions.

Using the possibilities of expressive means of all arts, the achievements of modern technology, decorators strive to create ideologically rich and vividly emotional images, often using symbolism; looking for new solutions for the artistic and aesthetic design of cities and towns; develop new methods of museum and exhibition exposition, new forms of visual agitation.

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Arts and Crafts(from lat. decor- I decorate) - a wide section of fine arts, which covers various branches of creative activity aimed at creating artistic products with utilitarian and artistic functions. The collective term conditionally combines two broad types of arts: decorative and applied. Unlike works of fine art, intended for aesthetic enjoyment and related to pure art , numerous manifestations of arts and crafts can be of practical use in everyday life.

Works of arts and crafts meet several characteristics: they have an aesthetic quality; designed for artistic effect; serve for decoration of everyday life and interior. Such works are: clothes, dress and decorative fabrics, carpets, furniture, art glass, porcelain, faience, jewelry and other art products.
Since the second half of the 19th century, the classification of branches of arts and crafts has been established in academic literature. by material (metal, ceramics, textiles, wood), according to the execution technique (carving, painting, embroidery, printing, casting, embossing, intarsia, etc.) and according to functional features use of the object (furniture, toys). This classification is due to the important role of the constructive-technological principle in arts and crafts and its direct connection with production.

Species specificity of DPI

• Sewing- creating stitches and seams on the material using a needle and thread, fishing line, etc. Sewing is one of the oldest production technologies that arose back in the Stone Age.
  • Flower making - making women's jewelry from fabric in the form of flowers
  • Patchwork (sewing from patches), patchwork quilt - patchwork technique, patchwork mosaic, textile mosaic - a type of needlework in which, according to the mosaic principle, a whole product is sewn from pieces of fabric.
    • Application - a way to obtain an image; arts and crafts technique.
  • Quilted products, quilting - two pieces of fabric stitched through and a layer of batting or cotton wool laid between them.
• Embroidery- the art of decorating all sorts of fabrics and materials with a variety of patterns, from the coarsest and densest, such as: cloth, canvas, leather, to the finest fabrics - cambric, muslin, gas, tulle, etc. Tools and materials for embroidery: needles, threads , hoops, scissors.
• Knitting- the process of making products from continuous threads by bending them into loops and connecting the loops to each other using simple tools manually or on a special machine.
• Artistic leather processing- production of various items from leather, both for household and decorative purposes.
• Weaving- the production of fabric on looms, one of the oldest human crafts.
• Carpet weaving- production of carpets.
• Burnout- a pattern is applied to the surface of any organic material with a hot needle.
  • Woodburning
  • Burning out on fabric (guilloche) is a needlework technique that involves finishing products with openwork lace and making appliqués by burning them out using a special apparatus.
  • For other materials
  • Hot stamping is a technology for artistic marking of products by hot stamping.
  • Wood treatment with acids
• Artistic carving- one of the oldest and most widespread types of material processing.
  • Stone carving is the process of forming the desired shape, which is carried out by drilling, polishing, grinding, sawing, engraving, etc.
  • Bone carving is a kind of arts and crafts.
  • wood carving
• Painting on porcelain, glass
• Mosaic- formation of an image by arranging, setting and fixing multi-colored stones, smalt, ceramic tiles and other materials on the surface.
• stained glass- a work of decorative art of a pictorial or ornamental nature made of colored glass, designed for through lighting and intended to fill an opening, most often a window, in any architectural structure.
• Decoupage- a decorative technique for fabrics, dishes, furniture, etc., which consists in scrupulously cutting out images from paper, which are then glued or otherwise attached to various surfaces for decoration.
• Modeling, sculpture, ceramic floristry- shaping plastic material with the help of hands and auxiliary tools.
• Weaving- a method of manufacturing more rigid structures and materials from less durable materials: threads, plant stems, fibers, bark, twigs, roots and other similar soft raw materials.
  • Bamboo - weaving from bamboo.
  • Birch bark - weaving from the upper bark of a birch.
  • Beading, beading - the creation of jewelry, artistic products from beads, in which, unlike other techniques where it is used, beads are not only a decorative element, but also a constructive and technological one.
  • Basket
  • Lace - decorative elements made of fabric and threads.
  • Macrame is a knot weaving technique.
  • Vine - the craft of making wicker products from a vine: household utensils and containers for various purposes.
  • Mat - flooring weaving flooring from any rough material, mat, matting.
• Painting:
  • Gorodets painting is a Russian folk art craft. Bright, laconic painting (genre scenes, figurines of horses, roosters, floral patterns), made with a free stroke with white and black graphic strokes, adorned spinning wheels, furniture, shutters, doors.
  • Polkhov-Maidanskaya painting - production of painted turning products - nesting dolls, Easter eggs, mushrooms, salt shakers, goblets, supplies - generously decorated with juicy ornamental and plot painting. Among the picturesque motifs, flowers, birds, animals, rural and urban landscapes are the most common.
  • Mezen painting on wood - a type of painting of household utensils - spinning wheels, ladles, boxes, brothers.
  • Zhostovo painting is a folk craft of artistic painting of metal trays.
  • Semyonov painting - production wooden toy with painting.
  • Khokhloma - an old Russian folk craft, born in the 17th century in the district of Nizhny Novgorod
  • Stained glass painting - hand painting on glass, stained glass imitation.
  • Batik - hand-painted on fabric using reserve compositions.
    • Cold batik - the technique of painting on fabric uses a special reserving composition with cold.
    • Hot batik - a pattern is created using melted wax or other similar substances.
• scrapbooking- design of photo albums
• Clay crafting— creation of forms and objects from clay. Can be sculpted with a potter's wheel or by hand.

