Russian culture in the XIV-XVI centuries. Russian culture of the 14th - early 16th centuries Russian culture in the 14th and early 16th centuries

The Mongol-Tatar yoke dealt a unique blow to the development of Russian culture. There is a decline in various spheres of culture.

Destroyed:

Monuments of Russian architecture;

writing;

Stone building stopped;

Some types of crafts have disappeared.

From the second halfIn the 14th century, a gradual rise in Russian culture began. The leading theme in culture was the idea of ​​the unity of the Russian land and the struggle against the foreign yoke.

For the epic epic characterized by an appeal to the era of independence. A new genre of oral folk art is being formed - history chesky song. The advent of paper made available books.

A special influence on the development of Russian literature rendered Kulikovo battle. Works dedicated to the Battle of Kulikovo: "Zadonshchina", "The Legend of Mamaev's Massacre" - were very popular in Russia.

At the beginning of the 15th century, the first all-Russian chronicle code appeared - Trinity chronicle.

The Moscow princes paid great attention to the compilation of chronicles, which contributed to the unification of the lands.

In the middle of the 15th century, World History was compiled with brief information on the history of Russia - Russian chronograph.

Outcome: many works of art appear in Russia, talented masters from other countries move here to live and create.

In the XIV-XV centuries, great development was painting.

Painting masters:

Theophanes the Greek(worked in Novgorod, Moscow. Famous works: painting of the Church of the Savior on Ilyinka, the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin, the Archangel Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin and others).

Andrey Rublev(worked in Moscow. Famous works: painting of the Annunciation Cathedral, the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, frescoes and icons of the Trinity Cathedral, the famous icon "Trinity").

Outcome: the manner of painting by two talented masters had a strong influence on subsequent generations of Russian artists.

Stone architecture revived very slowly. The traditions of regional architectural schools continued to develop. In 1367, white stone walls were erected the Kremlin later used red; brick.

At the beginning of the 15th century, the Assumption Cathedral and the Cathedral of the Savvino-Storozhevsky Monastery in Zvenigorod, the Church of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery and the Cathedral of the Andronnikov Monastery in Moscow were built.

At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries, the ensemble of the Moscow Kremlin was created.

Russian culture late XV - early XVI develops under the sign of the state unification of the country and the strengthening of its independence.

The official ideology of the Russian state is being developed. At the beginning of the 16th century, the idea was put forward "Moscow- third Rome".The essence of the theory:

Rome - the ever-existing kingdom - passes from one country to another;

Rome perished - a second Rome appeared - Byzantium;

Byzantium died - it was replaced Moscow(third Rome);

There will be no fourth Rome.

AT "Tales of the Princes of Vladimir" reflected political theory of the origin of the Russian state: Moscow-sky princes- direct descendants of the Roman Emperor Augustus.

The Church ideologically substantiates the need to strengthen the centralized state. The church is fiercely persecuting heresy.

One of the most widespread genres of oral folk art has become history song:

- the struggle of Ivan the Terrible with the boyars was sung;

Yermak's campaign in Siberia;
- the capture of Kazan;

The literature of that time is characterized journalism in the form of messages and letters.

The largest event in the history of Russian culture was the emergence of printing.

In 1553, the publication of books began in Moscow.
1564 Ivan Fedorov and Petr Mstislavets(published the first printed book "Apostle")

In the second half of the 16th century, about 20 large printed books were published in Russia.

A grandiose event in architectural construction was the construction of a new Kremlin. Italian architect Fioravanti(Assumption Cathedral);

During this period, Kremlins were built in other cities: Novgorod, Tula,Kolomna.

Church in the village Kolomenskoye was built with elements of wooden architecture;

In 1560 Russian architects Barma and Postnik completed the construction of St. Basil's Cathedral (dazzled). The tent style appeared in church construction.

Painting represented by paintings of temples and iconography. The most outstanding master was Dionysius.

The most famous works:

Icon of the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin;

Painting of the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in the Ferapontov Monastery;

End periodXV-XVI centuries is characterized by the accumulation 1 theoretical and practical knowledge in the field of mathematics and mechanics.

Traveler Afanasy Nikitin collected valuable geographic information - "Journey beyond three seas".

Maps of the territory of the Russian state appear. Foundry begins to develop:

The State Cannon Yard began to operate;

Master Andrey Chokhov cast Tsar Cannon(weight 40 tons).

