Municipal educational institution Burannaya secondary comprehensive school Topic Architecture. Types of architecture Completed by a student of grade 9A Voloshin V Checked by Oskin E. A p. Buranny 2012

Introduction Construction is one of the most ancient types of human activity, which means that already many millennia ago the foundations of everything were laid. further development architecture. Arriving in any city, we see palaces, town halls, private cottages built in a variety of architectural styles. And it is by these styles that we determine the era of their construction, the socio-economic level of the country, the mores, traditions and customs of a particular people, its culture, history, national and spiritual heredity, even the temperaments and characters of the people of this country.

Architecture is an art inseparable from Everyday life person. It serves our domestic needs, various social needs. And at the same time it gives us joy, creates a mood, affects the feelings of people.

Choice of topic “Architecture. Types of Architecture” was due to my personal interest in it, as well as the fact that architecture is an art that keeps pace with the times and is always relevant. Architecture surrounds a person everywhere and throughout life: it is a home, and a place of work and rest. This is an environment in which a person exists, but an artificially created environment that opposes nature, but at the same time is always connected with the surrounding space. Architecture must satisfy the practical needs of man, but it is also able to cause "aesthetic excitement", to fascinate and surprise. This is what makes architecture interesting. The purpose of my work is to reveal the features of architecture as an art form through artistic styles.

architecture gothic space baroque

Architecture Architecture, or architecture, forms the spatial environment for the life and activities of people. The art of architecture is truly a social art. Even today, it is difficult to interact with history and is directly included in the culture of its time. Individual buildings and their ensembles, squares and avenues, parks and stadiums, villages and entire cities - their beauty can evoke certain feelings and moods. This is what makes architecture Art - the art of creating buildings and structures according to the laws of beauty. And, like any kind of art, architecture is closely connected with the life of society, its history, views and ideology. Buildings and ensembles with the best architecture are remembered as symbols of countries and cities. The art of architecture is truly a social art. Even today, it is difficult to interact with history and is directly included in the culture of its time.

In a society of mass consumption, private order, commercial orientation of construction activity, the architect is often very limited in his actions, but he always has the right to choose the language of architecture, and at all times it has been a difficult search for a way to architecture as a great art and exact science. It is no coincidence that great civilizations are remembered not only by wars or trade, but, above all, by the architectural monuments left by it.

Types of architecture

1. Architecture of volumetric structures.

The architecture of three-dimensional structures includes residential buildings, public buildings (schools, theaters, stadiums, shops, and others), industrial buildings (factories, factories, power plants, etc.)

2. Landscape and park architecture.

This type of architecture is associated with the organization of landscape gardening space. These are squares, boulevards and parks with "small" architecture - gazebos, bridges, fountains, stairs.

3. Urban planning /

Urban planning activities - activities in urban planning of the organization and development of territories and settlements, determining the types of urban development use of territories, integrated design of urban and rural settlements, including creative process the formation of urban space, the creation of styles in architecture Architecture has always been closely connected with the history of the development of society, its worldview and ideas, with the level of development of building technology, with a person's idea of ​​​​benefit and beauty. All this influenced the architectural style, that is, the historically established set of artistic means and techniques. The architectural style is manifested in the ways of organizing space, the choice of architectural forms characteristic of this era, their proportions and decorative ornaments. Familiarity with various architectural styles can reveal a lot about a person's past. Unlike the Greeks, who knew only a column covered with a beam and rooms with flat ceilings, the Romans developed an arched ceiling and a system of vaults. Roman vaults amaze with their figurativeness, scale, and abundance of variety. Perhaps the highest achievement of Roman design thought was a closed enchanting vault, usually called a dome. One of the most perfect examples of Roman architecture is the Pantheon, the temple of all the gods, built in Rome in 125 AD. The buildings, which are round in plan, are covered by a grandiose dome with a diameter of more than 43 meters.

Only in the 19th century, with the invention of reinforced concrete structures, people learned how to build domes of this size, and the Romans built the dome of the Pantheon using concrete and a brick frame. The building is extremely well thought out. Its height is equal to the diameter, the dome is a hemisphere. In the center of the dome there is a hole through which a stream of light penetrates, illuminating the entire interior of the huge hall. The Pantheon struck with the magnificence of its decoration. The square recesses needed to lighten the mass of the dome, the so-called caissons, were filled with gilded bronze rosettes, the walls inside were lined with multi-colored marble, and the columns of the outer portico were carved from solid granite monoliths.

1. Ancient Egyptian.

The ancient Egyptian style originated in the Nile Valley around 5000 BC and lasted until 300 AD. Ancient Egyptian architecture is conventional and monotonous. This was due to the fact that the extraction of stone and its processing was in the hands of the state, the methods of work were established so firmly that they did not change for 3500 years. The isolation of the Egyptian civilization led to the fact that in the ancient state there was no competition in architecture, which would have a beneficial effect on its development, as, for example, in Europe.

2. Classic.

This style originated in Europe in the 17th century as a result of the influence of the Italian Renaissance.

3. Romanesque.

The Romanesque style is an artistic style that dominated Western Europe. The term "Romanesque style" was introduced in early XIX century Arsiss de Caumon, who established a connection between the architecture of the X-XII centuries and ancient Roman architecture. In general, the term is conditional and reflects only one, not the main, side of art. However, it has come into common use. The main type of art of the Romanesque style is architecture, mainly church.

4. Gothic.

Gothic originated in the middle of the 12th century in northern France, in the 13th century it spread to the territory of modern Germany, Austria, the Czech Republic, Spain, and England. Gothic penetrated into the countries of Eastern Europe later and stayed there a little longer - until the 16th century.