For myself (about the tapestry):

Tapestry(fr. gobelin), or trellis, - one of the types of arts and crafts, a one-sided lint-free wall carpet with a plot or ornamental composition, woven by hand with a cross weave of threads. The weaver passes the weft thread through the warp, creating both the image and the fabric itself. In the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron, a tapestry is defined as “a hand-woven carpet on which a picture and a specially prepared cardboard of a more or less famous artist are reproduced with multi-colored wool and partly silk.”

Tapestries were made of wool, silk, sometimes gold or silver threads were introduced into them. Currently, a wide variety of materials are used for the manufacture of carpets by hand: preference is given to threads from synthetic and artificial fibers, in lesser degree natural materials are used. The technique of hand weaving is laborious, one master can make about 1-1.5 m² (depending on density) of trellis per year, so these products are available only to wealthy customers. And at present, a handmade tapestry (trellis) continues to be an expensive piece.

From the Middle Ages and up to the 19th century, the production of tapestries was practiced in cycles (ensembles), which combined products related to one theme. This set of tapestries was intended to decorate the room in the same style. The number of tapestries in the ensemble depended on the size of the premises in which they were supposed to be placed. In the same style as wall trellises, canopies, curtains, pillow cases, which also made up the set, were made.

It is correct to call tapestries not any lint-free ornamented carpets, but only those on which images are created using the technique of weaving itself, i.e. interweaving of weft and warp threads, and therefore they are an organic part of the fabric itself, in contrast to embroidery, the patterns of which are applied to the fabric additionally with a needle. Medieval tapestries were produced in the monastic workshops of Germany and the Netherlands, in the cities of Tournai in the west of Flanders and Arras in northern France. The most famous are millefleurs (French millefleurs, from mille - “thousand” and fleurs - “flowers”). The name arose from the fact that the figures on such tapestries are depicted against a dark background dotted with many small flowers. This feature is associated with the old custom of holding the Catholic feast of the Body of the Lord (celebrated on Thursday after the day of the Holy Trinity). The streets along which the festive procession moved were decorated with panels woven with many fresh flowers. They were hung out of windows. It is believed that weavers transferred this decor to carpets. The earliest known millefleur was made in Arras in 1402. Carpets from this city were so popular, in particular in Italy, that they received the Italian name "arazzi".

Cardboard in painting- a drawing with charcoal or a pencil (or two pencils - white and black), made on paper or on a primed canvas, from which a picture is already painted with paints.