Outcome. The creation of a centralized state, a fierce struggle against heresies and free thought led to the state's strict control over all forms of art.

Answer from Slesareva Anastasia[guru]
The development of Russian culture during this period was influenced by many factors. This is the development of former traditions, especially those associated with Christian values ​​and church interests. There are also new factors influencing culture: the gathering of Russian lands around the Moscow principality and the creation of a single centralized state, the assertion of national identity in the struggle against the Golden Horde yoke. From century to century, the role of Moscow, the Moscow Grand Dukes, is becoming more and more noticeable. Muscovite Rus has become the center of not only unification processes, but also the development of culture.
Literature. In Russian literature, the theme of the struggle against the Horde yoke occupied a large place. Particularly distinguished are the works of the Kulikovo cycle (“Zadonshchina”, “The Legend of the Battle of Mamaev”). They are imbued with a sense of patriotism and admiration for the exploits of Russian soldiers.

In the second half of the XV century. a new birth is experienced by the old genre of walking (descriptions of travel).

Annalistic traditions were preserved and multiplied. In the XIV century. in Moscow, an all-Russian annalistic code is being created, and the “Chronograph” compiled in 1442 includes a description of world history.

In the first half of the XVI century. a group of educated people formed around Metropolitan Macarius, who created the famous “Great Menaion”. This is a collection of the most read books in Russia: hagiographic literature, teachings, legends, etc. - as a rule, they were not of a liturgical nature, but were directly related to the Orthodox tradition.
An important cultural event was the emergence of printing. It is associated with the names of Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets, who created the first printed book "The Apostle" (1564). The first Russian primer with grammar was published in Lvov. The reaction of the church to printing was so negative that even in the 17th century. The printed book could not replace the handwritten one.
Socio-political thought. Among Russian written sources of the XV-XVI centuries. many works in which the authors reflect on the fate of Russia.
Architecture. Moscow becomes the capital of a huge power, the accumulation of wealth in the hands of the Moscow prince makes it possible to start stone construction unprecedented in scope. Dmitry Donskoy in 1366-1367 began construction of the new Moscow Kremlin. In place of the wooden fortifications built under Ivan Kalita, a new white-stone Kremlin arose.
The construction of Moscow fortifications continued throughout the 16th century. A semicircle of Kitay-gorod fortifications was added to the Kremlin, and at the end of the century, “city master” Fyodor Kon erected a “White City” about 9.5 km long. F. Horse also built the walls of the Kremlin in Smolensk.

In the second half of the XVI century. from the traditions of wooden architecture, but already in stone, the tented style arises. Hip-roof church architecture did not spread widely, because it contradicted church canons and was forbidden by church authorities. Painting. Theophanes, a native of Byzantium, lived in Novgorod, and then in Moscow. His frescoes and icons are characterized by a special emotionality. The decisions of the Stoglavy Cathedral influenced not only architecture, but also painting. This led to the fact that only the technical methods of writing were improved. Craft. In the XIV-XVI centuries. craft continued to develop. The main centers of handicraft production were cities, monasteries, and some large estates. At the end of the XV century. Cannon Yard is being created in Moscow. The first cannons appeared in Russia in the last third of the 14th century. In subsequent centuries, a whole school of cannon makers developed. One of its representatives was Andrei Chokhov, the creator of the famous Tsar Cannon.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion and the invasion of the German knights brought the country to the brink of death.

Literature of the 13th century characterized by tragic pathos and the rise of national-patriotic sentiments. About fierce battles with the invaders and the terrible devastation of the Russian land, chronicles tell about the battle on the river. Kalke "Word about the destruction of the Russian land", "The Life of Alexander Nevsky". The memory of the invasion of Russia was preserved in the works of a later time “The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu” (XIV century), “Kitezhnaya Legend”. The last historical and cultural monument is a cycle of legends about the legendary city of Kitezh, which sank into Lake Svetloyar and thus escaped devastation by the Mongol-Tatars. The cycle was composed over many centuries and finally took shape in the Old Believer “Book, verbal chronicler” (end of the 18th century).

From the 2nd half of the XIV century. the rise of Russian culture begins, due to the success of economic development and the first major victory over foreign invaders in the Battle of Kulikovo. After this historical event, old cities are being revived and new ones are developing - centers of economic life and culture.

Moscow leads the struggle for the unification of the Russian lands, its influence as one of the cultural centers is growing.

