Renaissance 17th-18th century. Renaissance (briefly)

XIV-XV century. In the countries of Europe, a new, turbulent era begins - the Renaissance (Renaissance - from the French Renaissanse). The beginning of the era is associated with the liberation of man from feudal serfdom, the development of sciences, arts and crafts.

The Renaissance began in Italy and continued its development in the countries of northern Europe: France, England, Germany, the Netherlands, Spain and Portugal. The late Renaissance dates from the middle of the 16th to the 90s of the 16th century.

The influence of the church on the life of society has weakened, interest in antiquity is reviving with its attention to the personality of a person, his freedom and development opportunities. The invention of printing contributed to the spread of literacy among the population, the growth of education, the development of sciences, arts, including fiction. The bourgeoisie was not satisfied with the religious worldview that prevailed in the Middle Ages, but created a new, secular science based on the study of the nature and heritage of ancient writers. Thus began the "revival" of ancient (ancient Greek and Roman) science and philosophy. Scientists began to search for and study ancient literary monuments stored in libraries.

There were writers and artists who dared to oppose the church. They were convinced that the greatest value on earth is a person, and all his interests should be focused on earthly life, on how to live it fully, happily and meaningfully. Such people, who dedicated their art to man, began to be called humanists.

Renaissance literature is characterized by humanistic ideals. This era is associated with the emergence of new genres and with the formation of early realism, which is called so, "Renaissance realism" (or Renaissance), in contrast to the later stages, enlightenment, critical, socialist. The works of the Renaissance give us an answer to the question of the complexity and importance of the statement human personality, its creative and effective beginning.

Renaissance literature is characterized by various genres. But certain literary forms prevailed. Giovanni Boccaccio becomes the legislator of a new genre - the short story, which is called the Renaissance short story. This genre was born of a feeling of surprise, characteristic of the Renaissance, before the inexhaustibility of the world and the unpredictability of man and his actions.

In poetry becomes the most characteristic form sonnet (a stanza of 14 lines with a specific rhyme). Dramaturgy is developing a lot. The most prominent playwrights of the Renaissance are Lope de Vega in Spain and Shakespeare in England.

Widespread publicity and philosophical prose. In Italy, Giordano Bruno denounces the church in his works, creates his own new philosophical concepts. In England, Thomas More expresses the ideas of utopian communism in his book Utopia. Widely known are such authors as Michel de Montaigne ("Experiments") and Erasmus of Rotterdam ("Praise of Stupidity").

Among the writers of that time are also crowned persons. Poems are written by Duke Lorenzo de Medici, and Marguerite of Navarre, sister of King Francis I of France, is known as the author of the Heptameron collection.

In the fine arts of the Renaissance, man appeared as the most beautiful creation of nature, strong and perfect, angry and gentle, thoughtful and cheerful.

The world of Renaissance man is most vividly represented in the Sistine Chapel of the Vatican, painted by Michelangelo. Bible stories form the vault of the chapel. Their main motive is the creation of the world and man. These frescoes are full of grandeur and tenderness. On the altar wall is the Last Judgment fresco, which was created in 1537-1541. Here, Michelangelo sees in man not the "crown of creation", but Christ is presented as angry and punishing. Ceiling and altar wall Sistine Chapel represent a clash of possibility and reality, the sublimity of the idea and the tragedy of the implementation. " Last Judgment"is considered a work that completed the Renaissance in art.

Test in the discipline: "Culturology"

on the topic: "Culture of the Renaissance (Renaissance)"

Completed:

Student

St. Petersburg 2008

Introduction

The Renaissance is a very important stage of development European culture. Chronologically included in the medieval history of European peoples, which arose in the depths of feudal culture, the Renaissance opens a fundamentally new cultural era, marking the beginning of the struggle of the bourgeoisie for dominance in society.

At this early stage of development, bourgeois ideology was a progressive ideology and reflected the interests not only of the bourgeoisie itself, but also of all other classes and estates that were subordinate to the feudal structure of relations that was becoming obsolete.

The Renaissance is a period of rampant Inquisition, a split in the Catholic Church, brutal wars and popular uprisings that took place against the backdrop of the formation of bourgeois individualism.

The culture of the Renaissance originated in the second half of the 14th century. And it continued to develop throughout the 15th and 16th centuries, gradually covering all the countries of Europe one after another. The emergence of the Renaissance culture was prepared by a number of pan-European and local historical conditions.

In the XIV - XV centuries. early capitalist, commodity-money relations were born. Italy was one of the first to embark on this path, which was largely facilitated by: high level urbanization, the subordination of the village to the city, the wide scope of handicraft production, financial affairs, oriented not only to the domestic, but also to the foreign market.

folding new culture was prepared and public consciousness, changes in the moods of various social strata of the early bourgeoisie. The asceticism of church morality in the era of active commercial, industrial and financial entrepreneurship was seriously at odds with the real life practice of these social strata with their desire for worldly goods, hoarding, craving for wealth. In the psychology of the merchants, the craft elite, the features of rationalism, prudence, courage in business endeavors, awareness of personal abilities and wide opportunities clearly appeared. There was a morality that justified "honest enrichment", the joys of worldly life, the crown of success of which was considered the prestige of the family, respect for fellow citizens, glory in the memory of descendants.

The term "Renaissance" (Renaissance) appeared in the 16th century. The term "Renaissance" originally meant not so much the name of the entire era, but the very moment of the emergence of new art, which was usually timed to coincide with the beginning of the 16th century. Only later did the concept acquire a broader meaning and began to designate the era when in Italy, and then in other countries, a culture opposed to feudalism was formed and flourished. Engels described the Renaissance as "the greatest progressive upheaval of all that mankind has experienced up to that time."

1. Culture of the Renaissance

XIII - XVI centuries were a time of great changes in the economy, political and cultural life European countries. The rapid growth of cities and the development of crafts, and later the emergence of manufacturing production, the rise of world trade, which involved ever more remote areas in its orbit, the gradual deployment of the main trade routes from the Mediterranean to the north, which ended after the fall of Byzantium and the great geographical discoveries of the late XV and early XVI century, transformed the face of medieval Europe. Almost everywhere cities are now coming to the fore. Once the most powerful forces of the medieval world - the empire and the papacy - were in deep crisis. In the 16th century, the decaying Holy Roman Empire of the German nation became the scene of the first two anti-feudal revolutions - the Great Peasants' War in Germany and the Netherlands Uprising. The transitional nature of the era, the process of liberation from medieval fetters taking place in all areas of life, and at the same time the still underdevelopment of the emerging capitalist relations could not but affect the characteristics of the artistic culture and aesthetic thought of that time.

All changes in the life of society were accompanied by a broad renewal of culture - the flourishing of natural and exact sciences, literature in national languages ​​and, in particular, fine arts. Originating in the cities of Italy, this renewal then captured other European countries. The advent of printing opened unprecedented opportunities for the dissemination of literary and scientific works, and more regular and closer communication between countries contributed to the widespread penetration of new artistic movements.

This does not mean that the Middle Ages retreated before new trends: traditional ideas were preserved in the mass consciousness. The church resisted new ideas, using a medieval means - the Inquisition. The idea of ​​the freedom of the human person continued to exist in a society divided into classes. The feudal form of dependence of the peasants did not completely disappear, and in some countries (Germany, Central Europe) there was a return to serfdom. The feudal system showed quite a lot of vitality. Each European country lived it out in its own way and within its own chronological framework. Capitalism existed for a long time as a way of life, covering only a part of production both in the city and in the countryside. However, the patriarchal medieval slowness began to recede into the past.

The great geographical discoveries played a huge role in this breakthrough. In 1456, Portuguese ships reached Cape Verde, and in 1486, the expedition of B. Diaz circled the African continent from the south, passing the Cape of Good Hope. Mastering the coast of Africa, the Portuguese simultaneously sent ships to the open ocean, to the west and southwest. As a result, previously unknown Azores and Madeira Islands appeared on the maps. In 1492, a great event happened - H. Columbus, an Italian who moved to Spain, crossed the Atlantic Ocean in search of a way to India and landed near the Bahamas, discovering a new continent - America. In 1498, the Spanish traveler Vasco da Gama, rounding Africa, successfully brought his ships to the shores of India. From the 16th century Europeans are penetrating into China and Japan, of which they previously had only the most vague idea. From 1510, the conquest of America begins. In the 17th century Australia was discovered. The idea of ​​the shape of the earth has changed: trip around the world Portuguese F. Magellan (1519-1522) confirmed the conjecture that it has the shape of a ball.