5. Old Russian.

Old Russian is called art in historical era, conditionally limited, on the one hand, by the date of the christening of Russia by the Kyiv prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich (988), and on the other hand, by the turn of the 17th-18th centuries, the beginning of the intensive Europeanization of Russian culture under Peter the Great. The ideological content of this era was the strengthening and spread of Christianity in its Eastern, Greek, Orthodox, and Orthodox variants.

6. Baroque.

The Baroque style appeared in the 16th-17th centuries in Italian cities: Rome, Mantua, Venice, Florence. The Baroque era is considered to be the beginning of the triumphal procession of "Western civilization". Baroque is characterized by contrast, tension, dynamism of images, affectation, the desire for grandeur and pomp, for the combination of reality and illusion, for the fusion of arts at the same time - a tendency towards the autonomy of individual genres.

7. Classicism.

Classicism originated in European art of the 17th-19th centuries. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by a logical layout and geometrism of a three-dimensional form. One of the most important features of classicism was the appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as a standard, in which the architects of that time saw the harmony of prostate and clarity, rigor and monumentality.

8. Art Nouveau An architectural style that became widespread in Europe in the 1890s-1910s as part of the Art Nouveau movement. Art Nouveau architecture is distinguished by the rejection of straight lines and angles in favor of more natural lines, the use of new technologies. Like a number of other styles, Art Nouveau architecture is also distinguished by the desire to create both aesthetically beautiful and functional buildings. Much attention was paid not only appearance buildings, but also the interior, which was carefully designed. All structural elements: stairs, doors, pillars, balconies - artistically processed.

Conclusion Among the many "golden thoughts" erased from long use, there is this: "Life is short - art is eternal." Almost everyone has come across these words somewhere, but not everyone manages to understand the whole essence of this phrase. In line with greatest books and architectural structures have stood up as pictures, sculptures and symphonies - so long ago and so firmly that it never occurs to anyone to doubt it. Architecture occupied this strong position in the world of arts thanks to a special quality, which is called harmony, musical coherence of parts. Coherence of the whole and proportionality of details. And also to that special property which, to some extent, other arts share with architecture, but in it it manifests itself most distinctly in a special scale for a person. Thanks to my project, I realized that architecture, being a beautiful and elegant art form, has become an integral part of our lives. It differs from other arts in that it is an art in which people live.

1. Gnedich P. P. World history of arts. - M., 1996.

2. Emokhonova L. G. World artistic culture. - M., 2000.

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What are the types and styles of architecture

Architecture or architecture (lat. architectura from other Greek αρχι - senior, chief, and other Greek τέκτων - builder, carpenter) - the art of designing, building buildings and structures (also their complexes). Architecture certainly creates materially organized environment necessary for people for their life and activities, in accordance with modern technical capabilities and aesthetic views of society.

Architectural works are often perceived as cultural or political symbols, as works of art. Historical civilizations are characterized by their architectural achievements. Architecture allows the vital functions of society to be carried out, while at the same time directing life processes. However, architecture is created in accordance with the capabilities and needs of people.

As an art form, architecture enters the sphere of spiritual culture, aesthetically forms the environment of a person, expresses social ideas in artistic images.

Historical development society determines the functions and types of structures (buildings with an organized interior space, structures that form open spaces, ensembles), technical structural systems, and the artistic structure of architectural structures.

According to the method of forming images, architecture is classified as a non-pictorial (tectonic) art form, which uses signs that do not allow recognition in the images of any real objects, phenomena, actions and are addressed directly to the associative mechanisms of perception.

According to the method of unfolding images, architecture is classified as a spatial (plastic) art form, the works of which:

Exist in space, not changing and not developing in time;

They are subjective;

Performed by processing material material;

Perceived by the audience directly and visually.

Space-planning design (architecture in the narrow sense, architecture) is the main section of architecture associated with the design and construction of buildings and structures.

Empire (from French empire - empire) - a style in architecture and art (mainly decorative) of the first three decades of the 19th century, completing the evolution of classicism. Focusing, like classicism, on samples of ancient art, the Empire included in their circle artistic heritage archaic Greece and imperial Rome, drawing from it motives for the embodiment of majestic power and military force: monumental forms of massive porticos (mainly Doric and Tuscan orders), military emblems in architectural details and decor (lictor bundles, military armor, laurel wreaths, eagles, etc.). The Empire also included individual ancient Egyptian architectural and plastic motifs (large undivided planes of walls and pylons, massive geometric volumes, Egyptian ornament, stylized sphinxes, etc.).

This style appeared in the Russian Empire under Alexander I. The invitation of foreign architects in Russia was a frequent occurrence, since it was fashionable among titled persons, and at the beginning of the 19th century there was a hobby in Russia French culture. For the construction of St. Isaac's Cathedral, Alexander I invited the novice French architect Henri Louis Auguste Ricard de Montferrand, who later became one of the founders of the "Russian Empire".

The Russian Empire was divided into Moscow and St. Petersburg, and such a division was determined not so much by a territorial feature as by the degree of separation from classicism - Moscow was closer to it. The most famous representative of the St. Petersburg Empire trend was the architect Carl Rossi, among other representatives of this style it is customary to name architects Andrey Zakharov, Andrey Voronikhin, Osip Bove, Domenico Gilardi, Vasily Stasov, sculptors Ivan Martos, Theodosius Shchedrin. In Russia, the Empire style dominated architecture until 1830-1840.

The revival of the Empire style in reborn forms took place in Russia during the Soviet era, from the mid-1930s to the mid-1950s. This direction of the Empire is also known as the "Stalin Empire".