The most outstanding work of this time, Zadonshchina (beyond the Don), is dedicated to the victory at the Kulikovo field. This work was written in the genre of a historical story by Ryazan Zephanius in the 80s. 14th century The author compares the events of his contemporary life with the events described in the Tale of Igor's Campaign. The victory on the Kulikovo field is, as it were, revenge for the defeat of the troops of Igor Svyatoslavovich. This victory restored the glory and power of the Russian land.

Architecture was widely developed, primarily in Novgorod and Pskov, cities politically less dependent on the Mongol khans. In the XIV-XV centuries. Novgorod was one of the largest centers for the development of art, economic and political life.

Russian architects continued the traditions of architecture of the pre-Mongolian period (continuity of cultures). They used masonry of roughly hewn limestone slabs, boulders and partly bricks. Such masonry created the impression of strength and power (and this corresponds to the Russian character). Academician I. E. Grabar noted this feature of Novgorod art: “The ideal of a Novgorodian is strength, and his beauty is the beauty of strength.”

The result of new searches for the traditions of old architecture is the Church of the Savior on Kovalev (1345) and the Church of the Assumption on Volotovo Field (1352). Samples of the new style are the Church of Theodore Stratilates (1361) and the Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior (1374). This style is characterized by elegant external decoration of temples, decoration of facades with decorative niches, sculptural crosses, and niches with frescoes. The Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior, built in Novgorod, is a typical cross-domed church with four powerful pillars and one dome.

Simultaneously with the temple, civil construction was also carried out. The Chamber of Facets was built in Novgorod (1433). Novgorod boyars built stone chambers for themselves. In 1302, a stone Kremlin was laid in Novgorod.

Another major economic and cultural center at that time was Pskov. The city looked like a fortress. The architecture of the buildings is severe and laconic, almost completely devoid of decorative ornaments. The length of the walls of the large stone Kremlin was nine kilometers. Pskov craftsmen won great fame in Russia and had a great influence on Moscow construction.

In Moscow, stone construction began in the 2nd quarter of the 14th century. (construction of the white-stone fortress of the Moscow Kremlin). The Kremlin was constantly built and expanded.

Construction was underway in other cities. The largest building of that time was the Assumption Cathedral in Kolomna - on a high basement, with a gallery.

A new direction in Moscow architecture was the desire to overcome the "cubic" and create a new, upward-looking composition of the building due to the stepped arrangement of vaults.

History of Russian painting of the XIV-XV centuries. as well as architecture, became a natural continuation of the history of painting of the pre-Mongolian period.

Icon painting is developing in Novgorod and Pskov. Novgorod icons of this period are characterized by a laconic composition, a clear drawing, purity of colors, and impeccable technique.

Wall painting in Russia of this time belongs to the golden age. Along with icon painting, fresco was widely used - painting on wet plaster with paints diluted in water. In the XIV century. fresco painting takes shape compositionally, the landscape is introduced, the psychologism of the image is enhanced.

A special place among the artists of the XIV-XV centuries. occupied by the brilliant Theophanes the Greek (c. 1340 - after 1405). The works of Theophanes the Greek - frescoes, icons are distinguished by their monumentality, strength and dramatic expressiveness of images, bold and free pictorial manner. He embodied in his works the spirituality of man, his inner strength. Together with Andrei Rublev, they paint the Annunciation Cathedral in the Kremlin (1405).

Another famous master of this time is the great Russian artist Andrei Rublev (c. 1360/70 - c. 1430). His work marked the rise of Russian culture during the creation of a centralized Russian state and the rise of Moscow. Under him, the Moscow school of painting flourishes. The works of Andrey Rublev are distinguished by deep humanity, spirituality of images, the idea of ​​concord and harmony, and the perfection of the artistic form.

His most famous work is the icon "Trinity". In this masterpiece we see the expression of a deep humanistic idea of ​​consent and philanthropy, harmony.

Culture of Russia at the end of the 15th–16th centuries.

For the historical and cultural development of Russian lands, the period of the end of the XV-XVI centuries. was a turning point. The formation of a single Russian state continued, the country finally freed itself from the Mongol-Tatar yoke, and the formation of the Russian nationality was completed. All this had a significant impact on the formation of cultural processes.

Secular and democratic elements are growing in Russian culture.