2. The art of renaissance

The art of antiquity is one of the foundations of the artistic culture of the Renaissance. Representatives of the Renaissance find in ancient culture something that is consonant with their own aspirations - commitment to reality, cheerfulness, admiration for the beauty of the earthly world, before the greatness of a heroic deed. At the same time, having taken shape in different historical conditions, having absorbed the traditions of the Romanesque and Gothic styles, the art of the Renaissance bears the stamp of its time. Compared with the art of classical antiquity, the spiritual world of man is becoming more complex and multifaceted.

At this time, the Italian society begins to take an active interest in the culture of Ancient Greece and Rome, the manuscripts of ancient writers are being searched for, so the writings of Cicero and Titus Livius were found.

Drawing the ideal of the human personality, the figures of the Renaissance emphasized its kindness, strength, heroism, the ability to create and create a new world around itself. The high idea of ​​a person was inextricably linked with the idea of ​​his freedom of will: a person chooses his own life path and is in charge of her own destiny. The value of a person began to be determined by his personal merits, and not by his position in society: "Nobility, like a kind of radiance emanating from virtue and illuminating its owners, no matter what origin they are." (From the Book of Nobility by Poggio Bracciolini, 15th-century Italian humanist).

The Renaissance is a time of great discoveries, great masters and their outstanding works. It is marked by the appearance of a whole galaxy of artists-scientists, among whom the first place belongs to Leonardo da Vinci. It was the time of titanism, which manifested itself both in art and in life. Enough to remember heroic images, created by Michelangelo, and their creator (poet, artist, sculptor). People like Michelangelo or Leonardo da Vinci were real examples of the limitless possibilities of man.

Fine art in the Renaissance reached an unprecedented flowering. This is due to the economic upsurge, with a huge shift that has taken place in the minds of people who have turned to the cult of earthly life and beauty. In the Renaissance, the objective image of the world was seen through the eyes of a person, so one of the important problems faced by artists was the problem of space.

Artists began to see the world differently: flat, as if incorporeal images of medieval art gave way to three-dimensional, relief, convex space. Raphael Santi (1483-1520), Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564) sang with their creativity the perfect personality, in which physical and spiritual beauty merge together in accordance with the requirements of ancient aesthetics. Renaissance artists rely on the principles of imitation of nature, use perspective, the rule of the "golden section" in the construction of the human body. Leonardo da Vinci characterizes painting as "the greatest of sciences". The principle of "conformity to nature", the desire to reproduce the depicted object as accurately as possible, as well as the interest in individuality inherent in this period impart a subtle psychologism to the works of the Renaissance masters.

Artists' works become signatures, i.e. underlined by the author. More and more self-portraits appear. An undoubted sign of a new self-awareness is the fact that artists are increasingly avoiding direct orders, giving themselves to work from an inner impulse. By the end of the 14th century, the external position of the artist in society also changed significantly. Artists are beginning to receive all sorts of public recognitions, positions, honorary and monetary sinecures. And Michelangelo, for example, is elevated to such a height that, without fear of offending the crowned bearers, he refuses the high honors offered to him. The title "divine" is enough for him. He insists that all titles be omitted in letters to him, and they simply write "Michelangelo Buonarotti". The genius has a name. The title is a burden for him, because it is associated with inevitable circumstances and, therefore, at least with a partial loss of that very freedom from everything that hinders his creativity. But the logical limit to which the artist of the Renaissance gravitated was the acquisition of complete personal independence, assuming, of course, primarily creative freedom.

If Michelangelo can be called the most brilliant artist Renaissance, then Leonardo - the greatest idea of ​​the Renaissance artist. Michelangelo materialized the spirit, and Leonardo spiritualized nature. If Leonardo and Michelangelo can be imagined as 2 poles of the Renaissance, then Raphael can be called its middle. It was his work that most fully expressed all the principles of the Renaissance, it fit within the Renaissance. The art of Raphael for all time has become a symbol of harmony, embodied it in itself.

In the art of the Renaissance, man became a real and independent value. In architecture, this manifests itself not only in the humanization of the proportions of buildings, but also in the creation of floor ideas. In architecture, the appeal to the classical tradition played a particularly important role. It manifested itself not only in the rejection of Gothic forms and the revival of the ancient order system, but also in the classical proportionality of proportions, in the development of a centric type of buildings in temple architecture with an easily visible interior space. Especially a lot of new things were created in the field of civil architecture. In the Renaissance, multi-storey city buildings (town halls, houses of merchant guilds, universities, warehouses, markets, etc.) get a more elegant look, a type of city palace (palazzo) appears - the dwelling of a wealthy burgher, as well as a type of country villa. Issues related to the planning of cities are being resolved in a new way, urban centers are being reconstructed. The attitude towards architecture as a manifestation of individual skill is being formed.

In music, the development of vocal and instrumental polyphony continues. Particularly noticeable is the Dutch polyphonic school that developed in the 15th century, which played a significant role in professional European music for two centuries, until the advent of opera (composers J. Despres, O. Lasso). New genres appear in secular music: frottole - song folk origin in Italy; villanisco - a song on any topic, from lyrical and pastoral to historical and moralizing - in Spain; madrigal - a type of song lyrics, performed in the native language. At the same time, some musical figures justify the advantages of monadic music, as opposed to the passion for polyphony. Genres appear that contribute to the establishment of homophony (monophony) - solo song, cantata, oratorio. Music theory is also developing.

3. Poetry of the Renaissance

Speaking about the Renaissance as a great historical upheaval, F. Engels, in the preface to The Dialectic of Nature, emphasized that during this upheaval nations were formed in Europe, national literatures were born, a new type of man was forged. This epoch "needed titans" - and "gave birth to titans in strength of thought, passion and character, but in versatility and learning."

It is difficult to find a major cultural figure of the Renaissance who would not write poetry. Talented poets were Raphael, Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci; poems were written by Giordano Bruno, Thomas More, Ulrich von Hutten, Erasmus of Rotterdam. The art of writing poetry was taught by Ronsard to the princes of France. Poems were composed by popes and Italian princes. Even the extravagant adventuress Mary Stuart dropped graceful poetic lines, saying goodbye to France, where her cheerful youth flowed. Lyric poets were prominent prose writers and playwrights. Obviously, the great upheaval had its own rhythm, clearly captured by talented people, and their pulse beat. In the apparent chaos of historical events that befell Europe - in wars, uprisings, great campaigns to distant lands, in new and new discoveries - that "music of the spheres" sounded, that voice of history that is always intelligible in revolutionary eras to people who are able to hear it. . These new rhythms of life sounded with great force in the poetry that was born on new European languages, which in many cases acquired swap laws precisely in connection with the activities of poets.

important and common moment for all European poetry of the Renaissance was that it broke away from singing art, and soon from musical accompaniment, without which the folk lyrics of the Middle Ages, as well as the art of knightly poets - troubadours and minnesingers, were inconceivable. At the cost of the efforts of bold reformers, poetry became an area of ​​strictly individual creativity, in which new identity, born in the storms of the Renaissance, revealed her relationship with other people, with society, with nature. Collections of Italian poets of the XIV-XV centuries are still called in the old way: "Songbooks" - "Canzoniere", but poems are already being printed to be said aloud or read to oneself, for the sake of an increasing tribe of poetry lovers who forgot the whole world over a book of poems, like young heroes " Divine Comedy by Paolo and Francesca.

However, the poetry of modern times helped to completely break the connection with the song, especially folk. Moreover, it was during the era of the early Renaissance that a mighty wave of folk poetry, mainly song, swept through all the countries of Europe. It can be said that the flowering of lyric poetry at that time began precisely with the poetry of the masses of the people - peasant and urban, who everywhere in Europe felt how their strength was growing, their impact on the life of society. The era of the Renaissance became the era of great popular movements that undermined the foundations of the Middle Ages, heralding the coming of a new time.

The deep connections between popular revolt and criticism of feudal ideology are revealed in The Vision of Peter the Plowman, a poem of the 1470s attributed to the obscure loser William Langland and replete with echoes of folklore. carrier moral truth a worker, a plowman, has been bred here. In the XIV century, obviously, the plot of the main backbone of the ballads about the rebel and the people's protector Robin Hood was formed, which became a favorite folk reading as soon as the printing presses started working in England.

A kind of ballad reserve, where it still exists as a living poetic genre, became numerous archipelagos of the North Atlantic with their mixed population of predominantly Danish origin. Danish renaissance ballad, examples of which are included in this volume, has become a classic genre of folk poetry in Northern Europe.