Arch Carruzel

Renaissance architecture

Renaissance architecture - a period of development of architecture in European countries from the beginning of the 15th to the beginning of the 17th century, in the general course of the Renaissance and the development of the foundations of spiritual and material culture Ancient Greece and Rome. This period is a turning point in the History of Architecture, especially in relation to the preceding architectural style, the Gothic. Gothic, unlike Renaissance architecture, looked for inspiration in its own interpretation of Classical art.

Particular importance in this direction is given to the forms of ancient architecture: symmetry, proportion, geometry and order. constituent parts, which is clearly evidenced by the surviving examples of Roman architecture. The complex proportion of medieval buildings is replaced by an orderly arrangement of columns, pilasters and lintels, asymmetrical outlines are replaced by a semicircle of an arch, a hemisphere of a dome, niches, and aedicules. The architecture becomes order again.

The development of Renaissance architecture led to innovations in the use of building techniques and materials, to the development of architectural vocabulary. It is important to note that the revival movement is characterized by a move away from the anonymity of artisans and the emergence of a personal style in architects. Few masters are known to have built works in the Romanesque style, as well as architects who built magnificent Gothic cathedrals. Whereas Renaissance works, even small buildings or just projects, have been neatly documented since their inception.

The first representative of this direction can be called Filippo Brunelleschi, who worked in Florence, a city, along with Venice, considered a monument of the Renaissance. Then it spread to other Italian cities, to France, Germany, England, Russia and other countries.

Characteristics of Renaissance architecture[edit | edit source]

Sant'Agostino, Rome, Giacomo Pietrasanta, 1483

Renaissance architects borrowed the characteristic features of Roman classical architecture. However, the form of buildings and their purpose, as well as the basic principles of urban planning, have changed since ancient times. The Romans never built buildings like the churches of the early period of the development of the revived classical style or the mansions of the successful merchants of the 15th century. In turn, at the time described, there was no need to build huge structures for sports or public baths, which were built by the Romans. Classical norms have been studied and recreated to serve modern purposes.

The plan of Renaissance buildings is defined by rectangular shapes, symmetry and proportion based on the module. In temples, the module is often the span of the nave. The problem of the integral unity of the structure and the facade was first recognized by Brunelleschi, although he did not solve the problem in any of his works. For the first time this principle is manifested in the Alberti building - the Basilica di Sant'Andrea in Mantua. The improvement of the project of a secular building in the Renaissance style began in the 16th century and reached its highest point in the work of Palladio.

The facade is symmetrical about the vertical axis. Church facades, as a rule, are measured with pilasters, arches and entablature, topped with a pediment. The arrangement of columns and windows conveys the desire for the center. The first facade in the Renaissance style can be called the facade of the Cathedral of Pienza (1459-1462), attributed to the Florentine architect Bernardo Gambarelli (known as Rossellino), it is possible that Alberti was involved in the creation of the temple.

Residential buildings often have a cornice, on each floor the arrangement of windows and related details is repeated, the main door is marked with a certain feature - a balcony or surrounded by rust. One of the prototypes of such an organization of the facade was the Rucellai Palace in Florence (1446-1451) with three rows of pilasters.

St. Peter's Basilica in Rome

Baroque (Italian barocco - “bizarre”, “strange”, “excessive”, port. perola barroca - “pearl irregular shape" (literally "pearl with vice"); there are other assumptions about the origin of this word) - a characteristic European culture XVII-XVIII centuries, the center of which was Italy. The Baroque style appeared in the XVI-XVII centuries in Italian cities: Rome, Mantua, Venice, Florence. The Baroque era is considered to be the beginning of the triumphal procession of "Western civilization". Baroque opposed classicism and rationalism.

In the 17th century Italy - the first link in the art of the Renaissance, lost its economic and political power. Foreigners - the Spaniards and the French - begin to manage in Italy, they dictate the terms of politics, etc. Exhausted Italy has not lost the height of its cultural positions - it remains the cultural center of Europe. The center of the Catholic world is Rome, it is rich in spiritual powers.

Power in culture manifested itself in adapting to new conditions - the nobility and the church need everyone to see their strength and viability, but since there was no money for the construction of the palazzo, the nobility turned to art to create the illusion of power and wealth. A style that can elevate is becoming popular, and this is how baroque appeared in Italy in the 16th century.

Baroque is characterized by contrast, tension, dynamism of images, affectation, striving for grandeur and pomp, for combining reality and illusion, for the fusion of arts (urban and palace and park ensembles, opera, cult music, oratorio); at the same time - a tendency towards autonomy of individual genres (concerto grosso, sonata, suite in instrumental music). The ideological foundations of the style were formed as a result of a shock, which for the 16th century was the Reformation and the teachings of Copernicus. The notion of the world, established in antiquity, as a rational and permanent unity, as well as the Renaissance idea of ​​man as a most rational being, has changed. In the words of Pascal, a person began to realize himself "something in between everything and nothing", "one who catches only the appearance of phenomena, but is not able to understand either their beginning or their end."

Baroque architecture (L. Bernini, F. Borromini in Italy, B. F. Rastrelli in Russia, Jan Christoph Glaubitz in the Commonwealth) is characterized by spatial scope, unity, fluidity of complex, usually curvilinear forms. Large scale colonnades, an abundance of sculpture on facades and in interiors, volutes, a large number of rake-outs, arched facades with a rake-out in the middle, rusticated columns and pilasters are often found. The domes acquire complex forms, often they are multi-tiered, as in St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome. Characteristic details of the Baroque - telamon (atlas), caryatid, mascaron.

