In the middle of the 18th century, the process of decomposition of classicism began in Europe (in connection with the destruction of the absolute monarchy in France and other countries), as a result of which a new literary direction- sentimentalism. England is considered to be his homeland, because his typical representatives were English writers. The very term "sentimentalism" in the literature appeared after the publication of " sentimental journey in France and Italy by Lawrence Stern.

Arch of Catherine the Great

In the 1960s and 1970s, the rapid development of capitalist relations began in Russia, which resulted in the growing phenomenon of the bourgeoisie. The growth of cities intensified, which led to the emergence of a third estate, whose interests are reflected in Russian sentimentalism in literature. At this time, that stratum of society, which is now called the intelligentsia, begins to form. The growth of industry turns Russia into a strong power, and numerous military victories contribute to the rise of national self-consciousness. In 1762, during the reign of Catherine II, nobles and peasants received many privileges. The empress thereby tried to create a myth about her reign, showing herself in Europe as an enlightened monarch.

The policy of Catherine II in many respects hindered progressive phenomena in society. So, in 1767, a special commission was convened on the state of the new code. In her work, the empress argued that absolute monarchy is necessary not to take away freedom from people, but to achieve a good goal. However, sentimentalism in literature implied the depiction of the life of the common people, so not a single writer mentioned Catherine the Great in his works.

The most important event of this period was peasant war under the leadership of Emelyan Pugachev, after which many nobles sided with the peasants. Already in the 70s in Russia began to appear mass societies, whose ideas of freedom and equality influenced the formation of a new trend. Under such conditions, Russian sentimentalism began to take shape in literature.

Conditions for the emergence of a new direction

In the second half of the 18th century, there was a struggle with feudal orders in Europe. The enlighteners defended the interests of the so-called third estate, which often turned out to be oppressed. The classicists glorified the merits of the monarchs in their works, and sentimentalism (in Russian literature) became the opposite direction in this regard a few decades later. Representatives advocated the equality of people and put forward the concept of a natural society and a natural person. They were guided by the criterion of reasonableness: the feudal system, in their opinion, was unreasonable. This idea was reflected in Daniel Defoe's novel "Robinson Crusoe", and later in the work of Mikhail Karamzin. In France a prime example and the work of Jean-Jacques Rousseau "Julia, or the new Eloise" becomes the manifesto; in Germany - "Suffering young Werther" Johann Goethe. In these books, the tradesman is portrayed as an ideal person, but in Russia everything is different.

Sentimentalism in literature: features of the direction

Style is born in a fierce ideological struggle with classicism. These currents oppose each other in all positions. If the state was portrayed by classicism, then a person with all his feelings - sentimentalism.

Representatives in the literature introduce new genre forms: love story, a psychological story, as well as confessional prose (diary, travel notes, travels). Sentimentalism, unlike classicism, was far from poetic forms.

Literary direction asserts extra-class value human personality. In Europe, the tradesman was portrayed as perfect person while in Russia the peasants have always been oppressed.

Sentimentalists introduce alliteration and description of nature into their works. The second technique is used to display psychological state person.

Two strands of sentimentalism

In Europe, writers smoothed out social conflicts, while in the works Russian authors on the contrary, they escalated. As a result, two trends of sentimentalism were formed: noble and revolutionary. The representative of the first - Nikolai Karamzin, is known as the author of the story " Poor Lisa"Despite the fact that the conflict occurs due to the clash of interests of the high and low estates, the author puts forward the moral conflict, and not the social one, in the first place. Noble sentimentalism did not advocate the abolition of serfdom. The author believed that "peasant women know how to love."

Revolutionary sentimentalism in literature advocated the abolition of serfdom. Alexander Radishchev chose just a few words as an epigraph to his book "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow": "The monster is oblo, mischievous, staring and barking." That's how he imagined collective image serfdom.

Genres in sentimentalism

In this literary direction, the leading role was given to works written in prose. There were no strict boundaries, so the genres were often mixed.

N. Karamzin, I. Dmitriev, A. Petrov used private correspondence in their work. It is worth noting that not only writers addressed him, but also personalities who became famous in other areas, such as M. Kutuzov. A novel-journey in its own literary heritage left A. Radishchev, and the novel-education - M. Karamzin. Sentimentalists also found application in the field of dramaturgy: M. Kheraskov wrote "tearful dramas", and N. Nikolev wrote "comic operas".

Sentimentalism in the literature of the 18th century was represented by geniuses who worked in some other genres: satirical tale and fable, idyll, elegy, romance, song.

"Fashionable wife" I. I. Dmitriev

Often, sentimentalist writers turned to classicism in their work. Ivan Ivanovich Dmitriev preferred to work with satirical genres and odes, so his fairy tale called "Fashionable Wife" was written in poetic form. General Prolaz, in his old age, decides to marry a young girl who is looking for a chance to send him for new clothes. In the absence of her husband, Premila receives her lover Milovzor right in her room. He is young, handsome, a ladies' man, but a prankster and talker. The remarks of the heroes of "Fashionable Wife" are empty and cynical - by this Dmitriev is trying to portray the depraved atmosphere that prevails in the nobility.

"Poor Lisa" N. M. Karamzin

In the story, the author tells about the love story of a peasant woman and a gentleman. Liza is a poor girl who became a victim of betrayal by a rich young man, Erast. The poor thing lived and breathed only her beloved, but did not forget the simple truth - a wedding between representatives of different social classes cannot take place. A wealthy peasant is wooing Liza, but she refuses him, expecting exploits from her lover. However, Erast deceives the girl, saying that he is going to the service, and at that moment he himself is looking for a rich widowed bride. Emotional experiences, outbursts of passion, loyalty and betrayal are feelings that sentimentalism often portrayed in literature. During last meeting the young man offers Liza a hundred rubles as a token of gratitude for the love she gave him on the days of their dates. Unable to bear the gap, the girl lays hands on herself.

A. N. Radishchev and his "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow"

The writer was born into a wealthy noble family, but despite this, he was interested in the problem of inequality of social classes. His famous work"Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" in the genre direction can be attributed to the travels popular at that time, but the division into chapters was not a mere formality: each of them considered a separate side of reality.