Since the middle of the 15th century, printing presses have thrown away many publications designed for a wide range of readers, samples of folk poetry - songs, romances, riddles, as well as "folk books" (among them - a book about Til Ulenspiegel and a book about Dr. Faust). They are processed and used by humanist writers, even those who are very far from the movement of the masses, but who feel a craving for popular sources. Let's look through the plays of Shakespeare, his contemporaries and predecessors. How many folk ballads we will find in the very heart of their designs; in Desdemona's song about willow-willow, in Ophelia's song about Valentine's Day, in the atmosphere of the Ardennes forest ("Much Ado About Nothing"), where Jacques roams, so reminiscent of another forest - Sherwood, the brothel of the shooter Robin Hood and his cheerful green brethren . But, before getting into the writers' inkwells, these motifs walked around the squares of English cities, at rural fairs and roadside taverns, were performed by wandering singers, frightened the devout Puritans.

The poet of that era had another source of inspiration: classical antiquity. Passionate love for knowledge drove the poet on long journeys to anatomical theaters, to forges and laboratories, but also to libraries. Until the 15th century, the educated European knew some works of Latin literature that had survived from ancient Rome, which in turn learned a lot from the culture of Ancient Greece. But Greek culture itself became widely known later, especially after the 15th century, when Byzantium, the last pillar of medieval Greek civilization in the Middle East, collapsed in the struggle against the Turks. Thousands of Greek refugees who poured from the lands conquered by the Turks to the Christian countries of Europe carried with them the knowledge of their native language and art, many became translators at European courts, teachers of the Greek language at European universities, advisers at large printing houses that published ancient classics in original and translations.

Antiquity became, as it were, the second world in which the poets of the Renaissance lived. They rarely guessed that the culture of antiquity was built on the sweat and blood of slaves; they imagined the people of antiquity as an analogy to the people of their time, and so they portrayed them. An example of this is the rebellious mob in Shakespeare's tragedies, "ancient" peasants and artisans on the canvases of Renaissance artists, or shepherds and shepherdesses in their poems and poems.

Gradually, two currents emerged in the stream of literary development of that era: one, in the struggle for the formation of a new national literature, was guided by ancient samples, preferred their experience of folk tradition, taught young people to write "according to Horace" or "according to Aristotle". Sometimes, in their desire to be closer to antique models, these "learned" poets even discarded rhyme, which was an indisputable conquest of medieval European poetry. Representatives of another direction - among them Shakespeare and Lone de Vega - highly appreciating ancient literature and often extracting plots and images from its treasuries for their works, nevertheless defended for the writer not only the right, but also the duty, first of all, to study and reproduce in poetry living life. Hamlet talks about this with actors, in relation to stage skills, Lone de Vega repeats the same thing in his treatise On the New Art of Writing Comedies. It is Lipe who directly expresses the idea of ​​the need to reckon with the folk tradition in art. But Shakespeare, in his sonnets, talking about a certain fellow writer who disputed his poetic fame, opposes his "learned", "decorated" manner with his own "simple" and "modest" style. Both trends as a whole constituted a single stream of humanistic poetry, and although there were internal contradictions in it, due to different social causes in different countries, the humanist poets opposed those writers of their time who tried to defend the old feudal world, outdated aesthetic norms and old poetic techniques.

The fifteenth century brought a lot of new things to Italian poetry. By this time, patrician families began to gradually seize power in the cities, which from merchant states-communes were transformed into duchies and principalities. The sons of the Florentine rich, for example, the famous banking house of the Medici, flaunted humanistic education, patronized the arts and were themselves no strangers to them. Humanist poets wrote Latin verse with educated readers in mind. Under the pen of such talents as Angelo Poliziano, the cult of gallant knights and beautiful ladies was revived for the needs of the city's nobility. The city-commune, defending its rights from the heavy grip of the Medici house, responded to the emergence of a new aristocratic culture with the rapid development of folk satirical and everyday songs; Pulci sneered at the romantic passion for the feudal past in the heroic poem "Big Morgant". However, in Florence and, in particular, in Ferrara, the capital-fortress of the Dukes d "Este, the love-adventure knightly poem was revived in an updated version. Count Matteo Boiardo, and later, already in the 16th century, the Ferrara poet Ludovico Ariosto narrate in elegant octaves about the unheard of exploits and adventures of the knight Roland (Orlando), who turned from a stern hero of a medieval epic into an ardent lover distraught with jealousy.Referring to the fantasy of different centuries and peoples, Ariosto created a work in which Don Quixote portends a lot.

The latest contribution to the European poetry of the Renaissance belongs to the poets of the Iberian Peninsula; a decisive turn towards a new worldview and a new culture took place here only at the turn of the 15th and 16th centuries, for which there were reasons. First of all, the protracted reconquista, which required the exertion of all the forces of the disunited and often hostile fraternal peoples inhabiting the peninsula. The historical development of Spain proceeded in a peculiar way. Royal power did not have a strong foothold in the Spanish cities, and although it in turn broke the recalcitrant aristocracy and urban communes, there was no real state and national unification: the Spanish kings ruled, relying only on the power of arms and the church inquisition. The discovery of America at the end of the 15th century and the capture of its vast areas with gold and silver mines for a short time led to an unprecedented enrichment of Spain, and then to a fall in gold prices and a catastrophic impoverishment of the country, where the pursuit of easy money replaced the concern for the development of handicrafts and arable farming. The Spanish state began to lose its political power, at the end of the 16th century the Netherlands fell away from it, in 1588 the "Invincible Armada" - the Spanish fleet sent to conquer England - was defeated. There was a reaction. Crowds of beggars and vagabonds stretched along the sun-scorched fields and roads of the country, which, having become the kingdom of adventurers and marauders, remained largely a feudal country.

And yet, a brilliant Renaissance culture flourished in Spain. Already the literature of the late Middle Ages was rich and varied here. Aragonese, Castilian, Andalusian traditions merged into something new, absorbing the influences of Galicia with its school of troubadours, and Catalonia, and especially Portugal, which already in the 15th century began to fight for new sea routes and generally overtook Spain in the field of cultural development. Close cultural ties with Spain were reinforced by half a century (1580-1640) of Portugal's subjugation to the Spanish crown. Very important for the literatures of the Iberian Peninsula was their centuries-old proximity to the literatures of the Arab world. Through this neighborhood, Spanish poets received many motives and images, especially noticeable in the romances of the 15th-16th centuries. On the other hand, Spain at that time was closely connected with the Sicilian kingdom, with Venice, kept garrisons and fleets in many cities and harbors of Italy. During its formation, Spanish Renaissance poetry experienced the strongest and lasting influence of Italian poetry. (The same applies to the literature of Portugal)

Romantics in any literature of Western Europe were successors and students of the masters of the Renaissance. Her full-blooded, humane art served as a model for numerous progressive poets of the 20th century. The artist of socialist realism, Johannes R. Becher, found it necessary to include in his studies of modern literature "Small doctrine of the sonnet" - a study containing a careful analysis of the six linguistic aspects of the sonnet: French, German, English, Italian, Portuguese and Spanish.

Dante, Shakespeare, Lope de Vega, Cervantes, published in many languages ​​of the peoples of the USSR, became not only our contemporaries, but also our comrades-in-arms. Like the paintings of the Renaissance artists, dramaturgy, songs and poems of the Renaissance poets entered the cultural life of the Soviet people.

One of the titans of the Renaissance - Giordano Bruno - called his book: "Dialogue on Heroic Enthusiasm". This name very accurately defines the spiritual atmosphere of the Renaissance, captured in the poetry of the XIV - XVI centuries. This poetry revealed the beauty of man, the richness of his inner life and the innumerable variety of his sensations, showed the magnificence of the earthly world, proclaimed the human right to earthly happiness. The literature of the Renaissance raised the calling of the poet to the lofty mission of serving humanity.

4. Theater of the Renaissance

Theater is the art of presenting dramatic works on stage. Such a definition of this concept is given by Ozhegov's explanatory dictionary.

The Renaissance theater is one of the brightest and most significant phenomena in the history of the entire world culture; it is a powerful source of European theatrical art - for all time. New theater was born from the need to pour young energy into action. And if you ask yourself the question, in what sphere of art this action should have poured out, this is a sea of ​​\u200b\u200bfun, then the answer is clear: of course, in the sphere of the theater. The carnival game could no longer remain at its former stage of spontaneous amateur performance and entered the shores of art, becoming creativity enriched with the experience of ancient and new literatures.