Works appear in the literature that support the new state policy. The theory of the origin of the Russian state found its expression in the "Tale of the Princes of Vladimir". It stated that the Russian sovereigns trace their origins to the Roman Emperor Augustus. This idea was supported by the church, which also connected it with the concept of "Moscow - the Third Rome". The economic and political achievements of Russia at that time had a noticeable impact on raising the level of literacy and education. Literacy was taught in private schools mainly by priests and deacons. In schools they studied the Psalter, and in some - elementary grammar and arithmetic.

An important role in the history of Russian culture was played by the appearance typography. Its first attempts date back to the end of the 15th century, but it began in 1553. 1563 was built first printing house in Moscow. Printing became a state monopoly. The printing house was headed by Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets. In 1564 the first Russian printed book “ Apostle».

Among the literary monuments of that time is a huge 10-volume collection of church literature "Monthly Readings". These are the biographies of Russian saints written by Metropolitan Macarius, compiled by months in accordance with the days of honoring each saint.

Generalizing annalistic works are created, for example, the Front Chronicle - a kind of world history from the creation of the world to the middle of the 16th century. A monument of Russian historical literature is also the "Book of Powers", compiled by Ivan IV's confessor Andrei. It outlines Russian history from Vladimir I to Ivan IV.

The set of everyday rules and instructions contains " Domostroy". He defended the patriarchal way of life in the family. The book gave advice on how to be frugal and so on.

Architecture of the period of the XV - XVI centuries. reflected the growing international role of the Russian state. A new stage is beginning in both temple and civil architecture.

The creation of the Russian centralized state was marked by the construction on the site of the old new Kremlin, the ensemble of which finally took shape in the late 15th - early 16th centuries. At this time, bricks began to be used in construction. Brickwork replaced the traditional white stone. In 1485 - 1495. The white stone walls of the Kremlin were replaced with brick ones.

In 1475 - 1479. A new Assumption Cathedral was built, which became a classic example of monumental temple architecture of the 16th century.

In 1484 - 1489. Annunciation Cathedral was built - the home church of the Grand Dukes.

In 1505 - 1508. The Archangel Cathedral was built, in the external appearance of which the secular style of architecture was clearly expressed. The Archangel Cathedral was a tomb temple, where all the great princes were transferred, starting with Ivan Kalita, and then the kings (until Peter I).

Secular buildings were also erected in the Moscow Kremlin, for example, the Faceted Chamber, which was intended for ceremonial receptions.

The highest achievement of Russian architecture of the XVI century. was the construction of the temple tent type, which most clearly expressed the national identity of Russian traditions. An example of a hipped temple was the Intercession Cathedral (St. Basil's Cathedral). The cathedral was built in 1555-1560. Russian architects Barma and Postnik in honor of the capture of Kazan.

In the XVI century. "fortification construction" gained enormous scope.

A line of fortifications was erected in Moscow (Kitay-Gorod, then Bely Gorod). These works were supervised by the famous master Fedor Kon, he also built the Smolensk Kremlin.

Painting of the period of the late XV - XVI centuries. represented by the works of the talented Russian artist Dionisy. He painted the Assumption Cathedral.

Gradually, the range of painting themes is expanding, and interest in non-church subjects, especially historical ones, is growing. The genre of historical portrait is developing.

The painting of this period is characterized by a growing interest in real historical figures and events.

According to academician D.S. Likhachev, “of all the periods in the history of Russian culture, it is precisely the XV-XVI centuries. are especially important. It was then that the interrupted process of creating a single state was restored and culture was revived ... "

As a result of the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars, severe damage was inflicted on material and cultural values. A sharp increase in the disunity of the Russian lands from the middle of the 13th century made itself felt, which negatively affected the development of Russian culture. Immediately after the establishment of the Horde dominion in Russia, the construction of stone buildings was temporarily stopped.

THE ART OF A NUMEROUS ARTISTIC CRAFTS WAS LOST.

During the period of feudal fragmentation, local centers of chronicle writing, as well as literary art schools, were formed. During the Mongol-Tatar yoke, some of these traditions were preserved, which created the basis for a future cultural upsurge by the end of the 14th century. In addition, the struggle for state integrity and independence brought together the cultures of different lands, as well as the culture of the elite and the people. Despite the fact that many cultural works died, many appeared.

Having joined the system of world trade relations through the Golden Horde, Russia adopted a number of cultural achievements of the countries of the East, the technology of manufacturing various objects, architectural achievements and general cultural ones.