Initially, such drawings were made exclusively for frescoes, thick paper (Italian cartone), on which the drawing was made, pierced along its contour, superimposed on the ground prepared for fresco painting, and sprinkled with charcoal powder over the puncture, and thus a faint black was obtained on the ground circuit. Fresco painting was written immediately without amendments, so the application of a finished, completely deliberate contour was necessary. Finished boards often have the value of paintings, with the exception of paints; such are the cardboards of Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael (cardboards for "School of Athens" stored in Milan), Andrea Mantegna, Giulio Romano and others. Often famous artists made cardboard for woven carpet-pictures (trellises); known seven cardboard Raphael from "Acts of the Apostles", performed by him for the Flemish weavers (kept in the Kensington Museum in London), four cardboards by Mantegna. From 19th century cardboard we can mention the works of Friedrich Overbeck, Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld, P. J. Cornelius ( "Destruction of Troy", "Last Judgment" and others), Wilhelm von Kaulbach ( "Destruction of Jerusalem", "Battles of the Huns" etc.), Ingra - for painting on glass in the tomb of the Orleans house. In Russia, paintings were made on cardboard in St. Isaac's Cathedral (not preserved). Sometimes cardboards are created by some artists, and paintings on them by others. So, Peter Josef Cornelius gave some of the cardboard almost completely at the disposal of his students.

Materials, technique

Until the 18th century, wool was used for the base in tapestries - the most affordable and easy-to-work material, most often it was sheep's wool. The main requirement for the base material is strength. In the 19th century, the basis for tapestries was sometimes made of silk. The cotton base significantly lightens the weight of the product, it is durable, more resistant to adverse environmental influences.

tapestry weaving, the density of the carpet is determined by the number of warp threads per 1 cm. The higher the density, the more possibilities at the weaver to perform small details, and the work progresses the slower. In a medieval European tapestry, there are about 5 warp threads per 1 cm. The products of the Brussels manufactories of the 16th century had the same low density (5-6 threads), but local weavers managed to transfer complex nuances Images. Over time, the tapestry is getting closer and closer to painting, its density increases. At the Gobelin manufactory, the density of tapestries was 6-7 threads per 1 cm in the 17th century, and in the 18th century it was already 7-8. In the 19th century, the density of the products of the Beauvais manufactory reached 10-16 threads. Such a tapestry, in fact, has become just an imitation of easel painting. One of the means of returning decorativeness to the tapestry, Jean Lursa considered reducing its density. In the 20th century, French manufactories returned to the density of tapestries in 5 threads. In modern hand weaving, the density is taken at 1-2 threads per cm, the density of more than 3 threads is considered high.

Tapestries are woven by hand. The warp threads are stretched on the machine or frame. The warp threads are intertwined with colored woolen or silk threads, while the warp is completely covered, so its color does not play any role.

The earliest and simplest device for the weaver's work was a frame with stretched warp threads. The base can be fastened by pulling on nails driven into the frame, or by using a frame with cuts evenly spaced along the top and bottom edges, or by simply winding the thread around the frame. However last way not very convenient, since the warp threads can move during the weaving process.

Later, high and low looms appeared. The difference in work on the machines lies mainly in the arrangement of the warp threads, horizontal - on a low loom - and vertical - on a high one. This is due to their specific device and requires characteristic movements during work. In both cases, the way to create volume and color transitions in the picture is the same. Threads of different colors are intertwined and create the effect of a gradual change in tone or a sense of volume.

The image was copied from cardboard - a preparatory drawing in full-size color of the tapestry, made on the basis of the sketch of the artist. On one cardboard, you can create several tapestries, each time something different from each other.

Mechanically, the tapestry production technique is very simple, but it requires a lot of patience, experience and artistic knowledge from the master: only an educated artist can be a good weaver, a painter in his own way, differing from the real one only in that he creates an image not with paints, but with colored thread . He must understand drawing, color and light and shade like an artist, and in addition, he must also have complete knowledge of the techniques of trellis weaving and the properties of materials. Quite often it is impossible to pick up threads of different shades of the same color, so the weaver has to tint the threads in the process of work.

When working on a vertical machine, from its upper shaft, as the product is ready, the base is unwound, and the finished trellis is wound onto the lower one. Carpets made on a vertical loom are called haute-lisse(Gotlis, from fr. haute"high" and lisses"the foundation"). Gotliss technique allows you to perform more complex pattern, but it is also more labor intensive. Workplace the weaver is located on the wrong side of the carpet, on which the ends of the threads are fixed. The image from the cardboard is transferred to tracing paper, and from it to the carpet. Cardboard was placed behind the back of the weaver, and a mirror was placed on the front side of the work. By spreading the warp threads, the master can check the accuracy of the work on cardboard.