Initially, the book was perceived as travel notes and successfully passed through the censors, but Catherine the Second, having familiarized herself with its contents, called Radishchev "a rebel worse than Pugachev." In the chapter "Novgorod" the depraved morals of society are described, in "Lyuban" - the problem of the peasantry, in "Chudovo" it is about the indifference and cruelty of officials.

Sentimentalism in the work of V. A. Zhukovsky

The writer lived at the turn of two centuries. At the end of the 18th century, sentimentalism was the leading genre in Russian literature, and in the 19th century it was replaced by realism and romanticism. Early works Vasily Zhukovsky were written in accordance with the traditions of Karamzin. "Maryina Grove" is a beautiful story about love and suffering, and the poem "To Poetry" sounds like a heroic call to accomplish feats. In his best elegy "Rural Cemetery" Zhukovsky reflects on the meaning human life. An important role in the emotional coloring of the work is played by an animated landscape in which willow dozes, oak forests tremble, and the day turns pale. Thus, sentimentalism in the literature of the 19th century is represented by the work of a few writers, among whom was Zhukovsky, but in 1820 the direction ceased to exist.

Classicism.

Sentimentalism

Romanticism

Satirical poetry of Antioch Dmitrievich Kantemir. Problems of satire "On those who blaspheme the teaching, To their own mind." The personality and significance of Kantemir's work in essays and critical articles by N.I. Novikov, N.M. Karamzin, K.N. Batyushkov, V.G. Belinsky.

Antioch Dmitrievich Kantemir was one of the first Russian writers who realized himself as a writer. Although literature was not at all the main business of his life. The poet, who opens the first page of the history of Russian book poetry, was an outstanding personality, the most educated, multi-talented person. He greatly raised the prestige of Russia in the West, where for the last twelve years of his life he served as a diplomatic representative of Russia in embassies - first in England, and then in France. He had an impeccable command of thought and word: the dispatches he sent were always clearly and talentedly composed. he was a famous person in Russia. His epigrams and love songs were extremely successful. He worked in the genre of scientific translation and has already written five of his nine satires. During the years of service in France, he finally established himself in advanced educational views. He was convinced that only "merit", and not class ancestry, distinguishes one person from another. “The same blood flows in both free and slaves, the same flesh, the same bones!” he wrote, insisting on the “natural equality” of people. Cantemir always remained a citizen of Russia: what he acquired, or, in his words, "adopted" from the French, was supposed to serve his homeland. With characteristic modesty, he wrote:

What Horace gave, he borrowed from the Frenchman.

Oh, how poor my muse is.

Yes, true; the mind, even though the limits are narrow,

What he took in Gallic, he paid in Russian.
And yet, Kantemir is first of all a national poet, who had the task of turning to the image of real Russian life. According to Belinsky, he was able to "connect poetry with life", "to write not only in the Russian language, but also with the Russian mind." By the way, it should be noted here that in close friendship with the Kantemirov family was Princess Praskovya Trubetskaya, who wrote songs in folk spirit; perhaps it was she who was the author of the most popular song in those distant times, "Ah, my bitter light of my youth." Not only the famous "Poetics" of the French poet and theorist Boileau, not only educational studies, but the living lyrical element of folk song, making its way into the book poetry of the beginning of the century, determined the formation artistic manner Cantemir.
Analysis of the satire by Antioch Cantemir "On those who blaspheme the teachings To their own mind." This is the first satire of Cantemir, he wrote it in 1729. Satire was originally written not for the purpose of publication, but for himself. But through friends, she came to the Archbishop of Novgorod Feofan, who gave impetus to continue this cycle of satyrs.
Cantermire himself defines this satire as a mockery of the ignorant and despisers of science. At that time, this issue was very relevant. As soon as education became accessible to people, colleges and a university were established. It was a qualitative step in the field of sciences. And any qualitative step is, if not a revolution, then a reform. No wonder it caused so much controversy. The author refers, as follows from the title, to his own mind, calling it "the mind of an immature", because. the satire was written by him at the age of twenty, that is, still quite immature by those standards. Everyone strives for fame, and achieving it through science is the hardest thing. The author uses 9 muses and Apollo as an image of the sciences that make the road to glory difficult. It is possible, and to get fame, even if you are not known as a creator. Many paths, easy in our age, lead to it, On which the brave will not stumble; The most unpleasant of all is the one that the barefooted have cursed the Nine Sisters. Further, 4 characters appear in turn in the satire: Criton, Silvan, Luke and Medor. Each of them condemns science, explains in its own way its uselessness. Crito believes that those who are fond of science want to understand the reasons for everything that happens. And this is bad, because. they are losing faith in Holy Bible. And indeed, in his opinion, science is harmful, you just have to blindly believe.
The schisms and heresies of science are children; Lies more, who was given more understanding; Whoever melts over a book comes to godlessness... Silvan is a stingy nobleman. He does not understand the monetary benefits of science, so he does not need it. For him, only that which can benefit him specifically has value. But science cannot provide this to him. After all, he lived without her, and he will still live! We can make sense of dividing the earth in quarters without Euclid, How many kopecks in a ruble - without algebra we can count Luke - a drunkard. In his opinion, science separates people, because it's not the place to sit alone over books, which he even moreover calls "dead friends." He praises wine as a source of good mood and other blessings and says that he will exchange a glass for a book only if time runs back, stars appear on the earth, etc. When they begin to lead the reins across the sky, And from the surface of the earth the stars already glimpse, When in Lent the black one becomes a vyazigu, - Then, leaving the glass, I will take up the book. Medor is a dandy and a dandy. He is offended that the paper, with which at that time they curled their hair, is spent on books. For him, a glorious tailor and shoemaker is much more important than Virgil and Cicero. ... too much paper comes To the letter, to the printing of books, but it comes to him, That there is nothing to wrap curled curls in; He will not change a pound of good powder for Seneca. The author draws attention to the fact that two motives are possible for all deeds: benefit and praise. And there is an opinion that if science does not bring either one or the other, then why do it? People are not accustomed to the fact that it can be otherwise, that virtue is valuable in itself. ... When there is no benefit, praise encourages To labors - without that the heart is discouraged. Not everyone loves true beauty i.e. science. But anyone, having barely learned anything, demands a promotion or other status.