On the other hand, the Mongol-Tatar invasion influenced the rise of Moscow as the center of the unification of Russia. And gradually the all-Russian culture began to take shape on the basis of the culture of Vladimir Rus.

CHRONICLE

Starting from the second half of the 13th century, chronicle writing was gradually restored in the Russian lands. Its main centers remained the Principality of Galicia-Volyn, Novgorod, Rostov the Great, Ryazan, and from about 1250 Vladimir. There are also new centers Moscow, Tver.

Since the second half of the 14th century, the compilation of chronicles and handwritten books has experienced a significant rise. The leading place is gradually occupied by the Moscow chronicle tradition with its ideas of uniting the lands around Moscow. The Moscow annalistic tradition has come down to us as part of the Trinity Chronicle at the beginning of the 15th century and, unlike local chronicles, is the first collection of an all-Russian character since the time of Ancient Russia, here the right of the princes of Moscow to be the head of Russia is justified.

> In the middle of the 15th century, a brief world history appeared - the chronograph.

ORAL FOLK CREATIVITY OF RUSSIA

At the same time, the most important genre of literature in the 13th century, which received dynamic development, was oral folk art: epics, songs, legends, military stories. They reflected the ideas of Russian people about their past and about the world around them.

The first cycle of epics is a refinement and revision of the old cycle of epics about the Kievan state.

The second cycle of epics— Novgorod. It glorifies the wealth, power, love of freedom of the free city, as well as the courage of the townspeople in protecting the city from enemies.

> The main characters are Sadko, Vasily Buslaevich.

Other genres appear in the 14th century and are dedicated to understanding the Mongol conquest. Tales-tales: about the battle on the Kalka River, about the rose garden of Ryazan, about the invasion of Batu, as well as about the defender of Smolensk - the young Smolyanin Mercury, who saved the city at the behest of the Virgin from the Mongol troops. Part of the works of this cycle was included in the annalistic vaults.

LITERATURE OF RUSSIA

In the tradition of lamentation it is written "A word about the destruction of the Russian land"(only the first part survived). The ideas of national liberation and patriotism are also reflected in works dedicated to the northwestern borders of the Russian land: "The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky". A number of hagiographic works are dedicated to the princes who died in the horde. it life of Mikhail Chernigov. The princes are presented in these works as defenders of the Orthodox faith and Russia.

Military story Zadonshchina, compiled, it is believed, by Safony Ryazan, modeled on a word about Igor's regiment.

> Images, literary style, individual turns, expressions were borrowed from here. It does not report a campaign or battle, but expresses feelings from what happened. Written following the results of the Battle of Kulikovo.

This victory is considered here as retribution for the defeat on the Kalka River. The work expresses pride in the victory, glorifies Moscow as the state center of Russia. Zadonshchina has been preserved in the original. Characterized by good literary language.

In the genre of secular literature written Sailing over three seas Afanasy Nikitina. This is one of the few secular works preserved in Russia. It recounts the impressions of travel to India and many eastern countries. This is a travel diary.

THE BEGINNING OF PRINTING IN RUSSIA

The end of the 15th century is associated with the completion of the formation of the Great Russian people.

> A language was formed that differed from Church Slavonic. The Moscow dialect became dominant.

With the formation of a centralized state, the need for literate, educated people increased.

> In 1563 Ivan Fedorov headed the state printing house. His assistant was Fyodor Mstislavovich. First published book - Apostle. The printing house worked mainly for the needs of the church.

IN 1574 THE FIRST RUSSIAN ALPHABET IS PUBLISHED IN LVIV.

GENERAL POLITICAL THOUGHT OF RUSSIA IN THE 16TH CENTURY.

The reforms of the Chosen Rada under Ivan the Terrible were aimed at strengthening the centralization of the state. The general political thought of Russia reflected several trends on the relationship between power and individual segments of the population, designed to support it. Either the tsarist government had to fight the boyars, or the boyars had to be its main support.

Ivan Peresvetov (Russian y nobleman) was part of the embassy order. In his petitions, he expressed his program of action. In an allegorical form, he showed that the support of the state is service people. Their position in the service should be determined not by origin, but by personal merit. The main vices that led to the death of the state are the dominance of the nobles, their unjust judgment and indifference to the affairs of the state. In its allegorical form, the theme associated with the fall of Byzantium is actively flashed.