Other carpets, in the manufacture of which the warp is located horizontally between two shafts, due to which the work of the weaver is greatly facilitated, are called basse-lisse(baslis, from fr. basse"low" and lisses"the foundation"). The warp threads are stretched between two shafts in a horizontal plane. The tapestry is facing the weaver with its wrong side, the pattern from the cardboard is transferred to the tracing paper placed under the warp threads, so the front side of the product repeats the cardboard in a mirror image. The master works with small bobbins, on which threads are wound different colors. Passing a bobbin with a thread of any color through the warp and entangling it with the latter, he repeats this operation the required number of times, and then leaves it and takes another with a thread of a different color, in order to return to the first bobbin when needed again.

After the tapestry is removed from the loom, it is impossible to distinguish in which of the two techniques it was made. To do this, you need to see the cardboard - the baslis tapestry repeats it in a mirror image, the Gotlis - in direct.

Features of the artistic language of the DPI

The subject of activity of the artist of arts and crafts determines the features of the creative method. Most often, three main terms are used to refer to these features: abstraction, geometrization, stylization.

abstraction(lat. abstraction - “distraction”) involves the distraction of a decorative image from a specific object-spatial natural environment, since the role of such an environment, in contrast to easel art, is assumed by the decorated surface. Hence the fundamental conventionality of decorative depiction, in which different moments of time and space can easily be combined. A connoisseur of Russian ceramics A. B. Saltykov convincingly wrote about this, noting the “lack of unity of place, time and action” as the fundamental principle of decorative composition. In particular, the decor located on the three-dimensional form of the vessel, interacting with the curvilinear space of its surface, is located depending on the "geography" of the object, and not according to ordinary ideas. Curvature, color and texture of the surface to be decorated, for example White background in porcelain or faience painting, they can equally easily denote water, sky, earth or air, but, above all, the aesthetic value of the surface as such. W. D. Blavatsky wrote that the painting of the ancient Greek kylix (bowl) should be viewed by turning the vessel in the hands. Now we can circle around the museum showcase.

The transitional stages of the process of abstraction and geometrization of a decorative image are called “pictorial ornament”, and according to genre varieties they are divided into vegetable, animal, mixed ... One of the most interesting genre varieties of mixed pictorial ornament in the history of art is the grotesque.

Stylization in the most general meaning of the term, the intentional, conscious use by the artist of forms, methods and techniques of shaping, previously known in the history of art, is called. At the same time, the artist is mentally transported to another century, as if plunging "deep into time." Therefore, this stylization can be called temporary. Stylization can have a private, fragmentary character, then individual themes, forms, motifs, and techniques are chosen as the subject of an artistic game. Sometimes this method of shaping is called the stylization of the motif. A significant part of the works of art "art nouveau" ("new art") of the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. built on the stylization of one motif: a wave, a plant shoot, strands of hair, a bend of a swan's neck. These lines were in vogue of the "turn of the century" culture. In particular, the famous French decorator and fashion designer Paul Poiret (1879-1944) came up with a smoothly curved line of women's dress, which they called: the Poiret line.

Motif stylization can be considered as a special case of decorative stylization, since the artist's efforts are aimed at including a separate work, its fragment or stylized motif into a broader compositional whole (which corresponds to the general meaning of the concept of decorativeness). Using the method of holistic stylization, the artist is mentally transferred to a different era, a decorative one - he strives to think organically in the object-spatial environment that has already developed around him. We called the first method the method of temporal stylization, and the second one can be called spatial.

It is clear that the method of decorative stylization is most fully manifested in decorative art and, in particular, in the art of a spectacular poster and book illustration, although there are exceptions. Thus, the remarkable painter and draftsman A. Modigliani built the tender expressiveness of images on frank stylization of line and hyperbolization of form, and his “masks” stylize African patterns.

In the work of many artists, the methods of abstraction, geometrization and stylization are organically combined.