For example, a soldier, having barely learned to sign, wants to command a regiment. The author complains that the time when wisdom was valued has gone. The time has not come to us, in which wisdom presided over everything and shared the crowns alone, Being the only way to the highest sunrise.

Belinsky said that Cantemir would outlive many literary celebrities, classical and romantic. In an article about Kantemir, Belinsky wrote: “Kantemir does not so much begin the history of Russian literature as it ends the period of Russian writing. Kantemir wrote in so-called syllabic verses, a size that is completely uncharacteristic of the Russian language; this size existed in Russia long before Kantemir ... Kantemir began the history of secular literature. that is why everyone, rightly considering Lomonosov the father of Russian literature, at the same time, not entirely without reason, begins its history with Kantemir.
Karamzin remarked: "His satires were the first experience of Russian wit and style."

6. The role of Vasily Kirillovich Trediakovsky, M.V. Lomonosov, A.P. Sumarokov in the formation of aesthetic principles, the genre and stylistic system of Russian classicism, in the transformation of versification.

Trediakovsky in 1735 published "A new and short way to compose Russian verses", offering a way to streamline the syllabic 13 and 11 syllables and giving samples of poems composed in a new way of different genres. The need for such ordering was dictated by the need to more clearly contrast poetry with prose.
Trediakovsky acted as a reformer, not indifferent to the experience of his predecessors. Lomonosov went further. In the "Letter on the Rules of Russian Poetry" (1739), he categorically declared that "our poetry is only just beginning", thereby ignoring the almost century-old tradition of syllabic poetry. He, unlike Trediakovsky, allowed not only two-syllable, but also three-syllable and "mixed" meters (yambo-anapaests and dactylo-chorea), not only feminine rhymes, but also masculine and dactylic ones, and advised sticking to iambic as a size appropriate for tall objects. and important (the letter was accompanied by an "Ode ... to the capture of Khotin in 1739" written in iambs). The predominance of "choreic rhythms" in folk songs and book poetry of the 17th century, to which Trediakovsky pointed out, thinking that "our hearing" was "applied" to them, Lomonosov was not embarrassed, since it was necessary to start with clean slate. The pathos of an uncompromising break with tradition corresponded to the spirit of the time, and Lomonosov's iambs themselves sounded completely new and were maximally opposed to prose. The problem of stylistic demarcation with church literacy receded into the background. New literature and syllabic-tonic poetry have become almost synonymous.
Trediakovsky eventually accepted the ideas of Lomonosov, in 1752 he published a whole treatise on syllabo-tonic versification ("A method for adding Russian poetry, corrected and multiplied against the one published in 1735") and in practice conscientiously experimented with different meters and sizes. Lomonosov, in practice, wrote almost exclusively in iambs, the only, in his opinion, suitable for high genres(his classification of high, "mediocre" and low genres and "calms" is set out in the "Preface on the Usefulness of Church Books in the Russian Language", 1757).
Trediakovsky and Lomonosov, who studied at the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, were connected by many threads with pre-Petrine literacy and church scholarship. Sumarokov, a nobleman, a pupil of the land gentry cadet corps, shunned her. His literary knowledge, sympathies and interests were connected with French classicism. The leading genre in France was tragedy, and in the work of Sumarokov it became the main genre. Here his priority was undeniable. The first Russian classical tragedies belong to him: Khorev (1747), Hamlet (1747), Sinav and Truvor (1750) and others. Sumarokov also owns the first comedies - Tresotinus, Monsters (both 1750) and etc. True, these were "low" comedies, written in prose and being a pamphlet on faces (Trediakovsky is ridiculed in these comedies). That. Sumarokov rightfully claimed the titles of "Northern Racine" and "Russian Molière", and in 1756 it was he who would be appointed the first director of the first permanent theater in Russia, created by F.G. Volkov. But the status of a playwright and theatrical figure Sumarokov could not be satisfied. He claimed a leading and leading position in literature (much to the annoyance of his older brothers in writing). His "Two epistles" (1748) - "On the Russian language" and "On poetry" - were to receive a status similar to the status of Boileau's "Poetic Art" in literature French classicism(in 1774 their abridged version will be published under the title "Instruction to those who want to be writers"). Sumarokov's ambitions also explain the genre universalism of his work. He tested his strength in almost all classical genres(only the epic was not given to him). As the author of didactic epistles about poetry and poetic satires, he was the "Russian Boileau", as the author of "parables" (i.e. fables) - the "Russian Lafontaine", etc.
However, Sumarokov pursued not so much aesthetic as educational goals. He dreamed of being a mentor to the nobility and an adviser to an "enlightened monarch" (like Voltaire under Frederick II). He considered his literary activity as socially useful. His tragedies were a school of civic virtue for the monarch and subjects, in comedies, satires and parables, vices were castigated (the rhyme "Sumarokov - the scourge of vices" became generally accepted), elegies and eclogues taught "fidelity and tenderness", spiritual odes (Sumarokov translated the entire Psalter) and philosophical poems instructed in reasonable concepts about religion, in the "Two epistles" the rules of poetry were proposed, etc. In addition, Sumarokov became the publisher of the first in Russia literary magazine- "Hardworking bee" (1759) (it was also the first private magazine).
In general, the literature of Russian classicism is characterized by the pathos of state service (which makes it related to the literature of Peter the Great's time). The education of "private" virtues in a citizen was her second task, and her first task was to promote the achievements of the "regular state" created by Peter and expose its opponents. That is why this new literature begins with satires and odes. Kantemir ridicules the champions of antiquity, Lomonosov admires the successes new Russia. They defend one thing - "Peter's case".
Publicly read on solemn occasions in huge halls, in a special theatrical atmosphere of the imperial court, the ode should "thunder" and amaze the imagination. She best of all could glorify the "cause of Peter" and the greatness of the empire, the best way served propaganda purposes. Therefore, it is a solemn ode (and not a tragedy, as in France, or epic poem) became the main genre in Russian literature XVIII century. This is one of distinctive features"Russian classicism". Others are rooted in the Old Russian, defiantly rejected by him, i.e. church tradition(which makes "Russian classicism" an organic phenomenon of Russian culture).
Russian classicism developed under the influence of the European Enlightenment, but its ideas were rethought. For example, the most important of them is the idea of ​​"natural", natural equality of all people. In France, under this slogan, there was a struggle for the rights of the third estate. And Sumarokov and other Russians writers XVIII in., based on the same thought, they teach the nobles to be worthy of their rank and not to stain the "estate honor", since fate has exalted them above their natural equals.

romantic poem in the work of Ryleev. "Voinarovsky" - composition, principles of character creation, the specifics of a romantic conflict, the correlation between the fates of the hero and the author. Dispute between History and Poetry in Voinarovsky.