> Ivan Peresvetov called for pushing the boyars out of power and bringing those people who were really interested in military service closer to the tsar.

Another position was expressed by Prince Kurbsky (one of the leaders of the Chosen Rada). He defended the point of view that the best people of Russia should help her. The streak of persecution by the boyars coincided with the streak of failures of Russia. That is why Kurbsky left the country, because the boyars were treated incorrectly here.

IVAN THE TERRIBLE LOVED AND RESPECTED THIS MAN SO MUCH, THEREFORE, HIS DEPARTURE HAS BEEN PAINFUL.

They corresponded for a long time. Ivan the Terrible wrote to Kurbsky that boyar rule was negative, since in childhood he did not experience it himself. The king also wrote that in his actions he obeys the divine will.

> Ivan 4 equated the departure of Kurbsky with high treason (for the first time).

DOMOSTROY

In connection with the fact that it was necessary to raise the prestige of the new state, official literature was created, which regulated the spiritual, legal and everyday life of people. The largest work of that century was written by Metropolitan Macarius - Great Menaion Cheti

> The Great Menaion of the Honor of Metropolitan of All Russia Macarius (1481/82-31.XII. 1563) is a book collection of 12 handwritten books, constituting an annual “reading circle” for almost every day, each of the 12 Menaions contains material for one of the months (starting from September). According to the plan of the initiator, the organizer of the correspondence and the editor of this book collection, Makariy, 12 folios of enormous volume and size were supposed to absorb “all the holy books of Chetya”, revered and read in Russia, thanks to which the Great Menaion of Chetya became a kind of encyclopedia of Russian book literature of the 16th century.

Domostroy- a monument of Russian literature of the 16th century, which is a collection of rules, advice and instructions in all areas of human and family life, including social, family, economic and religious issues. It is best known in the mid-16th century edition attributed to Archpriest Sylvester.

> Although Domostroy was a collection of tips on housekeeping, it was written in artistic language and became a literary monument of the era.

PAINTING OF RUSSIA

Despite some decline in the development of the country, Russian painting reached its peak by the 14th-15th centuries. In modern literature, this period is assessed as the Russian revival. At this time, a series of remarkable painters was working in Russia.

> At the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th centuries, a person from Byzantium worked in Novgorod, Moscow, Serpukhov and Nizhny Novgorod. painter Theophanes the Greek.

He superbly combined the Byzantine tradition and the already established Russian one. Sometimes he worked in violation of the canons. His images are psychological, spiritual tension is conveyed in his icons. He created the painting of the Church of the Savior on Ilyen Street in Novgorod, together with Semyon Cherny - the painting of the Moscow Church of the Nativity of the Virgin (1395) and the Archangel Cathedral (1399).

> The great Russian artist who worked during this period is Andrei Rublev.

He is a master of laconic, but very expressive composition. An amazing picturesque color is visible in his works. And in his icons and frescoes one can feel the ideal of moral perfection. At the same time, he was able to convey the subtle emotional experiences of the characters. He participated in the painting of the old Cathedral of the Annunciation in the Kremlin (1405) together with Theophan the Greek and a prokhor from Gorodets, painted the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir (1408). Trinity Cathedral in the Trinity - Sergius Monastery and the Spassky Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery (1420).

HIS BRUSH BELONG TO THE MASTERPIECE OF WORLD PAINTING — THE ICON OF THE TRINITY.

The image reflects the biblical story, when the forefather Abraham received at home three travelers sent by God and who brought him news of the impending birth of his son. The first images of three angels at the table appeared in Byzantium of the 14th century, and were called Philoxenia (Greek - "hospitality") of Abraham.

One of the first who breathed a new Eucharistic meaning into this icon was the Russian icon painter, St. Andrei Rublev. He depicted the Three Angels as the three hypostases of God. The middle angel symbolizes the Son of God - Jesus Christ, the left - God the Father, the right - God - the Holy Spirit (the basis of such an interpretation of the icon in the clothes and disposition of the Angels), however, the same appearance of the Faces shows that the Holy Trinity is one and indivisible Whole. In front of the Angels is a cup - a symbol of Christ's sacrifice for our sins.

> At the end of the 15th century, an outstanding contribution to the development of Russian painting was made by the outstanding icon painter Dionysius. He was an excellent colorist and a very complex master. Together with his sons Theodosius and Vladimir, as well as other students, he created frescoes of the Assumption Kremlin Cathedral.