In Italian architecture, the most prominent representative of the Baroque art was Carlo Maderna (1556-1629), who broke with Mannerism and created his own style. His main creation is the facade of the Roman church of Santa Susanna (1603). The main figure in the development of baroque sculpture was Lorenzo Bernini, whose first masterpieces executed in the new style date back to around 1620. Bernini is also an architect. He owns the decoration of the square of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome and the interiors, as well as other buildings. Significant contributions were made by Carlo Fontana, Carlo Rainaldi, Guarino Guarini, Baldassare Longena, Luigi Vanvitelli, Pietro da Cortona. In Sicily, after a major earthquake in 1693, a new style of late Baroque appeared - Sicilian Baroque. Light acts as a fundamentally important element of the Baroque space, entering the churches through the naves.

The quintessence of the Baroque, an impressive fusion of painting, sculpture and architecture, is the Coranaro Chapel in the church of Santa Maria della Vittoria (1645-1652).

The Baroque style is spreading in Spain, Germany, Belgium (then Flanders), the Netherlands, Russia, France, the Commonwealth. Spanish baroque, or local churrigueresco (in honor of the architect Churriguera), which also spread to Latin America. His most popular monument is the Cathedral of St. James, which is also one of the most revered churches in Spain by believers. In Latin America, baroque mixed with local architectural traditions, this is its most pretentious version, and it is called ultra-baroque.

In France, the baroque style is expressed more modestly than in other countries. Previously, it was believed that the style did not develop here at all, and baroque monuments were considered monuments of classicism. Sometimes the term "baroque classicism" is used in relation to the French and English versions of the baroque. Now the Palace of Versailles, along with a regular park, the Luxembourg Palace, the building of the French Academy in Paris, and other works are considered French Baroque. They really have some features of classicism. A characteristic feature of the Baroque style is the regular style in gardening art, an example of which is the park of Versailles.

Later, at the beginning of the 18th century, the French developed their own style, a kind of baroque - rococo. It manifested itself not in the external design of buildings, but only in interiors, as well as in the design of books, clothing, furniture, and painting. The style was distributed throughout Europe and in Russia.

In Belgium, the Grand Place ensemble in Brussels is an outstanding baroque monument. Baroque features have the house of Rubens in Antwerp, built according to own project artist.

Baroque appeared in Russia as early as the 17th century (“Naryshkin baroque”, “Golitsyn baroque”). In the 18th century, during the reign of Peter I, it was developed in St. Petersburg and its suburbs in the work of D. Trezzini - the so-called "Petrine Baroque" (more restrained), and flourished in the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna in the work of S. I. Chevakinsky and B. Rastrelli.

In Germany, an outstanding baroque monument is new palace in Sanssouci (authors - J. G. Büring (German) Russian, H. L. Manter) and the Summer Palace in the same place (G. W. von Knobelsdorff).

The largest and most famous Baroque ensembles in the world: Versailles (France), Peterhof (Russia), Aranjuez (Spain), Zwinger (Germany), Schönbrunn (Austria).

In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Sarmatian baroque and Vilna baroque styles became widespread, the largest representative was Jan Christoph Glaubitz. Among his famous projects are the rebuilt Church of the Ascension of the Lord (Vilnius), St. Sophia Cathedral (Polotsk), etc.

Carlo Maderna Church of Saint Susanna, Rome

Classicism

Classicism (fr. classicisme, from lat. classicus - exemplary) - artistic style and aesthetic direction in European art XVII-XIX centuries

Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, which were formed simultaneously with the same ideas in the philosophy of Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Interest for classicism is only eternal, unchanging - in every phenomenon, he seeks to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual features. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. In many ways, classicism relies on ancient art (Aristotle, Horace).

Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined features, mixing of which is not allowed.

As a certain direction, it was formed in France in the 17th century. French classicism asserted the personality of a person as the highest value of being, freeing him from religious and church influence.

clarity and monumentality. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by the regularity of planning and the clarity of volumetric form. The order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity, became the basis of the architectural language of classicism. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical-axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular system of city planning.

The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi. The Venetians absolutized the principles of ancient temple architecture so much that they applied them even in the construction of such private mansions as Villa Capra. Inigo Jones brought Palladianism north to England, where local Palladian architects varying degrees fidelity followed the precepts of Palladio until mid-eighteenth century.

By that time, the surfeit of the "whipped cream" of the late Baroque and Rococo began to accumulate among the intellectuals of continental Europe. Baroque, born by the Roman architects Bernini and Borromini, became thinner in Rococo, mainly chamber style with a focus on interior decoration and arts and crafts. For solving major urban problems, this aesthetics was of little use. Already under Louis XV (1715-74) urban planning ensembles in the “ancient Roman” style were being built in Paris, such as Place de la Concorde (architect Jacques-Ange Gabriel) and the Church of Saint-Sulpice, and under Louis XVI (1774-92) a similar “noble laconicism" is already becoming the main architectural trend.

The most significant interiors in the style of classicism were designed by the Scot Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. He was greatly impressed by both the archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi. In the interpretation of Adam, classicism was a style that was hardly inferior to rococo in terms of sophistication of interiors, which gained him popularity not only among democratic-minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French colleagues, Adam preached a complete rejection of details devoid of a constructive function.

The Frenchman Jacques-Germain Soufflot, during the construction of the Saint-Genevieve church in Paris, demonstrated the ability of classicism to organize vast urban spaces. The massive grandeur of his projects foreshadowed the megalomania of Napoleonic Empire and late classicism. In Russia, Bazhenov was moving in the same direction as Soufflet. The Frenchmen Claude-Nicolas Ledoux and Etienne-Louis Boulet went even further towards the development of a radical visionary style with an emphasis on the abstract geometrization of forms. In revolutionary France, the ascetic civic pathos of their projects was of little use; Ledoux's innovation was fully appreciated only by modernists of the 20th century.