The originality of the Decembrist poetry was most fully manifested in the work of Kondraty Fedorovich Ryleev (1795-1826). He created "active poetry, poetry of the highest intensity, heroic pathos" (39).

Among lyrical works Ryleev’s most famous was and, perhaps, still remains the poem “Citizen” (1824), banned at the time, but illegally distributed, well known to readers. This work is the fundamental success of Ryleev the poet, perhaps even the pinnacle of Decembrist lyrics in general. The image of a new lyrical hero is created in the poem:

Kondraty Fedorovich Ryleev is one of the founders and classics of Russian revolutionary civil poetry, inspired by the progressive social movement and hostile to the autocracy. He more fully than others expressed the Decembrist worldview in poetry and developed the main themes of Decembristism. In the work of Ryleev are reflected highlights history of the Decembrist movement in its most significant period - between 1820-1825.

The name of Ryleev in our minds is surrounded by an aura of martyrdom and heroism. The charm of his personality as a fighter and revolutionary who died for his convictions is so great that for many it seemed to overshadow the aesthetic originality of his work. Tradition has preserved the image of Ryleev, which was created by his friends and followers, first in the memoirs of N. Bestuzhev, then in the articles of Ogarev and Herzen.

The search for ways to actively influence society led Ryleev to the genre of the poem. Ryleev's first poem was the poem "Voynarovsky" (1823-1824). The poem has much in common with "Duma", but there is also a fundamental novelty: in "Voinarovsky" Ryleev strives for reliable historical flavor, the truthfulness of psychological characteristics. Ryleev created a new hero: disappointed, but not in worldly and secular pleasures, not in love or glory, the Ryleev hero is a victim of fate that did not allow him to realize his mighty life potential. Resentment at fate, at the ideal of a heroic life that did not take place, alienates the Ryley hero from those around him, turning him into a tragic figure. The tragedy of the incompleteness of life, its non-realization in real actions and events will be an important discovery not only in Decembrist poetry, but also in Russian literature as a whole.

“Voynarovsky” is the only completed poem by Ryleev, although besides it he started several more: “Nalivaiko”, “Gaydamak”, “Paley”. “It so happened,” the researchers write, “that Ryleev’s poems were not only propaganda of Decembristism in literature, but also a poetic biography of the Decembrists themselves, including the December defeat and years of hard labor. Reading a poem about Voinarovsky, the Decembrists involuntarily thought about themselves<…>Ryleev's poem was perceived both as a poem of heroic deeds and as a poem of tragic forebodings. The fate of a political exile, abandoned in distant Siberia, a meeting with a citizen wife - all this is almost a prediction” (43). Ryleev’s readers were especially struck by his prediction in “Nalivaika’s Confession” from the poem “Nalivaiko”:

<…>I know that death awaits

The one who rises first

On the oppressors of the people, -

Fate has already doomed me.

But where, tell me when was

Is freedom redeemed without sacrifice?

I will die for my native land, -

I feel it, I know...

And joyfully holy father,

I bless my lot!<…> (44)

The fulfilled prophecies of Ryleev's poetry once again prove the fruitfulness of the romantic principle “life and poetry are one”.

Classicism.

Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism. Piece of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Interest for classicism is only eternal, unchanging - in every phenomenon, he seeks to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual features. The aesthetics of classicism gives great value social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art(Aristotle, Horace).
Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined features, mixing of which is not allowed.
As a certain trend, classicism was formed in France in the 17th century.
In Russia, classicism originated in the 18th century, after the transformations of Peter I. Lomonosov carried out a reform of Russian verse, developed the theory of "three calms", which was essentially an adaptation of French classical rules to the Russian language. Images in classicism are deprived individual traits, as they are called, first of all, to capture stable generic, not passing over time signs, acting as the embodiment of any social or spiritual forces.

Classicism in Russia developed under the great influence of the Enlightenment - the ideas of equality and justice have always been the focus of attention of Russian classic writers. Therefore, in Russian classicism, genres that imply a mandatory author's assessment historical reality: comedy (D. I. Fonvizin), satire (A. D. Kantemir), fable (A. P. Sumarokov, I. I. Khemnitser), ode (Lomonosov, G. R. Derzhavin).

Sentimentalism- mindset in Western European and Russian culture and the corresponding literary trend. The works written in this genre are based on the feelings of the reader. In Europe, it existed from the 20s to the 80s of the 18th century, in Russia - from the end of the 18th to the beginning of the 19th century.
Sentimentalism declared feeling, not reason, to be the dominant of "human nature", which distinguished it from classicism. Without breaking with the Enlightenment, sentimentalism remained true to the ideal of a normative personality, but the condition for its implementation was not a “reasonable” reorganization of the world, but the release and improvement of “natural” feelings. Hero educational literature in sentimentalism is more individualized, his inner world enriched with the ability to empathize, sensitively respond to what is happening around. By origin (or by conviction), the sentimentalist hero is a democrat; rich spiritual world commoner - one of the main discoveries and conquests of sentimentalism.
Sentimentalism in Russian literature

Nikolai Karamzin "Poor Lisa"

Sentimentalism penetrated into Russia in the 1780s-early 1790s thanks to the translations of Werther's novels by I.V. Goethe, Pamela, Clarissa and Grandison S. Richardson, New Eloise J.-J. Rousseau, Paul and Virginie J.-A. Bernardin de Saint-Pierre. The era of Russian sentimentalism was opened by Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin with Letters from a Russian Traveler (1791–1792).