Among his creations was the famous icon of the Savior in strength.

At the same time, the Novgorod icon-painting school also functions. It is distinguished by the brightness of colors and the dynamism of the composition.

ARCHITECTURE OF RUSSIA

In the 14th-16th century, in connection with the centralization of the state, Moscow was decorated (under Ivan Kalita, stone construction developed).

UNDER DMITRY DONSKOY, THE WHITE STONE KREMLIN WAS ERECTED FOR THE FIRST TIME.

During the yoke, a series of old Russian churches is being restored. Thanks to completions and rebuildings, there is a tendency towards the crystallization of the Russian national architectural style based on the synthesis of the traditions of the Kyiv and Vladimir-Suzdal lands, which in the future became a model for subsequent construction in the late 15th and early 16th centuries.

On the advice of Sophia Paleolog (grandmother of Ivan IV the Terrible), masters from Italy were invited. The purpose of this is to display the power and glory of the Russian state. The Italian Aristotle Floravanti traveled to Vladimir, examined the Assumption and Dmitrievsky Cathedrals. He successfully managed to combine the traditions of Russian and Italian architecture. In 1479 he successfully completed the construction of the main temple of the Russian state - the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin. Following this, a granite chamber was built to receive foreign embassies.

> The appeal to national origins was especially clearly expressed in the stone architecture of the traditional Russian tent style, so characteristic of the wooden architecture of Russia.

The masterpieces of the tent style were the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye (1532) and the Intercession Cathedral on Kremlin Square in Moscow. That is, their own architectural style appears.

Culture of Russia in the XIV-XVI centuries.

The development of Russian culture during this period was influenced by many factors. This is the development of former traditions, especially those associated with Christian values ​​and church interests. There are also new factors influencing culture: the gathering of Russian lands around the Moscow principality and the creation of a single centralized state, the assertion of national identity in the struggle against the Golden Horde yoke. From century to century, the role of Moscow, the Moscow Grand Dukes, is becoming more and more noticeable. Muscovite Rus has become the center of not only unification processes, but also the development of culture.

Literature . In Russian literature, the theme of the struggle against the Horde yoke occupied a large place. Particularly distinguished are the works of the Kulikovo cycle (“Zadonshchina”, “The Legend of the Mamaev Battle”). They are imbued with a sense of patriotism and admiration for the exploits of Russian soldiers.

In the second half of the XV century. a new birth is experienced by the old genre of walking (descriptions of journeys). Reading about the adventures of the Tver merchant Athanasius Nikitin, who reached India, was especially popular. “Journey Beyond Three Seas” is a description of an eight-year dramatic journey, which ends with a return to his native land.

Annalistic traditions were preserved and multiplied. In the fourteenth century in Moscow, an all-Russian annalistic code is being created, and the Chronograph, compiled in 1442, includes a description of world history.

In the first half of the XVI century. Around Metropolitan Macarius, a group of educated people formed who created the famous "Great Menaion". This is a collection of the most read books in Russia: hagiographic literature, teachings, legends, etc. - as a rule, they were not of a liturgical nature, but were directly related to the Orthodox tradition.

An important cultural event was the emergence of printing. It is associated with the names of Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets, who created the first printed book "Apostle" (1564). This book was produced at a high printing level for that time. Due to persecution and accusations of heresy, Ivan Fedorov moved to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and continued his educational activities there. The first Russian primer with grammar was published in Lvov. Despite the difficulties, book printing continued to develop in the Muscovite state - printing houses reappear here. The reaction of the church to printing was so negative that even in the 17th century. The printed book could not replace the handwritten one.

Socio-political thought. Among Russian written sources of the XV-XVI centuries. many works in which the authors reflect on the fate of Russia. The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir emphasized the idea of ​​succession of Moscow rulers from the Byzantine emperors. The Pskov monk Philotheus, in a message to Vasily III, argued that Moscow is the “Third Rome”. “Two Romes are fallen, and the third is standing, and the fourth will not be,” he argued.

Testimony secularization culture are the journalistic works of Fyodor Karpov and Ivan Peresvetov. Both talked about the nature of a strong, just state, about power.