Architects Napoleonic France drew inspiration from majestic images military glory left behind by imperial Rome, such as the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus and Trajan's column. By order of Napoleon, these images were transferred to Paris in the form of the triumphal arch of Carruzel and the Vendôme column. In relation to the monuments of military greatness of the era of the Napoleonic wars, the term "imperial style" - Empire style is used. In Russia, Karl Rossi, Andrey Voronikhin and Andrey Zakharov showed themselves to be outstanding masters of the Empire style. In Britain, the Empire corresponds to the so-called. "Regency style" (the largest representative is John Nash).

The aesthetics of classicism favored large-scale urban development projects and led to the ordering of urban development on the scale of entire cities. In Russia, almost all provincial and many county towns were redesigned in accordance with the principles of classic rationalism. Such cities as St. Petersburg, Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh and a number of others have turned into genuine open-air museums of classicism. Throughout the space from Minusinsk to Philadelphia, a single architectural language, dating back to Palladio, dominated. Ordinary building was carried out in accordance with the albums of standard projects.

In the period following the Napoleonic Wars, classicism had to get along with romantically colored eclecticism, in particular with the return of interest in the Middle Ages and the fashion for architectural neo-Gothic. In connection with the discoveries of Champollion, Egyptian motifs are gaining popularity. Interest in ancient Roman architecture is replaced by reverence for everything ancient Greek (“Neo-Greek”), which was especially pronounced in Germany and the United States. German architects Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel are building up, respectively, Munich and Berlin with grandiose museum and other public buildings in the spirit of the Parthenon. In France, the purity of classicism is diluted with free borrowings from the architectural repertoire of the Renaissance and Baroque.

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big theater in Warsaw.

Gothic - a period in development medieval art on the territory of Western, Central and partly Eastern Europe from the 12th to the 15th-16th centuries. Gothic came to replace the Romanesque style, gradually replacing it. The term "Gothic" is most often applied to a well-known style of architectural structures that can be briefly described as "eerily majestic". But Gothic covers almost all works of fine art. given period: sculpture, painting, book miniature, stained glass, fresco and many others.

Gothic originated in the middle of the 12th century in northern France, in the 13th century it spread to the territory of modern Germany, Austria, the Czech Republic, Spain, and England. Gothic penetrated into Italy later, with great difficulty and a strong transformation, which led to the emergence of "Italian Gothic". At the end of the 14th century, Europe was engulfed by the so-called international Gothic. Gothic penetrated into the countries of Eastern Europe later and stayed there a little longer - until the 16th century.

For buildings and works of art containing characteristic Gothic elements, but created in the eclectic period (mid-19th century) and later, the term "neo-Gothic" is used.

The Gothic style mainly manifested itself in the architecture of temples, cathedrals, churches, monasteries. It developed on the basis of Romanesque, more precisely, Burgundian architecture. In contrast to the Romanesque style, with its round arches, massive walls and small windows, the Gothic style is characterized by arches with a pointed top, narrow and tall towers and columns, a richly decorated façade with carved details (wimpergi, tympanums, archivolts) and multicolored stained-glass lancet windows. All style elements emphasize the vertical.

The church of the monastery of Saint-Denis, designed by Abbot Suger, is considered the first Gothic architectural structure. During its construction, many supports and internal walls were removed, and the church acquired a more graceful appearance compared to the Romanesque "fortresses of God." In most cases, the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris was taken as a model.

From Ile-de-France (France), the Gothic architectural style spread to Western, Central and Southern Europe - to Germany, England, etc. In Italy, it did not dominate for long and, as a "barbarian style", quickly gave way to the Renaissance; and since he came here from Germany, he is still called "stile tedesco" - German style.

In Gothic architecture, 3 stages of development are distinguished: early, mature (high gothic) and late (flaming gothic, variants of which were also the styles of manueline (in Portugal) and isabelino (in Castile).

With the advent of the Renaissance north and west of the Alps at the beginning of the 16th century, Gothick style has lost its meaning.

Almost all the architecture of Gothic cathedrals is due to one major invention of the time - a new frame structure, which makes these cathedrals easily recognizable.

Cathedral of Notre Dame

Rococo (French rococo, from French rocaille - crushed stone, decorative shell, shell, rocaille, less often rococo) - a style in art (mainly in interior design) that arose in France in the first half of the 18th century (during the regency of Philip Orleansky) as a development of the Baroque style. characteristic features Rococo are refinement, great decorative loading of interiors and compositions, graceful ornamental rhythm, great attention to mythology, personal comfort. highest development in architecture style received in Bavaria.

The term "rococo" (or "rocaille") came into use in the middle of the 19th century. Initially, "rocaille" is a way of decorating the interiors of grottoes, fountain bowls, etc. with various fossils that imitate natural (natural) formations, and a "rocaille" is a master who creates such decorations. What we now call "rococo" was once called "picturesque taste", but in the 1750s. criticism of everything “twisted” and “tortured” became more active, and the naming of “spoiled taste” began to appear in the literature. The Encyclopedists were especially successful in criticism, according to whom there was no reasonable beginning in the “spoiled taste”.

Despite the popularity of the new "ancient forms" that came into vogue in the late 1750s. (this direction was called "Greek taste"; objects of this style are often mistaken for late Rococo), the so-called Rococo retained its position until the very end of the century.

The architectural (more precisely, decorative) Rococo style appeared in France during the Regency (1715-1723) and reached its apogee under Louis XV, moved to other European countries and dominated it until the 1780s.