The density, saturation of the image, the predominance of figures over the background also contribute to decorativeness. In some cases, this leads to the so-called ornamentation of the decor, in others - to the "carpet style". The processes of transformation of pictorial elements are united by the concept of geometrization. Ultimately, this trend leads to an extremely abstract or geometric ornament.

In addition to the fundamental methods - abstraction, geometrization and stylization - the artist of arts and crafts uses private methods of shaping, or artistic paths (Greek tropos - "turn, turn").

In the visual arts, comparison is based on geometrization. Remarkable examples of such comparisons are works of "animal style". This style dominated in the products of "small forms" in the vast expanses of Eurasia from the Lower Danube, the Northern Black Sea region and the Caspian steppes to Southern Urals, Siberia and the northwestern part of China in the 7th–4th centuries. BC e.

Classical examples of assimilation of form to format are compositions in a circle, in particular, compositions of the Donets of ancient Greek kiliks - round wide bowls on a stem with two horizontal handles on the sides. From such cups they drank wine diluted with water. In ancient houses, in between symposiums (feasts), kylixes were usually hung by one of the handles from the wall. Therefore, the paintings were placed on the outside of the bowl, around the circumference, so that they were clearly visible.

The main issue of DPI

All works of antiquity organically combined material and spiritual, utilitarian, aesthetic and artistic value. It is interesting that in early antiquity there was no separate understanding of the qualities of a vessel as a container, its symbolic meaning, aesthetic value, content and decor.

Later, the pictorial space of things began to be divided into the inner container and the outer surface, the form and ornament, the object and the surrounding space. As a result of such a differential process, the problem of the organic connection of the functions and form of the product, its harmony with the environment arose.

At the same time, the assertion that a truly decorative image should be planar does not correspond to reality. The abstraction of decor is not in adaptation, but in the interaction of pictorial form and environment. Therefore, illusory images that visually “break through” the surface can be just as decorative as those that “creep along the plane”. It all depends on the artist's intention, the correspondence of the compositional solution to the idea.

The same applies to the problem of revealing the natural properties of the material of the surface to be decorated. A completely gilded porcelain vase or a “metal-like” cup can be no less beautiful than the finest polychrome painting, shading the sparkling whiteness. Is it possible to say that the natural texture of wood is more decorative than its surface covered with bright paint and gilding, and matte biscuit (unglazed porcelain) looks better than shiny glaze?

In 1910, the eminent Belgian architect, painter and art nouveau theorist Henri Van de Velde (1863–1957) wrote a polemical article entitled “The Animation of Material as a Principle of Beauty”.

In this article, Van de Velde outlined his views on one of the main problems of the "new style" - the attitude of the artist to the material. He argues with the traditional opinion that the applied artist should bring out the natural beauty of the material. “No material,” Van de Velde wrote, “can be beautiful in itself. It owes its beauty to the spiritual principle that the artist brings to nature.” Spiritualization of "dead material" occurs through its transformation into a composite material. In this case, the artist uses different means, and then on the basis of the same materials he gets the opposite result. The meaning of the artistic transformation of natural materials and forms, in contrast to the aesthetic properties that are objectively present in nature, according to Van de Velde, is dematerialization, giving properties that this material did not have before the artist’s hand touched it. This is how a heavy and rough stone turns into the thinnest “weightless” lace of Gothic cathedrals, the material properties of dyes are transformed into the radiance of the color rays of a medieval stained-glass window, and gilding becomes capable of expressing heavenly light.

In the arts and crafts, where the artist is obliged to solve the problem of the relationship between the part and the whole, including his own composition in a wide spatio-temporal context, the paths acquire fundamental importance. Transfers of meanings can be carried out in different ways and compositional techniques. The simplest technique is well known in the history of art ancient world. It is likening form to format. Such a pictorial trope can be correlated with a literary comparison on the basis of the “whole with the whole” principle, for example: “A horse flies like a bird.”

Terminology in DPI

Liters

Vlasov V. G. Fundamentals of the theory and history of arts and crafts. Teaching aid. - St. Petersburg State University, 2012. - 156 p.