His story "Poor Liza" (1792) is a masterpiece of Russian sentimental prose; from Goethe's Werther, he inherited the general atmosphere of sensitivity and melancholy and the theme of suicide.
The works of N.M. Karamzin brought to life a huge number of imitations; at the beginning of the 19th century appeared "Poor Masha" by A.E. Izmailov (1801), "Journey to Midday Russia" (1802), "Henrietta, or the Triumph of Deception over Weakness or Delusion" by I. Svechinsky (1802), numerous stories by G.P. Kamenev ( "The Story of Poor Marya"; "Unfortunate Margarita"; "Beautiful Tatyana"), etc.

Ivan Ivanovich Dmitriev belonged to the Karamzin group, which advocated the creation of a new poetic language and fought against the archaic grandiloquent style and obsolete genres.

Sentimentalism marked early work Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky. Publication in 1802 of a translation of the Elegy written in rural cemetery E. Gray became a phenomenon in artistic life Russia, for he translated the poem "into the language of sentimentalism in general, he translated the genre of elegy, and not an individual work English poet having its own special individual style"(E.G. Etkind). In 1809 Zhukovsky wrote a sentimental story "Maryina Grove" in the spirit of N.M. Karamzin.

Russian sentimentalism had exhausted itself by 1820.

It was one of the stages of the pan-European literary development, which completed the Enlightenment and opened the way to romanticism.

The main features of the literature of sentimentalism

So, taking into account all of the above, we can single out several main features of Russian literature of sentimentalism: a departure from the straightforwardness of classicism, an emphasized subjectivity of the approach to the world, a cult of feelings, a cult of nature, a cult of innate moral purity, unspoiltness, a rich spiritual world of representatives of the lower classes is affirmed. Attention is paid to the spiritual world of a person, and in the first place are feelings, not great ideas.
Romanticism- phenomenon European culture in XVIII-XIX centuries, representing a reaction to the Enlightenment and the scientific and technological progress stimulated by it; ideological and artistic direction in European and American culture of the late 18th century - the first half of XIX century. It is characterized by the assertion of the intrinsic value of the spiritual and creative life of the individual, the image of strong (often rebellious) passions and characters, spiritualized and healing nature. Spread to various areas human activities. In the 18th century, everything that was strange, fantastic, picturesque, and existing in books, and not in reality, was called romantic. AT early XIX century, romanticism became the designation of a new direction, opposite to classicism and the Enlightenment.
Romanticism in Russian literature

It is usually believed that in Russia romanticism appears in the poetry of V. A. Zhukovsky (although some Russian poetic works of the 1790-1800s are often attributed to the pre-romantic movement that developed from sentimentalism). In Russian romanticism, freedom from classical conventions appears, a ballad, a romantic drama, is created. A new idea of ​​the essence and meaning of poetry is affirmed, which is recognized as an independent sphere of life, an expression of the highest, ideal aspirations of man; the old view, according to which poetry was an empty pastime, something completely serviceable, is no longer possible.

The early poetry of A. S. Pushkin also developed within the framework of romanticism. The poetry of M. Yu. Lermontov, the “Russian Byron”, can be considered the pinnacle of Russian romanticism. The philosophical lyrics of F. I. Tyutchev are both the completion and the overcoming of romanticism in Russia.

§ 1. The emergence and development of sentimentalism in Europe

Literary trends should not always be judged by their name, especially since the meaning of the words they are designated changes over time. In the modern language, "sentimental" - easily coming to tenderness, able to quickly become emotional; sensitive. In the 18th century, the words "sentimentality", "sensitivity" meant something else - susceptibility, the ability to respond with the soul to everything that surrounds a person.sensitivecalled the one who admired virtue, the beauties of nature, the creations of art, who sympathized with human sorrows. The first work, in the title of which the word appeared, is "Sentimental JourneyonFrance and Italy” by Englishman Lawrence Stern(1768). The most famous writer of sentimentalism, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, is the author of the touching novel “Julia, or New Eloise”(1761).

Sentimentalism(from the Frenchsentiment- "feeling"; from English.sentimental- "sensitive") - a literary trend in European art of the second half of the 18th century, prepared by the crisis of enlightenment rationalism and proclaiming that the basis of human nature is not reason, but feeling. An important event in the spiritual life of Europe was the discovery in a person of the ability to enjoy the contemplation of one's own emotions. It turned out that Compassionate neighbor, sharing his sorrows, helping him, you can experience sincere joy. To do virtuous deeds means to follow not an external duty, but one's own nature. Developed sensitivity in itself is able to distinguish good from evil, and therefore there is no need for morality. Accordingly, a work of art was valued for how much it could move a person, touch his heart.On the basis of these views, the artistic system of sentimentalism arose.

Like its predecessor, classicism, sentimentalism is thoroughly didactic, subordinated to educational tasks. But this is didacticism of a different kind. If classicist writers sought to influence the minds of readers, to convince them of

Bypassing the immutable laws of morality, then sentimental literature appeals to feeling. She describes the majestic beauties of nature, solitude in the bosom of which becomes an affinity for the education of sensitivity, appeals to religious feeling, sings of joy family life, often opposed to the state virtues of classicism, depicts various touching situations that simultaneously evoke in readers both compassion for the heroes and the joy of feeling their spiritual sensitivity. Without breaking with the Enlightenment, sentimentalism remained true to the ideal of a normative personality, but the condition for its implementation was not a “reasonable” reorganization of the world, but the release and improvement of “natural” feelings. The hero of enlightenment literature in sentimentalism is more individualized, he is democratic in origin or beliefs, there is no straightforwardness inherent in classicism in the depiction and evaluation of characters. The rich spiritual world of the common people, the assertion of the innate moral purity of the representatives of the lower classes - one of the main discoveries and the conquest of sentimentalism.

The literature of sentimentalism was turned to everyday life. Choosing ordinary people as her heroes and assigning herself an equally simple reader, not experienced in book wisdom, she demanded the immediate embodiment of her values ​​and ideals. She tried to show that these ideals are derived from everyday life, dressing their works in the formtravel notes, letters, diarieswritten but hot on the heels of events. Accordingly, the narrative in sentimental literature comes from the perspective of a participant or witness of what is being described; at the same time, everything that happens in the mind of the narrator comes to the fore. Sentimentalist writers seek above all to educateemotional culturetheir readers, so the description of spiritual reactions to certain phenomena of life sometimes obscures the phenomena themselves. The prose of sentimentalism is full of digressions, depicting the nuances of the characters' feelings, reasoning on moral topics, while the storyline is gradually weakening. In poetry, the same processes lead to the prominence of the author's personality and the collapse of the genre system of classicism.