In Italy - for the first time in Europe - professional actors took the stage and amazed the world with a bright, strong game, born right there, in front of the viewer, and enchanting with their freedom, excitement, brilliance and wit.

This is how Italy started theatrical art new time. It happened in the middle of the XVI century.

The Renaissance theater reached its peak in England. Now he truly absorbed all spheres of life, penetrated into the depths of being. A mighty cohort of talents rose as if from the ground. And the main miracle of the century was a man from Stratford who came to London to write plays for the Globe Theatre. The loud name of the theater was justified - the world really opened up in Shakespeare's works: the historical distances of the past were visible, the main truths of the present century were clarified, and miraculously, through the veil of time, the contours of the future were visible.

In the majestic era of the Renaissance, in the era of Dante, Leonardo and Michelangelo, a small flag flying over the Globe heralded a grandiose accomplishment. The genius of Shakespeare brought together everything previously achieved in drama and on stage. Now, in two or three hours, one could see worlds and epochs on six or eight square meters.

Arose truly great theater. The new theater was born in Italy. This birth cannot be attributed to a strictly defined date, name or work. There was a long, multilateral process - both in the "tops" and in the "bottoms" of society. It gave a historically complete result only after the necessary trinity of drama, stage and large audience.

About the first experiments of the Renaissance dramaturgy, it can be said with all certainty that they were creations of the pen, but by no means of the stage. Emerged from the maternal womb of literature, the humanistic drama, if it left the bookshelves, then only occasionally and without much hope of stage success. And uncomplicated common folk farces and improvisations of carnival masks attracted crowds of spectators, although they did not possess even a tenth of the literary merits of written plays. It was at the carnival that the source of commedia dell'arte - this true progenitor of the new European theater - scored. It must be said that on the early stage the development of the new theater, the mutual alienation of the stage and the drama went to both. The drama turned out to be free from the primitives of the farcical stage, and the stage, that is, the performing arts, devoid of drama and left to itself, got the opportunity to intensively develop its own creative resources.

Pomponio's learned studio became the first gathering of amateurs who played the comedies of Plautus. Characters who have been in a position for many centuries literary heroes, again walked across the stage (although, probably, not very confidently yet).

The news of the discovery of the Roman scientist soon spread throughout Italy. Among other spectacles at the courts, it became fashionable to show the comedies of Plautus. The fashion was so great that Plautus was played in Latin in the Vatican. However, not everyone understood Latin, so in the late 70s, the humanist Batista Guarini translated the works of Plautus and Terentius into Italian.

The successful development of comedy was determined by the fact that the traditional ancient scheme - the struggle of a young man for the possession of his beloved, guarded by strict parents, and the tricks of evasive and energetic servants - turned out to be convenient for lively sketches of modern life.

During the carnival of 1508 in the Ferrara Palace, the poet Ludovico Ariosto showed his Comedy of the Chest.

And it was as if the floodgates had broken through, holding back the life-giving stream for a long time. The following year, Ariosto's second comedy, The Changelings, appears, and in 1513 Cardinal Bibbiena demonstrates his Calandria in Urbino. In 1514, the most astute Niccolo Machiavelli, the former secretary of the Florentine Republic, wrote the best play of the era - Mandrake.

Italian comedyThe 16th century developed a certain standard for dynamic plots: the same situations were constantly repeated here with substitute children, with girls in disguise, the tricks of servants, the comic fiasco of old people in love.

Italian humanists were intensively studying the legacy of Seneca; then the Greek tragedians - Sophocles and Euripides - fell into the orbit of their interests. Under the influence of these ancient authors, the Italian tragedy of the Renaissance was born, the first example of which was Sofonisba by Giangiorgio Trissino (1515).

Trissino was a deep connoisseur of the ancient Greek theater. Composing his own tragedy, he was guided by the works of Sophocles and Euripides. In "Sofonisba" all the components of the ancient tragedy were used - the choir, confidants, messengers, there was no division into acts, the laws of three unities and three actors were observed. But in the tragedy there was no main thing - a significant social theme, the dynamics of passions, a holistic action.

The modern audience was interested in the tragic genre either in terms of a purely academic, or with the expectation of finding food for "shocks" here.

Such food, the Italian tragedy gave in abundance.

The new tragedy sought to "capture the spirit" of the audience. The father killed the children of his daughter, born of a secret marriage, and offered her their heads and hands on a platter, the shocked daughter killed her father and stabbed herself ("Orbecca" G. Cinthio, 1541). The wife, abandoned by her husband, forced her rival to kill the children he had adopted from him, after which she killed her and sent the dead heads to her husband; the husband, in turn, beheaded his wife's lover. By the end, the hard-hearted spouses were poisoning each other ("Dalida" L. Groto, 1572).

"Tragedies of Horrors" stunned with their bloody scenes, without awakening thoughts, without raising questions about the meaning of life and the duties of a person.

In an age when comedy was on the decline, and tragedy did not enter the main road of art, the winner pastoral appeared on the dramatic arena.

At first, the pastoral direction received the most vivid expression in poetry - in the works of Boccaccio ("Ameto", "Fiesolan Nymphs") and in the lyrics of the Petrarchists. But soon a new dramatic genre was born.

If fatal passion dominated tragedy, and sensual attraction prevailed in comedy, then "pure love" reigned in the pastoral, appearing outside of specific life connections as a kind of poetic ideal.

The theater of the English Renaissance is Shakespeare and his brilliant entourage: Marlowe, Greene, Beaumont, Fletcher, Chapman, Nash, Ben Jonson. But all these last names belong to their age and their nation; Shakespeare, who most profoundly expressed the spirit of his time and the life of his people, belongs to all ages and all peoples.

Shakespeare Theater - it is a kind of synthesis of the culture of the Renaissance. Having identified the most mature stage of this culture, Shakespeare spoke with his age and with the coming centuries, as if on behalf of the entire era of "the greatest progressive upheaval."

Creativity of Shakespeare was the result of the development of the national English theater. At the same time, to a certain extent, it summarized the achievements of all previous poetic, dramatic and stage culture of ancient and modern times. Therefore, in Shakespeare's dramas, one can feel the epic scope of the Homeric plot, and the titanic modeling of the monotragedies of the ancient Greeks, and the whirlwind play of the plots of the Roman comedy. Shakespeare's theater is rich in the high lyricism of the Petrarchist poets. In the works of Shakespeare, the voices of modern humanists are clearly audible, starting from Erasmus of Rotterdam and ending with Montaigne.

The in-depth development of the inherited - that was the most important prerequisite for the birth of a new and most perfect type Renaissance drama, drama by Shakespeare.

Conclusion

The ideas of humanism are the spiritual basis for the flourishing of Renaissance art. The art of the Renaissance is imbued with the ideals of humanism; it created the image of a beautiful, harmoniously developed person. The Italian humanists demanded freedom for man. “But freedom in the understanding of the Italian Renaissance,” wrote its connoisseur A.K. to be willpower, preventing him from feeling and thinking as he wants. In modern science there is no unambiguous understanding of the nature, structure and chronological framework of Renaissance humanism. But, of course, humanism should be considered as the main ideological content of the Renaissance culture, inseparable from the entire course of the historical development of Italy in the era of the beginning of the disintegration of feudal and the emergence of capitalist relations. Humanism was a progressive ideological movement that contributed to the establishment of a means of culture, relying primarily on the ancient heritage. Italian humanism went through a series of stages: formation in the 14th century, a bright heyday of the next century, internal restructuring and gradual declines in the 16th century. The evolution of the Italian Renaissance was closely connected with the development of philosophy, political ideology, science, and other forms of social consciousness and, in turn, had a powerful impact on the artistic culture of the Renaissance.

Humanities revived on an ancient basis, including ethics, rhetoric, philology, history, turned out to be main area in the formation and development of humanism, the ideological core of which was the doctrine of man, his place and role in nature and society. This doctrine took shape mainly in ethics and was enriched in the most different areas renaissance culture. Humanistic ethics brought to the fore the problem of man's earthly destiny, the achievement of happiness through his own efforts. Humanists approached the issues of social ethics in a new way, in the solution of which they relied on ideas about the power of man's creative abilities and will, about his wide possibilities for building happiness on earth. They considered the harmony of the interests of the individual and society to be an important prerequisite for success, they put forward the ideal of the free development of the individual and the improvement of the social organism and political orders, which is inextricably linked with it. This gave many ethical ideas and teachings of the Italian humanists a bright pronounced character.

Many problems developed in humanistic ethics acquire a new meaning and special relevance in our era, when the moral stimuli of human activity perform an increasingly important social function.