Abandoning the cold splendor, heavy and boring pomposity of the art of the times Louis XIV and Italian baroque, rococo architecture strives to be light, friendly, playful at all costs; she does not care about the organic combination and distribution of the parts of the structure, nor about the expediency of their forms, but disposes of them with complete arbitrariness, reaching the caprice, avoids strict symmetry, endlessly varies dissection and ornamental details and does not skimp on squandering the latter. In the creations of this architecture, straight lines and flat surfaces almost disappear, or at least are masked by figured finishes; none of the established orders is carried out in its pure form; columns lengthen, then shorten and twist in a helical shape; their capitals are distorted by coquettish alterations and additions, the cornices are placed above the cornices; high pilasters and huge caryatids prop up insignificant ledges with a cornice protruding forward; the roofs are girded along the edge with balustrades with bottle-shaped balusters and with pedestals placed at some distance from each other, on which vases or statues are placed; pediments, representing breaking convex and hollow lines, are also crowned with vases, pyramids, sculptural figures, trophies and other similar items. Everywhere, framed by windows, doors, wall spaces inside the building, in plafonds, intricate stucco ornamentation is used, consisting of curls that vaguely resemble the leaves of plants, convex shields, incorrectly surrounded by the same curls, masks, flower garlands and festoons, shells, rough stones (rocaille), etc. Despite such a lack of rationality in the use of architectonic elements, such capriciousness, sophistication and burden of forms, the Rococo style left many monuments that still tempt with their originality, luxury and cheerful beauty, vividly enduring us in the era of rouge and whitewash, flies and powdered wigs (hence the German style names: Perückenstil, Zopfstil).

Amalienburg near Munich

Roman style

Romanesque style (from lat. romanus - Roman) - an artistic style that dominated Western Europe (and also affected some countries of Eastern Europe) in the XI-XII centuries (in a number of places - in the XIII century), one of milestones development of medieval European art. Most fully expressed in architecture.

The main role in the Romanesque style was given to severe fortress architecture: monastic complexes, churches, castles. The main buildings during this period were the temple-fortress and the castle-fortress, located on elevated places, dominating the area.

Romanesque buildings are characterized by a combination of a clear architectural silhouette and laconic exterior decoration - the building has always harmoniously blended into the surrounding nature, and therefore looked especially solid and solid. This was facilitated by massive walls with narrow window openings and stepped-in-depth portals. Such walls carried a defensive purpose.

The main buildings during this period were the temple-fortress and the castle-fortress. The main element of the composition of the monastery or castle is the tower - donjon. Around it were the rest of the buildings, made up of simple geometric shapes - cubes, prisms, cylinders.

Features of the architecture of the Romanesque Cathedral:

The plan is based on an early Christian basilica, that is, a longitudinal organization of space

Enlargement of the choir or the eastern altar of the temple

Increasing the height of the temple

Replacing the coffered (cassette) ceiling with stone vaults in the largest cathedrals. The vaults were of several types: box, cross, often cylindrical, flat along the beams (typical of Italian Romanesque architecture).

Heavy vaults required powerful walls and columns

The main motive of the interior - semicircular arches

The rational simplicity of the design, composed of individual square cells - grass.

Winchester Cathedral, England

Deconstructivism

Deconstructivism is a direction in modern architecture based on the application of ideas in construction practice. French philosopher Jacques Derrida. Another source of inspiration for the deconstructivists is the early Soviet constructivism of the 1920s. Deconstructivist projects are characterized by visual complexity, unexpected broken and deliberately destructive forms, as well as an aggressive intrusion into the urban environment.

As an independent trend, deconstructivism was formed in the late 1980s. (works by Peter Eisenman and Daniel Libeskind). The theoretical background of the movement was Derrida's reasoning about the possibility of architecture that comes into conflict, "debunks" and abolishes itself. They were further developed in the periodicals of Rem Koolhaas. Deconstructivist manifestos include Zaha Hadid's Vitra Fire Station (1993) and Frank Gehry's Guggenheim Museum Bilbao (1997).

Dancing House, Czech Republic

Hi-tech (English hi-tech, from high technology - high technology) is a style in architecture and design that originated in the depths of late modernism in the 1970s and was widely used in the 1980s. The main theorists and practitioners of high-tech (for the most part, practice, unlike the architects of deconstructivism and postmodernism) are mostly English - Norman Foster, Richard Rogers, Nicholas Grimshaw, at some stage of his work, James Stirling and Italian Renzo Piano.

Early high-tech

The Pompidou Center in Paris (1977), built by Richard Rogers and Renzo Piano, is considered to be one of the first important high-tech structures to be implemented. At first, the project was met with hostility, but by the 1990s, the controversy subsided, and the Center became one of the recognized attractions of Paris (as the Eiffel Tower once was).

In England, real high-tech buildings appeared later. The first high-tech buildings in London were built only in the 1980s and 1990s (Lloyds building, 1986). Somewhat slow implementation modern projects in the spirit of high-tech in England was associated with the policy of Prince Charles, who then launched an active activity in the framework of the architectural competition for the reconstruction of Paternoster Square (1988). Taking part in the architectural debate, the prince spoke out in support of the new classicists and against high-tech architects, calling their buildings disfiguring the face of London. C. Jencks calls on "kings to leave architecture to architects", even the opinion is expressed that a new wave of monarchism is beginning with the dictatorship of the prince in architecture.