Sentimentalism received its most complete expression in England, developing from melancholic contemplation and patriarchal idyll in the bosom of nature to a socially concrete disclosure of the topic. The main features of English sentimentalism are sensitivity, not without exaltation, irony and humor, which also provide a parodic debunking of

canon, and the skeptical attitude of sentimentalism to its own capabilities. Sentimentalists showed the non-identity of man to himself, his ability to be different. But unlike pre-romanticism, which developed in parallel with it, sentimentalism was alien to the irrational - the inconsistency of moods, the impulsive nature of spiritual impulses, he perceived as accessible to rationalistic interpretation.

Pan-European cultural communication and typological closeness in the development of literatures led to the rapid spread of sentimentalism in Germany, France, and Russia. In Russian literature, representatives of the new trend in the 60-70s of the XVIII century. became M. N. Muravyov, N. P. Karamzin, V. V. Kapnist, N. A. Lvov, V. A. Zhukovsky, A. I. Radishchev.

The first sentimental tendencies in Russian literature appeared in the mid-70s of the 18th century. in the poetry of the still very young M. N. Muravyov (1757-1807). At first he wrote poems on topics bequeathed by classicist teachers. A person, according to the poets of Russian classicism, must always maintain inner balance or, as they said, “peace.” Reflecting and reading European authors, M. N. Muravyov came to the conclusion that such peace cannot exist, since a person is “sensitive He is passionate, he is subject to influences, he is born to feel. This is how the most important words for sentimentalism sounded sensitivity (in the sense of susceptibility) and influence (now they say “sensibility”).

The role of M. N. Muravyov in the history of Russian literature is great. In particular, he was the first to describe the inner world of a person in development, considering in detail his spiritual movements. The poet also worked a lot on improving poetic technique, and in some later poems his verse is already approaching the clarity and purity of Pushkin's poetry. But, having published two poetry collections in his early youth, M. II. Muravyov then published sporadically, and later completely left literature for the sake of pedagogical activity.

Predominantly noble in nature, Russian sentimentalism is largelyrationalisticare strong in itdidactic settingandeducational trends.Improving literary language, Russian sentimentalists turned to colloquial norms, introduced vernacular. AT

based on the aesthetics of sentimentalism, like in classicism, imitation of nature, the idealization of patriarchal life, the spread of elegiac moods. The favorite genres of sentimentalists were epistle, elegy, epistolary novel, travel notes, diaries and other types of prose works. in which confessional motives predominate.

The Sentimentalist Ideal of Sentiment Influenced a Generation educated people Europe. Sensitivity was reflected not only in literature, but also in painting, in interior decoration, especially in park art, a new-fangled landscape (English) park had to in an unexpected way to show nature and thereby give food for the senses. Reading sentimental novels was part of the norm of the behavior of an educated person. Pushkin's Tatyana Larina, who "fell in love with the deceptions of both Richardson and Rousseau" (Samuel Richardson is a well-known English sentimental novelist), in this sense received the same upbringing in the Russian wilderness as all European young ladies. Literary heroes sympathized as real people imitated them.

In general, sentimental education brought a lot of good. People who received it learned to appreciate the most insignificant details of the life around them, to listen to every movement of their souls. The hero of sentimental works and the person brought up on them are close to nature, perceive themselves as its product, admire nature itself, and not that. how people changed it. Thanks to sentimentalism, some writers of past centuries, whose work did not fit into the framework of the theory of classicism, became again loved. Among them are such great names as W. Shakespeare and M. Cervantes. In addition, the sentimental direction is democratic, the disadvantaged became an object of compassion, and the simple life of the middle class of society was considered conducive to tender, poetic feelings.

In the 80-90s of the XVIII century. there is a crisis of sentimentalism associated with a break in sentimental literature with its didactic tasks. After the French Revolution 1<85) 179<1 гг. сентиментальные веяния в европейских литерату­рах сходят на нет, уступая место романтическим тенденциям.

1.When and where did sentimentalism originate?

2.What are the causes of sentimentalism?

3.What are the main principles of sentimentalism.

4.What features of the Enlightenment did sentimentalism inherit?

5.Who became the hero of sentimental literature?

6. In what countries did sentimentalism spread?

7.Name the main features of English sentimentalism.

8.How did sentimentalist moods differ from pre-romantic ones?

9.When did sentimentalism appear in Russia? Catch its representativesin Russian literature.

10.What are the distinctive features of Russian sentimentalism?Name its genres.

Key concepts:sentimentalism, feeling, feelings- validity. didacticism, enlightenment, patriarchal way of life. elegy, epistle, travel notes, epistolary novel

1. Sentimentalism(French sentimentalisme, from English sentimental, French sentiment - feeling) - the mood in Western European and Russian culture and the corresponding literary direction. The works written in this genre are based on the feelings of the reader. In Europe, it existed from the 20s to the 80s of the 18th century, in Russia - from the end of the 18th to the beginning of the 19th century.

If classicism is reason, duty, then sentimentalism is something lighter, these are the feelings of a person, his experiences.

The main theme of sentimentalism- love.

The main features of sentimentalism:

Moving away from straightness

Multifaceted characters, subjective approach to the world

The cult of feeling

Cult of nature

Revival of one's own purity

Affirmation of the rich spiritual world of the lower classes

The main genres of sentimentalism:

sentimental tale

Travels

Idyll or pastoral

Letters of a personal nature

Ideological basis- protest against the corruption of aristocratic society

The main property of sentimentalism- the desire to present the human personality in the movement of the soul, thoughts, feelings, the disclosure of the inner world of man through the state of nature

At the heart of the aesthetics of sentimentalism- imitation of nature

Features of Russian sentimentalism:

Strong didactic setting

Enlightenment character

Active improvement of the literary language through the introduction of literary forms into it

Sentimentalists:

Lawrence Stan Richardson - England

Jean Jacques Rousseau - France

M.N. Muraviev - Russia

N.M. Karamzin - Russia

V.V. Kapnist - Russia

ON THE. Lviv - Russia

Young V.A. Zhukovsky was a sentimentalist for a short time.