The humanistic worldview became one of the largest progressive conquests of the Renaissance, which had a strong influence on the entire subsequent development of European culture.

The Reformation played an important role in the formation of world civilization. Without proclaiming any specific socio-political ideal, without requiring a reshaping of society in one direction or another, without making any scientific discoveries or achievements in the artistic and aesthetic field, the Reformation changed the consciousness of a person, opened up new spiritual horizons for him. A person received the freedom to think independently, freed himself from the guardianship of the church, received the highest sanction for him - a religious sanction that only his own mind and conscience dictate to him how to live. The Reformation contributed to the emergence of a man of bourgeois society - an independent autonomous individual with freedom of moral choice, independent and responsible in his judgments and actions.

List of used literature

1. L.M. Bragina "Socio - ethical views of Italian humanists" (II half of the XV century) Publishing house of Moscow State University, 1983

2. From the history of culture of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Publishing house "Science", M 1976

3. 5 0 biographies of masters of Western European art. Publishing house "Soviet artist", Leningrad 1965

4. Garay E. Problems of the Italian Renaissance. - M., 1996.

5. History of art of foreign countries. - M., 1998.

6. Culturology. History of World Culture: Textbook for High Schools / Ed. prof. A.N. Markova. - M, 1995.

7. Culturology. Theory and History of Culture: Textbook. - M.: society "Knowledge" of Russia, CINO, 1996.

8. Losev L.F. Aesthetics of the Renaissance. - M., 1993.

9. Polikarpov V.S. Lectures on cultural studies. - M.: "Gardarika", "Expert Bureau", 1997.

1. General information

The Renaissance, or Renaissance, is a period in the cultural and historical development of the countries of Central Western and Northern Europe that replaced the Middle Ages. In the Middle Ages, the main backgroundfor the cultural rise of the Renaissance, and the Renaissance itself became a powerful impetus for the subsequent development of culture in the Age of Enlightenment. Despite the locality of the Renaissance, it had a global impact on the subsequent development of culture. Renaissance ideas spread unevenly in European countries, so in the Renaissance it is customary to single out several periods.

1.1. Background of the Renaissance

Revival is primarily a phenomenon of urban culture. The emergence in the bowels of the feudal system of new bourgeois economic relations is connected primarily with the city. The blurring of class boundaries and class isolation, the accumulation of material wealth and the growth of the political influence of the townspeople, which manifested itself in the emergence of city-republics, contributes to the formation of a new civic consciousness. The medieval townsman is a person far from the aristocracy of the nobility and the asceticism of the church. He builds the material basis of his life thanks to his energy, diligence, business qualities, knowledge. Therefore, in other people, he appreciates the same qualities. At the same time, the townspeople are for the most part literate people who know how to appreciate the beautiful, striving for knowledge and beauty, and it is precisely on their perception that the beautiful works of art of the Renaissance are oriented. A kind of impetus to the beginning of the Renaissance was the acquaintance of European peoples with the works of ancient culture. The very term Renaissance was understood as an attempt to revive the high achievements of ancient culture, to imitate them, although in fact the results of the Renaissance turned out to be more significant. It is no coincidence that for the first time Renaissance ideas arose in Italy, on the territory of which a significant number of ancient monuments have been preserved. Part of the ideas about the era of antiquity was received by the Italians, who were active in trade in the Mediterranean Sea from Byzantium, where ancient art was not destroyed by the invasion of the barbarians until the 15th century. and developed dynamically.

1.2. Periodization of the Renaissance

1.2.1. Pan-European periodization

In the pan-European periodization of the Renaissance, there are three main periods.

Early Renaissance (from 1420 to 1500) captures mainly the territory of Italy, characterized by the fact that at that time the actual Renaissance works are known only in Italy, in other countries they are still trying to combine traditional techniques with new Renaissance trends, signs of Gothic art are still visible in many works.

High Renaissance (1500 to 1580)the peak of the development of Renaissance art in Italy and the beginning of its decline, the powerful flowering of interest in antiquity and new technologies in art in European countries. Talented people from all over Europe aspire to Rome as the capital of art.

Late Renaissance (1580-1650) the period when in Italy the ideas of the Renaissance, pressed by the church, decline, but get a second wind in the countries of Northern Europe, where they receive a new impetus and are refracted in the works of Dutch, German, English artists, therefore this time is also called the Northern Renaissance. The art of the Northern Renaissance developed under the influence of the Reformation, therefore it is imbued with an anti-clerical spirit and attaches great importance to issues of faith. But unlike Italian art, which sought to embellish, idealize reality, it gravitated more towards reality. At the end of this period, a fascination with false picturesqueness, pretentiousness of forms and an unsystematic arrangement of antique motifs appears, the organicity, the spirit of Renaissance ideas is lost. These trends in art are called mannerism, followed by the Baroque style.

1.2.2. Italian periodization

The Renaissance in Italy did not last long, it fits into the XIV-XVI centuries. In the development of Renaissance ideas and art, it is customary to distinguish the following periods:

Ducento (XIII century) this is how the name of the 13th century sounds in Italian, marked by the appearance of Renaissance signs in art, this period is also called the Proto-Renaissance.

Trecento (XIV century) Italian name of the XIV century. for which the Renaissance ideas manifested themselves primarily in painting. An outstanding painter of this time was Giotto di Bondone (see: 3.1.) At the same time, thanks to the work of Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio (see: 3.2.), there was a turn towards humanism in literature.

Quattrocento (XV century) - Italian designation of the art era of the XV century, which is the peak, the flowering of the ideas of the revival in all areas of art, the time of life and work of Botticelli, Donatello, Brunelleschi, Masaccio, Bellini, etc.

Cinquecento (XVI century) the Italian name for the period of the decline of the High Renaissance and the beginning of the Late Renaissance. Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Rafael Santi and Titian, Veronese and Tintoretto, who worked at that time, made an invaluable contribution to the development of not only Italian, but also world culture.

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International Banking Institute

Department of Humanities and Social Disciplines

Essay on cultural studies

Topic: "The Renaissance and the reasons for its appearance"

Completed by: Sinyakova E.P..

Checked:Bydanov V.E..

St. Petersburg - 2015

Introduction

1. General characteristics of the Renaissance

2. Causes of the Renaissance

3. Revival in Russia

4. Periods of the Renaissance

5. Culture of the Renaissance

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

The Renaissance (Renaissance) is a period of cultural and ideological development European countries. All European countries went through this period, but for each country, due to the uneven socio-economic development, there is its own historical framework for the Renaissance.

The revival arose in Italy, where its first signs were visible as early as the 13th and XIV centuries(in the activities of the Pisano family, Giotto, Orcagni, etc.), but it was firmly established only from the 20s of the 15th century. In France, Germany and other countries, this movement began much later. By the end of the 15th century, it reached its peak. In the 16th century, a crisis of Renaissance ideas was brewing, resulting in the emergence of Mannerism and Baroque.

The term "Renaissance" began to be used in the XVI century. in relation to fine arts. The author of "Lives of the most famous painters, sculptors and architects" (1550), the Italian artist D. Vasari wrote about the "revival" of art in Italy after many years of decline during the Middle Ages. Later, the concept of "Renaissance" acquired a broader meaning.

1. Total xcharacterization of the renaissance

The Renaissance is the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning new era, the beginning of the transition from feudal medieval society to bourgeois society, when the foundations of feudal social order lives were shaken, and bourgeois-capitalist relations had not yet taken shape with all their commercial morality and soulless hypocrisy. Already in the depths of feudalism in the free cities there were large craft workshops, which became the basis of the manufacturing industry of the New Age, here the bourgeois class began to take shape. With special consistency and force, it manifested itself in Italian cities, which were already at the turn of the XIV - XV centuries. embarked on the path of capitalist development in the Dutch cities, as well as in some Rhenish and South German cities of the 15th century. Here, in conditions of incompletely developed capitalist relations, a strong and free urban society developed. Its development proceeded in a constant struggle, which was partly commercial competition and partly a struggle for political power. However, the circle of distribution of the Renaissance culture was much wider and covered the territories of France, Spain, England, the Czech Republic, Poland, where new trends manifested themselves with different strengths and in specific forms.

This is also the period of the formation of nations, since it was at this time that the royal power, relying on the townspeople, broke the power of the feudal nobility. From associations that were states only in a geographical sense, large monarchies are formed based on a common historical destiny, on nationalities.