Modern high-tech

Hi-tech since the 1980s expressed prestige (all high-tech buildings are very expensive), Ch. Jenks calls them "banking cathedrals", one can even say that modern high-tech forms the image of the largest commercial firms. In London, the architectural debate around high-tech has subsided, and its brightest representatives are recognized and respected (Norman Foster was awarded the title of knight).

Since the 1990s bio-tech and eco-tech are developing - styles, as opposed to hi-tech, trying to connect with nature, not to argue with it, but to enter into a dialogue (this is especially noticeable in the works of the architects of the homeland of hi-tech - England and Italian R. Piano) .

Main features

Usage high technology in the design, construction and engineering of buildings and structures.

Use of straight lines and shapes.

Wide application of glass, plastic, metal.

The use of functional elements: elevators, stairs, ventilation systems and others, placed outside the building.

Decentralized lighting that creates the effect of a spacious, well-lit room.

Wide use of silver metallic color.

High pragmatism in space planning.

Frequent appeal to elements of constructivism and cubism (as opposed to bio-tech).

As an exception, sacrificing functionality for the sake of design.

Fuji TV Headquarters (architect Kenzo Tange)

Types of architecture

Architecture of volumetric structures.

The architecture of three-dimensional structures includes residential buildings, public buildings (schools, theaters, stadiums, shops, and others), industrial buildings (factories, factories, power plants, etc.)

2. Landscape and park architecture.

This type of architecture is associated with the organization of landscape gardening space. These are squares, boulevards and parks with "small" architecture - gazebos, bridges, fountains, stairs.

Urban planning.

Urban planning activities - activities in urban planning for the organization and development of territories and settlements, determining the types of urban planning use of territories, integrated design of urban and rural settlements, including the creative process of forming urban space, creating

Other materials on the subject of Construction

Municipal educational institution Burannaya secondary school

Architecture. Types of architecture

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9th grade student

Voloshin V

Checked

Oskina E.A.

Buranny settlement 2012

Introduction

Architecture

Types of architecture

Styles in architecture

Conclusion

Literature

Introduction

Construction is one of the most ancient types of human activity, which means that already many millennia ago the foundations of all further development of architecture were laid. Arriving in any city, we see palaces, town halls, private cottages built in a variety of architectural styles. And it is by these styles that we determine the era of their construction, the socio-economic level of the country, the mores, traditions and customs of a particular people, its culture, history, national and spiritual heredity, even the temperaments and characters of the people of this country.

Architecture is an art that is inseparable from everyday life. It serves our domestic needs, various social needs. And at the same time it gives us joy, creates a mood, affects the feelings of people.

Choice of topic Architecture. The types of architecture were determined by my personal interest in it, as well as by the fact that architecture is an art that keeps up with the times and is always relevant. Architecture surrounds a person everywhere and throughout life: it is a home, and a place of work and rest. This is an environment in which a person exists, but an artificially created environment that opposes nature, but at the same time is always connected with the surrounding space. Architecture must satisfy the practical needs of man, but it is also able to cause aesthetic excitement, fascinate and surprise. This is what makes architecture interesting. The purpose of my work is to reveal the features of architecture as an art form through artistic styles.

architecture gothic space baroque

Architecture

Architecture, or architecture, forms a spatial environment for the life and activities of people. The art of architecture is truly a public art. Even today, it is difficult to interact with history and is directly included in the culture of its time. Individual buildings and their ensembles, squares and avenues, parks and stadiums, villages and entire cities - their beauty is able to evoke certain feelings and moods in the audience. This is what makes architecture Art - the art of creating buildings and structures according to the laws of beauty. And, like any kind of art, architecture is closely connected with the life of society, its history, views and ideology. Buildings and ensembles with the best architecture are remembered as symbols of countries and cities. The art of architecture is truly a public art. Even today, it is difficult to interact with history and is directly included in the culture of its time.

In a society of mass consumption, private order, commercial orientation of construction activity, the architect is often very limited in his actions, but he always has the right to choose the language of architecture, and at all times it has been a difficult search for a way to architecture as a great art and exact science. It is no coincidence that great civilizations are remembered not only by wars or trade, but, above all, by the architectural monuments left by it.

Types of architecture

Architecture of volumetric structures.

The architecture of three-dimensional structures includes residential buildings, public buildings (schools, theaters, stadiums, shops, and others), industrial buildings (factories, factories, power plants, etc.)

2. Landscape and park architecture.

This type of architecture is associated with the organization of landscape gardening space. These are squares, boulevards and parks with small architecture - gazebos, bridges, fountains, stairs.

Urban planning /

Urban planning activities - activities in urban planning for the organization and development of territories and settlements, determining the types of urban planning use of territories, integrated design of urban and rural settlements, including the creative process of forming urban space, creating

Styles in architecture

Architecture has always been closely connected with the history of the development of society, its worldview and ideas, with the level of development of building technology, with a person's idea of ​​usefulness and beauty. All this influenced the architectural style, that is, the historically established set of artistic means and techniques. The architectural style is manifested in the ways of organizing space, the choice of architectural forms characteristic of this era, their proportions and decorative ornaments. Familiarity with various architectural styles can reveal a lot about a person's past. Unlike the Greeks, who knew only a column covered with a beam and rooms with flat ceilings, the Romans developed an arched ceiling and a system of vaults. Roman vaults amaze with their figurativeness, scale, and abundance of variety. Perhaps the highest achievement of Roman design thought was a closed enchanting vault, usually called a dome. One of the most perfect examples of Roman architecture is the Pantheon.

Architecture as an art form. Features of the position in a number of spatial arts.