2.Biography of Rousseau

The most burning problems of the 18th century were social and political. Thinkers were interested in man as a social and moral being, conscious of his freedom, capable of fighting for it and a worthy life. Whereas previously only representatives of privileged social groups could afford to philosophize, now the voices of low-income and disadvantaged people who reject the established social order have become louder and louder. One of them was Jean Jacques Rousseau. The predominant theme of his works: the origin of social inequality and overcoming it. Jean Jacques was born in Geneva, the son of a watchmaker. Musical abilities, a thirst for knowledge and a desire for fame led him to Paris in 1741. Lacking a systematic education and influential acquaintances, he did not immediately achieve recognition. He brought a new notation system to the Paris Academy, but his proposal was rejected (later he wrote the comic opera The Village Sorcerer). Collaborating in the famous "Encyclopedia", he enriched himself with knowledge and at the same time - unlike other enlighteners - doubted that scientific and technological progress only benefits people. Civilization, in his opinion, exacerbates inequality between people. Both science and technology are good only if they are based on high morality, noble feelings and reverence for nature. For such a position, Rousseau was sharply criticized by the "progressives". (Only at the end of the 20th century did it become clear how true it was.) During his lifetime, he was both praised and condemned, persecuted. For some time he hid in Switzerland, and died in seclusion and poverty. His major philosophical works: "Discourses on the sciences and arts", "Discourses on the origin and foundations of inequality between people", "On the social contract, or the principles of political law". From philosophical and artistic works: "Julia, or New Eloise", "Confession". For Rousseau, the path of civilization is the consistent enslavement of man. With the advent of private property and the desire to have as many material goods as possible, "labor became inevitable, and vast forests turned into cheerful fields that had to be watered with human sweat and on which slavery and poverty soon rose and flourished along with crops. This great revolution was made by the invention two arts: metalworking and agriculture. In the eyes of the poet - gold and silver, in the eyes of the philosopher - iron and bread civilized people and destroyed the human race. " With extraordinary insight, like an outside observer, he drew attention to two fundamental vices of civilization: the creation of ever new needs that are not necessary for normal life and the formation of an artificial personality that tries to "seem" and not "be". In contrast to Hobbes (and in accordance with historical truth), Rousseau believed that the state of discord and war in society intensified as property inequality increased, competition and the thirst to enrich themselves at the expense of others. State power, according to the social contract, was to become the guarantor of security and justice. But it has created a new form of dependency between those in power and those under them. If this state system deceives the expectations of the people and does not fulfill its obligations, then the people have the right to overthrow it. Rousseau's thoughts inspired the revolutionaries of different countries, especially France. His "Social Contract" became Robespierre's reference book. In those years, few people paid attention to the serious warning of the philosopher: "Peoples! Know once and for all that nature wanted to protect you from the sciences, just like a mother pulls a dangerous weapon out of her child's hands. All the secrets she hides from you are evil" .

3. Relationship with Voltaire

This was joined by a quarrel with Voltaire and with the government party in Geneva. Rousseau once called Voltaire "touching", but in fact there could not be a greater contrast than between these two writers. The antagonism between them manifested itself in 1755, when Voltaire, on the occasion of the terrible Lisbon earthquake, renounced optimism, and Rousseau stood up for Providence. Fed up with glory and living in luxury, Voltaire, according to Rousseau, sees only grief on earth; he, unknown and poor, finds that everything is fine.

Relations escalated when Rousseau, in his Letter on Spectacles, strongly rebelled against the introduction of theater in Geneva. Voltaire, who lived near Geneva and who, through his home theater at Ferne, was developing a taste for dramatic performances among the Genevans, realized that the letter was directed against him and against his influence in Geneva. Knowing no measure in his anger, Voltaire hated Rousseau and either mocked his ideas and writings, or made him look crazy.

The controversy between them especially flared up when Rousseau was banned from entering Geneva, which he attributed to the influence of Voltaire. Finally, Voltaire published an anonymous pamphlet, accusing Rousseau of intending to overthrow the Geneva constitution and Christianity, and claiming that he had killed Mother Teresa.

The peaceful villagers of Motiers were agitated; Rousseau began to be insulted and threatened; the local pastor delivered a sermon against him. One autumn night, a whole rain of stones fell on his house.

Sentimentalism originated in the late 1920s. 18th century in England, remaining in the 20-50s. closely associated with Enlightenment classicism and with the Enlightenment novel of Richardson's sentimentalism. French sentimentalism reaches its full development in the epistolary novel by J. J. Rousseau The New Eloise. The subjective-emotional nature of the letters was an innovation in French literature.

The novel "Julia, or New Eloise":

1) The bias of the work.

Published for the first time in Holland in 1761, the novel "Julia, or New Eloise" has a subtitle: "Letters of two lovers living in a small town at the foot of the Alps." And something else is said on the title page: "Collected and published by Jean-Jacques Rousseau." The purpose of this simple hoax is to create the illusion of complete authenticity of the story. Posing as a publisher, and not as a writer, Rousseau provides some pages with footnotes (there are 164 in total), with which he argues with his heroes, fixing their delusions due to violent experiences of love, corrects their views on issues of morality, art, poetry. In the shell of mild irony, the top of objectivity: the author allegedly has nothing in common with the characters in the novel, he is only an observer, an impartial judge standing over them. And at first, Rousseau got his way: he was asked whether these letters were really found, whether it was true or fiction, although he himself gave himself out as an epigraph to the novel and Petrarch's verse. "New Eloise" consists of 163 letters, divided into six parts. There are relatively few episodes in the novel compared to the huge add-on, consisting of lengthy discussions on a variety of topics: about a duel, about suicide, about whether a wealthy woman can help her beloved man with money, about housekeeping and social organization, about religion and helping the poor , about raising children, about opera and dancing. Rousseau's novel is filled with maxims, instructive aphorisms, and, in addition, there are too many tears and sighs, kisses and hugs, unnecessary complaints and inappropriate sympathies. In the 18th century, it was loved, at least in a certain environment; it seems to us today old-fashioned and often ridiculous. To read from beginning to end "New Eloise" with all the deviations from the plot, you need to have a fair dose of patience, but Rousseau's book is distinguished by its deep content. The "New Eloise" was studied with unflagging attention by such demanding thinkers and artists of the word as N. G. Chernyshevsky and L. N. Tolstoy. Tolstoy said about Rousseau's novel: "This beautiful book makes you think"

Sentimentalism is not only a trend in culture and literature, it is primarily the mindset of human society at a certain stage of development, which in Europe began a little earlier and lasted from the 20s to the 80s of the 18th century, in Russia it fell at the end of the 18th century. - the beginning of the XIX century. The main signs of sentimentalism are as follows - in human nature, the primacy of feelings, and not reason, is recognized.