It was a time of unprecedented development of trade between countries, a time of great geographical discoveries, at which time the foundations of modern science were laid, in particular natural science with its fundamental discoveries and inventions. The turning point for this process was the invention of printing. in various forms it permeated and perpetuated the Renaissance. Literature reached a high level, having received, with the invention of printing, previously unprecedented opportunities for distribution. Revived ancient manuscripts, newly published or translated, could cross the boundaries of space and time like never before. It became possible to reproduce on paper any kind of knowledge and any achievements of science, which greatly facilitated learning. Without printing, classical education was available only to a narrow circle of scientists, and scientific discoveries would be known to a small number of people.

The founders of humanism in Italy are Petrarch and Boccaccio - poets, scientists and experts in antiquity. The central place that the logic and philosophy of Aristotle occupied in the system of medieval scholastic education is now beginning to be occupied by rhetoric and Cicero. The study of rhetoric, according to the humanists, was supposed to give the key to the spiritual warehouse of antiquity; mastering the language and style of the ancients was considered as mastering their thinking and worldview and the most important stage in the liberation of the individual. The Latin language, previously the language of science and literature, is cleansed of medieval corruption during the Renaissance and restored to its classical purity. Greek, knowledge of which was lost in medieval Europe, becomes the subject of zealous study. The writings of the ancients are searched for, rewritten, published. In the XV century. the composition of the monuments of ancient literature that has come down to us was almost completely collected

The study of Antiquity left its mark on religious beliefs and customs. Although many humanists were devout, blind dogmatism died. The Chancellor of the Republic of Florence, Caluccio Salutatti, declared that Holy Bible is nothing but poetry. However, there have always been fears that the study of ancient authors comes into conflict with the service of Christ, and deep immersion in ancient philosophy could undermine faith in Christ altogether. It is no coincidence that the Holy Inquisition most extensively launched its activities precisely in the Renaissance.

The love of the nobility for wealth and splendor, the splendor of the cardinal palaces and the Vatican itself were defiant. Ecclesiastical offices were seen by many prelates as a convenient feeder and access to political power. Rome itself, in the eyes of some, turned into a real biblical Babylon, where corruption, unbelief and licentiousness reigned. This led to a split in the bosom of the church, to the emergence of reformist movements.

However, the era of free urban communes was short-lived, they were replaced by tyrannies. The trade rivalry of the cities eventually turned into a bloody rivalry. Already in the second half of the 16th century, feudal-Catholic reaction began. The humanistic light ideals of the Renaissance are replaced by moods of pessimism and anxiety, intensified by individualistic tendencies. A number of Italian states are experiencing political and economic decline, they are losing their independence, social enslavement and impoverishment of the masses are taking place, and class contradictions are aggravating.

The perception of the world becomes more complex, the dependence of a person on the environment is more realized, ideas about the variability of life develop, the ideals of harmony and integrity of the universe are lost. Renaissance artists worked in such a complex world, embodying in art the ideal that they dreamed about and believed in the triumph of, completing in art what remained unrealizable in life.

2. Causes of the Renaissance

In different countries, the Renaissance was born and flourished in different time. First of all, it began in Italy - the XIV century, and in the XVI century. Renaissance culture became a pan-European phenomenon: Germany, the Netherlands, France, Spain, Portugal, England - in all these countries a cultural revolution took place. The colossal achievements of spiritual culture in this era are widely known; they have long been the subject of the closest attention, admiration, study and reflection.

The emergence of the Renaissance culture was prepared by a number of pan-European and local historical conditions. In its essence, the culture of the revival was the culture of the transitional era from the feudal system to the capitalist one. At this time, national states and absolute monarchies are taking shape, the bourgeoisie is rising in the struggle against feudal reaction, deep social conflicts are taking place - Peasants' War in Germany, religious wars in France, the Dutch bourgeois revolution.

The creators of the revival culture came from various social strata, and its achievements in the humanities, art, architecture became the property of the whole society, although to a greater extent - the educated and wealthy part of it. Representatives of large merchants, feudal nobility, rulers of European states and the papal court showed interest in the new culture and materially stimulated its development. However, not in all cases, the upper strata were attracted by the ideological side of the Renaissance; a high level of education, the artistic merits of literature and art, new forms of architecture, and fashion were incomparably more important for them.

The ideological basis of the Renaissance was humanism, secular - rationalistic worldview. The word “humanitas” (humanity) was borrowed by Italian humanists from Cicero (I century BC), who at one time wanted to emphasize to them that the concept of “humanity”, as the most important result of the culture developed in ancient Greek policies, took root in the Roman soil. Therefore, already in the understanding of Cicero, humanism meant a kind of rebirth of man. The ancient heritage played a decisive role in the formation of the Renaissance culture. The achievements of the ancients were the starting point for the revivalists. Italian humanists, and after them the humanists of other countries, found in classical antiquity an independent philosophy and science independent of religion, wonderful secular poetry and art that reached an unparalleled artistic height and perfection, public institutions built on democratic principles. At the same time, each time it was not only about the assimilation, but also about the original processing of the ancient tradition. There is an assimilation of ancient and medieval cultures.

The formation of a new culture was prepared by the public consciousness. The role of mental labor is growing strongly, which has found expression in a large increase in the number of people in the free professions. This is due to the collapse of corporate-shop ties in cities and the strengthening of the role of individual start. These processes were naturally accompanied by the fact that the most capable sons of merchants, merchants, teachers, notaries, representatives of the nobility, less often - the sons of artisans and peasants, in accordance with their inclinations, became artists, architects, sculptors, doctors, writers. Most prominent humanists became scientists and philosophers.

Ties with the church are weakening, since many humanists lived on the income received from their professional activities, hostility to official scholarship, imbued with a church-scholastic spirit, is growing. At the same time, there is a decline in the moral and political authority of the papacy, associated with the events of his "Avignon captivity" (1309--1375), frequent splits in the Catholic Church.

3. Renaissance in Russia.

The Renaissance tendencies that existed in Italy and Central Europe influenced Russia in many ways, although this influence was very limited due to long distances between Russia and the main European cultural centers on the one hand, and the strong attachment of Russian culture to its Orthodox traditions and Byzantine heritage on the other hand.

Tsar Ivan III can be considered the founder of the Renaissance in Russia, since it was under him that a number of architects from Italy began work in Russia, who brought new construction technologies and some elements of the Renaissance, generally not moving away from the traditional design of Russian architecture. In 1475, the architect from Bologna, Aristotle Fioravanti, was invited to restore the Assumption Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin, damaged during an earthquake. The architect used the 12th-century Vladimir Cathedral as a model, and developed a project that combines traditional Russian style with the Renaissance sense of spaciousness, proportion and symmetry.

In 1485, Ivan III entrusted the construction of the Terem Palace in the Kremlin to Aleviz Fryazin Stary. He is the architect of the first three floors. In addition, Aleviz Fryazin Stary, along with other Italian architects, made a great contribution to the construction of the Kremlin walls and towers. The Faceted Chamber, which served as the venue for the receptions and feasts of the Russian tsars, is the work of two other Italians, Marco Ruffo and Pietro Solari, and is even more marked by Italian style. In 1505, an Italian architect arrived in Moscow, known in Russia as Aleviz Novy or Aleviz Fryazin. Perhaps it was the Venetian sculptor Aleviz Lamberti da Montagne. He built 12 churches for Ivan III, including the Cathedral of the Archangel, also marked by a successful mixture of Russian tradition, Orthodox canons and Renaissance style. It is believed that the Cathedral of Metropolitan Peter in the Vysoko-Petrovsky Monastery, another work of Aleviz the New, served as a model for the so-called architectural form "octagon on a quadrangle".

Nevertheless, from the beginning of the 16th century to the end of the 17th century, original traditions for the construction of stone hipped temples were developed in Russia. It was a completely unique phenomenon, different from Renaissance architecture elsewhere in Europe, although some scholars call it "Russian Gothic", comparing this style with European architecture of the early Gothic period. The Italians, with their advanced technology, may have influenced the appearance of stone hipped roofs (wooden hipped roofs were known in Russia and Europe long before). According to one hypothesis, the Italian architect Petrok Maly may have been the author of the Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye, one of the first and most famous tent churches.

By the 17th century, as a result of the influence of Renaissance painting, Russian icons become a little more realistic, while at the same time following the oldest canons of icon painting, such as in the works of Bogdan Saltanov, Simon Ushakov, Gury Nikitin, Karp Zolotarev and other Russian artists. Gradually, a new type of secular portrait appears - parsuna, which was an intermediate stage between abstract iconography and paintings that reflect the real features of the person being portrayed.