A notable monument of spiritual culture of the 16th century. - "Domostroy", one of the editors of which was close to Ivan IV - Sylvester. In this work, which has become a model of the organization of life, the behavior of Russian people over the centuries, we find instructions of a different nature: on the performance of religious rites, advice on raising children, on the relationship between husband and wife, how to store supplies and dry clothes, when to buy goods in the market and how to receive guests.

Interesting from the point of view of the development of the Russian language, as well as the content of the correspondence of Tsar Ivan the Terrible and Prince Andrei Kurbsky. It was a dispute between two ardent opponents about the ways of centralizing power, about the relationship between the sovereign and subjects. The tsar defended the idea of ​​servility of all subjects in relation to the autocratic power. He formulated the basic principle of despotism in this way: "And I am free to pay my lackeys, but they are free to execute." Kurbsky imagined royal power differently - the tsar is responsible for his deeds not only before God, but also before people, he cannot violate the rights of his subjects, he must obey wise advisers.

Architecture . Moscow becomes the capital of a huge power, the accumulation of wealth in the hands of the Moscow prince makes it possible to start stone construction unprecedented in scope. Dmitry Donskoy in 1366–1367 began construction of the new Moscow Kremlin. In place of the wooden fortifications built under Ivan Kalita, a new white-stone Kremlin arose. Moscow became an impregnable fortress at that time.

The heyday of architecture at the end of the XV century. associated with intensive construction in Moscow. Ivan III invites Italian architects to work, among which Aristotle Fioravanti stands out. Under his leadership, a new Assumption Cathedral was built in the Kremlin - the cathedral church of the metropolitans. The Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir was taken as a model for it. Fioravanti drew up a plan for the construction of new walls and towers. The Kremlin and the walls were built of red brick (they still exist). True, the Kremlin towers did not yet have tents - they were put up later, in the 17th century. The interior layout of the Kremlin was finally formed. The Faceted Chamber for ceremonial receptions, the Archangel Cathedral (the tomb of Moscow princes and tsars), the home church for sovereigns - the Cathedral of the Annunciation and other buildings were built here. One of the most remarkable buildings of the Kremlin is the Ivan the Great Bell Tower. It was placed on the site of the ancient church of Ivan Lestvichnik, therefore it was called Ivanovskaya. It was called Great for its extraordinary height - more than 80 m. The bell tower was the tallest building in Russia for a long time. It was laid at the beginning of the 16th century. simultaneously with the Archangel Cathedral, and was completed only in 1600, under Boris Godunov.

The construction of Moscow fortifications continued throughout the 16th century. A semicircle of Kitay-gorod fortifications was attached to the Kremlin, and at the end of the century, the “master of city affairs” Fyodor Kon erected the “White City”, about 9.5 km long. F. Horse also built the walls of the Kremlin in Smolensk.

In the second half of the XVI century. from the traditions of wooden architecture, but already in stone, the tented style arises. A remarkable example of it is the Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye. Hip-roof church architecture did not spread widely, because it contradicted church canons and was forbidden by church authorities. In 1551–1561 masters Postnik Yakovlev and Barma built Intercession Cathedral (better known as St. Basil's Cathedral) on Red Square. This building was dedicated to the capture of Kazan.

Painting . In the second half of the fourteenth - first half of the fifteenth century. worked two great Russian artists - Feofan Grek and Andrey Rublev. Theophanes, a native of Byzantium, lived in Novgorod, and then in Moscow. His frescoes and icons are characterized by a special emotionality. A. Rublev's painting is unique in composition and only in its characteristic color. These features are most clearly manifested in his famous icon "Trinity". The traditions of Andrei Rublev were continued after his death. The frescoes of Dionysius stand out especially (they are best preserved in the Ferapontov Monastery in the Belozersk Territory). The decisions of the Stoglavy Cathedral influenced not only architecture, but also painting. The painters were obliged to strictly adhere to the Greek patterns and iconography of A. Rublev. This led to the fact that only the technical methods of writing were improved.

Craft. In the XIV-XVI centuries. craft continued to develop. The main centers of handicraft production were cities, monasteries, and some large estates. At the end of the XV century. Cannon Yard is being created in Moscow. The first guns appeared in Russia in the last third of the fourteenth century. In subsequent centuries, a whole school of cannon makers developed. One of its representatives was Andrei Chokhov, the creator of the famous Tsar Cannon. It took about 2.5 pounds of non-ferrous metals to make it, its caliber is 89 cm, the barrel length is almost 5.5 m.