Moran A. History of decorative and applied arts. - M

Types of arts and crafts

• Sewing- creating stitches and seams on the material using a needle and thread, fishing line, etc. Sewing is one of the oldest production technologies that arose back in the Stone Age.
  • Flower making - making women's jewelry from fabric in the form of flowers
  • Patchwork (sewing from patches), patchwork quilt - patchwork technique, patchwork mosaic, textile mosaic - a type of needlework in which, according to the mosaic principle, a whole product is sewn from pieces of fabric.
  • Application - a way to obtain an image; arts and crafts technique.
  • Quilted products, quilting - two pieces of fabric stitched through and a layer of batting or cotton wool laid between them.
• Embroidery- the art of decorating all sorts of fabrics and materials with a variety of patterns, from the coarsest and densest, such as: cloth, canvas, leather, to the finest fabrics - cambric, muslin, gas, tulle, etc. Tools and materials for embroidery: needles, threads , hoops, scissors.
• Knitting- the process of making products from continuous threads by bending them into loops and connecting the loops to each other using simple tools manually or on a special machine.
• Artistic processing of leather - the manufacture of various items from leather, both for household and decorative and artistic purposes.
• Weaving- the production of fabric on looms, one of the oldest human crafts.
• Carpet weaving- production of carpets.
• Burnout- a pattern is applied to the surface of any organic material with a hot needle.
  • Woodburning
  • Burning out on fabric (guilloche) is a needlework technique that involves finishing products with openwork lace and making appliqués by burning them out using a special apparatus.
  • For other materials
  • Hot stamping is a technology for artistic marking of products by hot stamping.
  • Wood treatment with acids
• artistic thread- one of the oldest and most widespread types of material processing.
  • Stone carving is the process of forming the desired shape, which is carried out by drilling, polishing, grinding, sawing, engraving, etc.
  • Bone carving is a kind of arts and crafts.
  • wood carving
• Drawing porcelain, glass
• Mosaic- formation of an image by arranging, setting and fixing multi-colored stones, smalt, ceramic tiles and other materials on the surface.
• stained glass- a work of decorative art of a pictorial or ornamental nature made of colored glass, designed for through lighting and intended to fill an opening, most often a window, in any architectural structure.
• Decoupage- a decorative technique for fabrics, dishes, furniture, etc., which consists in scrupulously cutting out images from paper, which are then glued or otherwise attached to various surfaces for decoration.
• modeling, sculpture, ceramic floristry - shaping plastic material with the help of hands and auxiliary tools.
• Weaving- a method of manufacturing more rigid structures and materials from less durable materials: threads, plant stems, fibers, bark, twigs, roots and other similar soft raw materials.
  • Bamboo - weaving from bamboo.
  • Birch bark - weaving from the upper bark of a birch.
  • Beading, beading - the creation of jewelry, artistic products from beads, in which, unlike other techniques where it is used, beads are not only a decorative element, but also a constructive and technological one.
  • Basket
  • Lace - decorative elements made of fabric and threads.
  • Macrame is a knot weaving technique.
  • Vine - the craft of making wicker products from a vine: household utensils and containers for various purposes.
  • Mat - flooring weaving flooring from any rough material, mat, matting.
• Painting:
  • Gorodets painting is a Russian folk art craft. Bright, laconic painting (genre scenes, figurines of horses, roosters, floral patterns), made with a free stroke with white and black graphic strokes, adorned spinning wheels, furniture, shutters, doors.
  • Polkhov-Maidanskaya painting - the production of painted turning products - nesting dolls, Easter eggs, mushrooms, salt shakers, goblets, supplies - generously decorated with juicy ornamental and plot painting. Among the picturesque motifs, flowers, birds, animals, rural and urban landscapes are the most common.
  • Mezen painting on wood - a type of painting of household utensils - spinning wheels, ladles, boxes, brothers.
  • Zhostovo painting is a folk craft of artistic painting of metal trays.
  • Semyonovskaya painting - making a wooden toy with a painting.
  • Khokhloma - an old Russian folk craft, born in the 17th century in the district of Nizhny Novgorod
  • Stained glass painting - hand painting on glass, stained glass imitation.
  • Batik - hand-painted on fabric using reserve compositions.
    • Cold batik - the technique of painting on fabric uses a special reserving composition with cold.
    • Hot batik - a pattern is created using melted wax or other similar substances.
• Scrapbooking - design of photo albums
• Clay modeling is the creation of shapes and objects from clay. Can be sculpted with a potter's wheel or by hand.