In the middle of the 16th century, books began to be printed in Russia, and Ivan Fedorov was the first known Russian printer. Printing became widespread in the 17th century, and woodcuts became especially popular. This led to the development of a special form of folk art known as lubok, which continued in Russia well into the 19th century. A number of Renaissance technologies were adopted by Russians from Europe quite early, and, improved, they subsequently became part of a strong internal tradition. These were mainly military technologies, such as cannon casting, dating back to the 15th century. The Tsar Cannon, which is the largest cannon in the world in terms of caliber, was cast in 1586 by a craftsman named Andrey Chokhov, and is also distinguished by its rich decoration. Another technology, which, according to one hypothesis, was originally brought from Europe by the Italians, led to the creation of vodka. Back in 1386, the Genoese ambassadors first brought " living water to Moscow and presented it to Grand Duke Dmitry Donskoy. The Genoese probably obtained this drink with the help of the alchemists of Provence, who used a distillation apparatus developed by the Arabs to convert grape must into alcohol. The Moscow monk Isidore used this technology to produce the first original Russian vodka in 1430.

4 . Renaissance periods

Revival is divided into 4 stages:

Proto-Renaissance (2nd half of the XIII century - XIV century)

Early Renaissance (beginning of the XV - end of the XV century)

High Renaissance (end of the 15th - first 20 years of the 16th century)

Late Renaissance (mid-16th - 90s of the 16th century)

Proto-Renaissance

The Proto-Renaissance is closely connected with the Middle Ages, with Romanesque, Gothic traditions, this period was the preparation for the Renaissance. It is divided into two sub-periods: before the death of Giotto di Bondone and after (1337). The most important discoveries, the brightest masters live and work in the first period. The second segment is connected with the plague epidemic that hit Italy. At the end of the 13th century, the main temple building, the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore, was erected in Florence, the author was Arnolfo di Cambio, then the work was continued by Giotto, who designed the campanile of the Florence Cathedral.

The art of the proto-Renaissance first manifested itself in sculpture (Niccolò and Giovanni Pisano, Arnolfo di Cambio, Andrea Pisano). Painting is represented by two art schools: Florence (Cimabue, Giotto) and Siena (Duccio, Simone Martini). The central figure of painting was Giotto. Renaissance artists considered him a reformer of painting. Giotto outlined the path along which its development went: filling religious forms with secular content, a gradual transition from planar images to three-dimensional and relief images, an increase in realism, introduced a plastic volume of figures into painting, depicted an interior in painting.

Early Renaissance

The period of the so-called "Early Renaissance" in Italy covers the time from 1420 to 1500. During these eighty years, art is still not completely different from the traditions of the recent past, but at the same time it does not "realize" the new axioms of human life, the very elements borrowed from classical antiquity. Only later, and only little by little, under the influence of more and more changing conditions of life and culture, do artists completely abandon medieval foundations and boldly use examples of ancient art, both in the general concept of their works and in their details.

Whereas art in Italy was already resolutely following the path of imitation of classical antiquity, in other countries it long held on to the traditions of the Gothic style. North of the Alps, as well as in Spain, the Renaissance does not come until the end of the 15th century, and its early period lasts until about the middle of the next century.

High Renaissance

The third period of the Renaissance - the time of the most magnificent development of his style - is commonly called the "High Renaissance". It extends into Italy from approximately 1500 to 1527. At this time, the center of influence of Italian art from Florence moved to Rome, thanks to the accession to the papal throne of Julius II - an ambitious, courageous, enterprising man who attracted best artists Italy, which occupied them with numerous and important works and gave others an example of love for art. Under this Pope and under his immediate successors, Rome becomes, as it were, the new Athens of the time of Pericles: many monumental buildings are built in it, magnificent sculptural works are created, frescoes and paintings are painted, which are still considered the pearls of painting; at the same time, all three branches of art harmoniously go hand in hand, helping one another and mutually acting on each other. Antiquity is now being studied more thoroughly, reproduced with greater rigor and consistency; tranquility and dignity replace the playful beauty that was the aspiration of the preceding period; reminiscences of the medieval completely disappear, and a completely classical imprint falls on all works of art. But imitation of the ancients does not stifle their independence in artists, and they, with great resourcefulness and liveliness of imagination, freely process and apply to their work what they consider appropriate to borrow for themselves from ancient Greco-Roman art.

The work of three great Italian masters marks the pinnacle of the Renaissance, these are Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564) and Raphael Santi (1483-1520).

Late Renaissance

The late Renaissance in Italy covers the period from the 1530s to the 1590s-1620s. Some researchers rank the 1630s as the Late Renaissance, but this position is controversial among art critics and historians. The art and culture of this time are so diverse in their manifestations that it is possible to reduce them to one denominator only with a great deal of conventionality. For example, the Encyclopædia Britannica writes that "The Renaissance as an integral historical period ended with the fall of Rome in 1527." In Southern Europe, the Counter-Reformation triumphed, which looked with caution at any free thought, including the chanting of the human body and the resurrection of the ideals of antiquity, as the cornerstones of the Renaissance ideology. Worldview contradictions and a general feeling of crisis resulted in Florence in the "nervous" art of far-fetched colors and broken lines - mannerism. In Parma, where Correggio worked, Mannerism reached only after the death of the artist in 1534. The artistic traditions of Venice had their own logic of development; until the end of the 1570s. Titian and Palladio worked there, whose work had little in common with the crisis phenomena in the art of Florence and Rome.

Northern Renaissance

The Italian Renaissance had almost no influence on other countries until 1450. After 1500, the style spread across the continent, but many late Gothic influences persisted even until the advent of the Baroque era.

The Renaissance period in the Netherlands, Germany and France is usually singled out as a separate stylistic direction, which has some differences with the Renaissance in Italy, and is called the "Northern Renaissance".

"Love struggle in the dream of Polyphilus" (1499) - one of the highest achievements of the Renaissance printing

The most noticeable stylistic differences in painting: unlike Italy, the traditions and skills of Gothic art were preserved in painting for a long time, less attention was paid to the study of the ancient heritage and the knowledge of human anatomy.

Prominent representatives - Albrecht Dürer, Hans Holbein the Younger, Lucas Cranach the Elder, Pieter Brueghel the Elder. Some works of late Gothic masters, such as Jan van Eyck and Hans Memling, are also imbued with the pre-Renaissance spirit.

5 . Renaissance culture

The Renaissance culture is based on the principle of humanism, the assertion of dignity and beauty. real person, his mind and will, his creative forces. Unlike the culture of the Middle Ages, the humanistic life-affirming culture of the Renaissance was secular. The liberation from church scholasticism and dogma contributed to the rise of science. Passionate thirst for knowledge of the real world and admiration for it led to the display in art of the most diverse aspects of reality and gave majestic pathos to the most significant creations of artists.

An important role for the formation of the art of the Renaissance was played by a new understanding of the ancient heritage. The impact of antiquity had the strongest effect on the formation of the Renaissance culture in Italy, where many monuments of ancient Roman art have been preserved. “In the manuscripts saved during the fall of Byzantium,” wrote F. Engels, “in the ancient statues dug from the ruins of Rome, a new world appeared before the astonished West - Greek antiquity; before her bright images the ghosts of the Middle Ages disappeared; In Italy, an unprecedented flourishing of art occurred, which was like a reflection of classical antiquity and which has never been achieved again.

The victory of the secular principle in the culture of the Renaissance was a consequence of the social assertion of the growing bourgeoisie. However, the humanistic orientation of the art of the Renaissance, its optimism, the heroic and social nature of its images objectively expressed the interests not only of the young bourgeoisie, but of all progressive strata of society as a whole. The art of the Renaissance was formed in conditions when the consequences of the capitalist division of labor, which were detrimental to the development of the individual, had not yet manifested themselves, courage, intelligence, resourcefulness, strength of character had not yet lost their significance. This created the illusion of the infinity of the further progressive development of human abilities. The ideal of a titanic personality was affirmed in art. The all-round brightness of the characters of the people of the Renaissance, which was also reflected in art, is largely due precisely to the fact that “the heroes of that time had not yet become slaves to the division of labor, limiting, creating one-sidedness, the influence of which we so often observe in their successors.”

The nature of applied art is changing, borrowing the forms and motifs of ornamentation in antiquity and associated not so much with church as with secular orders. In its general cheerful character, the nobility of forms and colors, that sense of unity of style, which is inherent in all types of art of the Renaissance, constituting a synthesis of art on the basis of equal cooperation of all its types, was reflected.