From mind to feeling

Sentimentalism closes which covered the entire XVIII century and gave rise to a number of these are classicism and rococo, sentimentalism and pre-romanticism. Some experts consider romanticism to follow the described trend, and sentimentalism is identified with pre-romanticism. Each of these directions has its own characteristic distinctive features, each has its own normative personality, the one whose features better than others express the trend that is optimal for a given culture. There are some signs of sentimentalism. This is a concentration of attention on the individual, on the strength and power of feelings, the prerogative of nature over civilization.

Towards nature

This trend in literature differs from previous and subsequent trends primarily in the cult of the human heart. Preference is given to simplicity, naturalness, the hero of the works becomes a more democratic personality, often a representative of the common people. Great attention is paid to the inner world of man and nature, of which he is a part. These are the signs of sentimentalism. Feelings are always freer than reason, which was worshiped or even deified by classicism. Therefore, sentimentalist writers had greater freedom of imagination and its reflection in a work that also no longer fit into the strict logical framework of classicism.

New literary forms

The main ones are travels and novels, but not just, but instructive or in letters. Letters, diaries, memoirs are the most frequently used genres, as they make it possible to reveal the inner world of a person more widely. In poetry, elegy and epistle take precedence. That is, in themselves, are also signs of sentimentalism. The pastoral cannot belong to any other direction than the one described.

In Russia sentimentalism was reactionary and liberal. The representative of the first was Shalikov Petr Ivanovich (1768-1852). His works were an idyllic utopia - infinitely kind kings sent by God to earth solely for the sake of peasant happiness. No social contradictions - beautiful soul and universal goodness. Probably, thanks to such sweet and sour works, a certain tearfulness and far-fetchedness, which are sometimes perceived as signs of sentimentalism, have entrenched this literary trend.

Founder of Russian sentimentalism

Outstanding representatives of the liberal trend are Karamzin Nikolai Mikhailovich (1766-1826) and the early Zhukovsky Vasily Andreevich (1783-1852), these are well-known. You can also name several progressive liberal-minded writers - these are A. M. Kutuzov, to whom Radishchev dedicated "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow", M. N. Muravyov, a sage and poet, poet, fabulist and translator, V. V. Kapnist and N. A. Lvov. The earliest and most striking work of this trend was Karamzin's story "Poor Liza". It should be noted that the signs of Russia have distinctive features from Europe. The main thing is the instructive, moral and enlightening nature of the works. Karamzin said that one should write the way one speaks. Thus, another feature of Russian sentimentalism is the improvement of the literary language of the work. I would like to note that a positive achievement or even discovery of this literary trend is that it was the first to turn to the spiritual world of people of the lower classes, revealing its wealth and generosity of soul. Before the sentimentalists, the poor people, as a rule, were shown to be rude, callous, incapable of any spirituality.

"Poor Liza" - the pinnacle of Russian sentimentalism

What are the signs of sentimentalism in "Poor Liza"? The plot of the story is uncomplicated. Its charm is not that. The very idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe work conveys to the reader the fact that the natural naturalness and rich world of Lisa, a simple peasant woman, is incomparably higher than the world of a well-educated, secular, well-trained Erast, in general, and a good person, but squeezed by the framework of conventions that did not allow him to marry beloved girl. But he did not even think of marrying, because, having achieved reciprocity, Erast, full of prejudices, lost interest in Liza, she ceased to be the personification of purity and purity for him. A poor peasant girl, even full of dignity, trusting a rich young man who has descended to a commoner (which should speak of the breadth of her soul and democratic views), is initially doomed to the final run to the pond. But the merit of the story lies in a completely different approach and perspective of rather banal events covered. It was the signs of sentimentalism in "Poor Lisa" (the beauty of the soul of a simple person and nature, the cult of love) that made the story incredibly popular with contemporaries. And the pond, in which Liza drowned herself, began to be called by her name (the place in the story is indicated quite accurately). The fact that the story has become an event is also evidenced by the fact that among the current graduates of Soviet schools, almost everyone knows that Karamzin wrote “Poor Lisa”, as Pushkin wrote “Eugene Onegin”, and Lermontov wrote “Mtsyri”.

Originally from France

Sentimentalism itself is a more significant phenomenon in fiction than classicism with its rationalism and dryness, with its heroes, who, as a rule, were crowned persons or generals. "Julia, or New Eloise" by Jean-Jacques Rousseau burst into fiction and laid the foundations of a new direction. Already in the works of the founder of the direction, general signs of sentimentalism appeared in literature, forming a new artistic system that glorified a simple person who was able to empathize with others without any self-interest, endlessly love loved ones, sincerely rejoice in the happiness of others.

Similarities and differences

And sentimentalism largely coincide, because both of these directions belong to the Enlightenment, but they also have differences. Classicism glorifies and deifies the mind, and sentimentalism - feeling. The main slogans of these trends also differ: in classicism it is “a person subject to the dictates of reason”, in sentimentalism it is “a feeling person”. The forms of writing works also differ - the logic and rigor of the classicists, and the works of authors of a later literary direction, rich in digressions, descriptions, memoirs and letters. Based on the foregoing, we can answer the question of what are the main features of sentimentalism. The main theme of the works is love. Genres specific - pastoral (elegy), sentimental story, letters and travel. In the works - a cult of feelings and nature, a departure from straightforwardness.