The new requirements facing art led to the enrichment of its types and genres. in the monumental Italian painting fresco is widely used. From the 15th century occupies an increasing place easel painting, in the development of which the Dutch masters played a special role. Along with the previously existing genres of religious and mythological painting, filled with new meaning, a portrait is being put forward, historical and landscape painting is emerging. In Germany and the Netherlands, where the popular movement aroused the need for art that quickly and actively responded to ongoing events, engraving was widely used, which was often used in the decoration of books. The process of isolation of sculpture, begun in the Middle Ages, is being completed; along with decorative plastic that adorns buildings, an independent round sculpture- easel and monumental. The decorative relief acquires the character of a perspectively constructed multi-figured composition.

Turning to the ancient heritage in search of an ideal, inquisitive minds discovered the world of classical antiquity, searched for the creations of ancient authors in the monastic vaults, dug up fragments of columns and statues, bas-reliefs and precious utensils. The process of assimilation and processing of the ancient heritage was accelerated by the resettlement of Greek scientists and artists from Byzantium, captured by the Turks in 1453, to Italy. In the saved manuscripts, in the dug out statues and bas-reliefs, a new world, hitherto unknown, opened up to amazed Europe - ancient culture with its ideal of earthly beauty, deeply human and tangible. This world gave birth in people great love to the beauty of the world and a stubborn will to know this world.

revival cultural proto-renaissance philosophy

Conclusion

The philosophers of the Renaissance paid the main part of their attention to understanding the essence of the human and the divine, their relationship with each other. Basically, they argued that a person must make himself, know in one way or another his soul, which is his connection with God, the peak that he needs to conquer. All of them singled out a person from the rest of the world, from all things. Basically, all areas of philosophy of that time supported the humanistic theory of man as a “microcosm”, a separate world with its own laws and rules. Only the ways of knowing and improving this world differed. But everywhere this path led to the search for the divine in oneself. Moreover, M. Montaigne expressed the idea of ​​the difference between people and finding their own, individual path by each person separately.

The philosophical thinking of this time is characterized by duality and inconsistency, but this does not diminish its significance for the subsequent development of philosophy and does not call into question the merits of the Renaissance thinkers in overcoming medieval scholasticism and creating the foundations of new philosophy.

Bibliography

1. Avsrintsev S.S. The fate of the European cultural tradition in the era of transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages // From the history of culture of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. M., 1976.

2. Batkin L.M. Italian Renaissance in search of individuality. M., 1989

3. Losev A.F. Aesthetics of the Renaissance. M., 1978

4. http://renessans.jimdo.com

5. http://crossmoda.narod.ru

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The Renaissance is a time of cultural flourishing, the heyday of all the arts, but the most fully expressing the spirit of its time was the fine arts.

Renaissance, or Renaissance(French "again" + "born") had global importance in European cultural history. The Renaissance replaced the Middle Ages and preceded the Enlightenment.
The main features of the Renaissance- the secular nature of culture, humanism and anthropocentrism (interest in a person and his activities). During the Renaissance, interest in ancient culture flourished and, as it were, its “revival” took place.
The revival arose in Italy - its first signs appeared as early as the 13th-14th centuries. (Tony Paramoni, Pisano, Giotto, Orcagna and others). But it was firmly established from the 20s of the 15th century, and by the end of the 15th century. reached its highest peak.
In other countries, the Renaissance began much later. In the XVI century. the crisis of the ideas of the Renaissance begins, the consequence of this crisis is the emergence of mannerism and baroque.

Renaissance periods

The Renaissance is divided into 4 periods:

1. Proto-Renaissance (2nd half of the XIII century - XIV century)
2. Early Renaissance (beginning of the XV-end of the XV century)
3. High Renaissance (late 15th - first 20 years of the 16th century)
4. Late Renaissance (mid-16th-90s of the 16th century)

The fall of the Byzantine Empire played a role in the formation of the Renaissance. The Byzantines who moved to Europe brought with them their libraries and works of art, unknown to medieval Europe. In Byzantium, they never broke with ancient culture either.
Appearance humanism(of the socio-philosophical movement, which considered man as the highest value) was associated with the absence of feudal relations in the Italian city-republics.
Secular centers of science and art began to appear in the cities, which were not controlled by the church. whose activities were outside the control of the Church. In the middle of the XV century. typography was invented, which played an important role in spreading new views throughout Europe.

Brief characteristics of the Renaissance periods

Proto-Renaissance

Proto-Renaissance is the forerunner of the Renaissance. It is still closely connected with the Middle Ages, with Byzantine, Romanesque and Gothic traditions. It is associated with the names of Giotto, Arnolfo di Cambio, the Pisano brothers, Andrea Pisano.

Andrea Pisano. Bas-relief "Creation of Adam". Opera del Duomo (Florence)

The painting of the Proto-Renaissance is represented by two art schools: Florence (Cimabue, Giotto) and Siena (Duccio, Simone Martini). The central figure of painting was Giotto. He was considered a reformer of painting: he filled religious forms with secular content, made a gradual transition from planar images to three-dimensional and relief images, turned to realism, introduced the plastic volume of figures into painting, depicted the interior in painting.

Early Renaissance

This is the period from 1420 to 1500. The artists of the Early Renaissance of Italy drew motives from life, filled traditional religious subjects with earthly content. In sculpture, these were L. Ghiberti, Donatello, Jacopo della Quercia, the della Robbia family, A. Rossellino, Desiderio da Settignano, B. da Maiano, A. Verrocchio. Free-standing statues, picturesque reliefs, portrait busts, and equestrian monuments begin to develop in their work.
In Italian painting of the XV century. (Masaccio, Filippo Lippi, A. del Castagno, P. Uccello, Fra Angelico, D. Ghirlandaio, A. Pollaiolo, Verrocchio, Piero della Francesca, A. Mantegna, P. Perugino, etc.) are characterized by a sense of the harmonious ordering of the world, conversion to the ethical and civic ideals of humanism, joyful perception of the beauty and diversity of the real world.
The ancestor of Italian Renaissance architecture was Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446), an architect, sculptor and scientist, one of the creators of the scientific theory of perspective.

A special place in the history of Italian architecture is occupied by Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472). This Italian scholar, architect, writer and musician of the Early Renaissance was educated in Padua, studied law in Bologna, and later lived in Florence and Rome. He created theoretical treatises On the Statue (1435), On Painting (1435–1436), On Architecture (published in 1485). He defended the "folk" (Italian) language as a literary language, in the ethical treatise "On the Family" (1737-1441) he developed the ideal of a harmoniously developed personality. In architectural work, Alberti gravitated towards bold experimental solutions. He was one of the pioneers of the new European architecture.

Palazzo Rucellai

Leon Battista Alberti designed a new type of palazzo with a façade treated with rustication to its full height and dissected by three tiers of pilasters, which look like the structural basis of the building (Palazzo Rucellai in Florence, built by B. Rossellino according to Alberti's plans).
Opposite the Palazzo stands the Rucellai Loggia, where receptions and banquets for trading partners were held, weddings were celebrated.

Loggia Rucellai

High Renaissance

This is the time of the most magnificent development of the Renaissance style. In Italy, it lasted from about 1500 to 1527. Now the center of Italian art is moving from Florence to Rome, thanks to the accession to the papal throne. Julia II, an ambitious, courageous, enterprising man, who attracted the best artists of Italy to his court.

Raphael Santi "Portrait of Pope Julius II"

Many monumental buildings are being built in Rome, magnificent sculptures are being created, frescoes and paintings are being painted, which are still considered masterpieces of painting. Antiquity is still highly valued and carefully studied. But imitation of the ancients does not stifle the independence of artists.
The pinnacle of the Renaissance is the work of Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564) and Raphael Santi (1483-1520).

Late Renaissance

In Italy, this is the period from the 1530s to the 1590s-1620s. The art and culture of this time is very diverse. Some believe (for example, British scholars) that "The Renaissance as an integral historical period ended with the fall of Rome in 1527." The art of the late Renaissance is very complex picture struggles of various currents. Many artists did not seek to study nature and its laws, but only outwardly tried to assimilate the "manner" of the great masters: Leonardo, Raphael and Michelangelo. On this occasion, the aged Michelangelo once said, looking at how artists copy his "Last Judgment": "My art will make many fools."
In Southern Europe, the Counter-Reformation triumphed, which did not welcome any free thought, including the chanting of the human body and the resurrection of the ideals of antiquity.
Famous artists of this period were Giorgione (1477/1478-1510), Paolo Veronese (1528-1588), Caravaggio (1571-1610) and others. Caravaggio considered the founder of the Baroque style.