Architecture is closely connected with the social life of a person, with his social functions in society, and they, in turn, are regulated by those ideal norms that have evolved historically along with the worldview system (views on the world, on its structure), and initially stemmed from the syncretic mythological worldview of the ancients. . Thus, buildings, structures were closely related to their functional purpose. The maintenance of social order, based on the mythological idea of ​​the world order, required the construction of places of worship. Of course, the first post-and-beam structures that appeared in the late Neolithic era - megalithic buildings, dolmens (Fig. 12.1.) - are not dwellings, but places of worship, the specific impact of man on nature with its own materials, the creation of "artificial nature" - that is art.

Initially, the art of the ancients was syncretic, carrying a number of functions. The special position of architecture among the spatial arts lies in the fact that in its cult meaning, architecture was formed as the house of God, or a house where a person can make such a connection with God (where God or Gods personify the whole universe with all its interconnections, life and death).

The role of death in such places of worship is very great. Therefore, the first architectural monuments are associated with tombs, ritual burials.

Gradually, a person began to feel himself a representative of God on earth, and began to create "cult buildings" for himself. So gradually, to the functions of such art as architecture, another function was added - providing a home.

Art is a sphere of spiritual and practical activity of people, which is aimed at artistic comprehension and development of the world. Art is called upon to satisfy the universal human need, to recreate the surrounding reality in the developed forms of human sensibility (by this concept we mean the sensory-intuitive experience of a person in building his socio-cultural, human life). The practice of art is multifaceted, but there is one essential goal - the socialization of a person and the assertion of his self-worth. Art naturally and directly affects the innermost and individual worldview and attitude of a person, contributes to its development.

Art, as we saw earlier, is multifunctional: it cognizes, educates, predicts the future, has super-sense (the magic of words, colors, sounds, forms), inspiring, almost hypnotic influence and hedonistic influence on people, and also has other functions. The multifunctionality of art explains a lot in its nature. Its specificity, which distinguishes it from all other forms of human activity, lies in the fact that art masters and expresses reality in an artistic and figurative form, and through the multifunctionality, the versatility of the image connects a person with the whole, in this sense it exists in the name of people, and its the highest goal is humanism, happiness and a full human life. Therefore, neither in nature, nor in society, nor in the spiritual life of man are there such phenomena that would be inaccessible to art or would not interest him.

Artistic culture represented certain types art. Art forms are historically established forms of creative activity that have the ability to artistically realize life content and differ in the ways of its material embodiment (word in literature, sound in music, plastic materials, paints in fine arts, etc.).

In modern art history literature, a certain scheme and system of classification of arts has developed, although there is still no single one and they are all relative. The most common scheme is its division into three groups.

The first includes spatial or plastic arts, for which spatial construction is essential in revealing an artistic image that does not change in time and is perceived by sight (architecture, painting, graphics, arts and crafts, design, photography).

The second group includes temporary or dynamic art forms. In them, the composition unfolding in time acquires key importance; they are perceived by sight and hearing (music, literature).

The third group is spatio-temporal types, which are also called synthetic or spectacular arts (choreography, theater, film art, television art, variety and circus art).

The existence of various types of arts is due to the fact that none of them, by its own means, can give an artistic comprehensive picture of the world. Such a picture can only be created by the entire artistic culture of mankind as a whole, consisting of certain types art.

Spatial Views arts are also called plastic, they have an objective character, i.e. are performed by processing material material. Works of these types of art exist in real space and have objective spatial characteristics; the image and form of the work in them do not change over time, they do not have the nature of a process, as in music.

The task of an artistic solution to the problem of space is faced by any creator who creates a work of spatial art. Hence the figurative significance in the spatial art of the planar or deep perception of space, direct or any other perspective, horizon line and point of view, tectonics and architectonics.

The artist does not copy real spatial objects, but conveys the relationship between them (eg, in reduction or increase, on a two-dimensional plane or in a three-dimensional volume, in approach or removal, etc.). Artistic activity purposefully changes (recycles) real spatial structures in accordance with the specifics and characteristics of the material of a particular type of art, as well as to reveal the essence of objects and express the ideas and feelings of the artist.

The spatial arts are included in many synthetic arts as a more or less full-fledged element. A painter, an architect, and sometimes a sculptor are involved in the creation theatrical performance, film, in the design of mass festivities. There are attempts to combine the means of painting with music (for example, the "color music" of the composer A. N. Scriabin).

Architecture (Greek αρχη - here: foundation, origin; and Latin tectum - house, shelter) is the science and art of design and construction. Architecture is a system of buildings and structures, which is an artistically organized space. This is a "stone chronicle" "music in stone"

Specificity of architecture as an art form.

1) the dual unity of architecture as a synthesis of the material and artistic sides, since it performs in people's lives not only an aesthetic function, but also a practical one. Architecture consists of three shaping factors: constructive, aesthetic and ergonomic. The ancient Roman architect Vitruvius called them: strength, usefulness (functional purpose) and beauty (creation of an artistic image). The unity and harmony of these three factors creates architecture. Architecture is both art, and engineering, and construction, requiring a huge concentration of collective efforts and material resources.

2) architecture as a form of art is static, spatial.

3) architectural buildings have two "artistic dimensions" - internal (interior) and external (exterior, external facade). Their images are connected with each other by a certain artistic logic.

4) architecture tends to exist in the form of ensembles. Its buildings skillfully fit into the natural (natural) or urban (urban) landscape.

5) architecture does not reproduce reality visually, but is expressive. It does not depict reality, but expresses some abstract ideas, as we said initially, these are ideas expressing the ratio of the artificial nature of man (including its technical capabilities) to natural nature, determined at this historical stage.

6) it is closely connected with the social environment, clearly reflects the era and at the same time creates its style.

To create for a person such a form of space in which he can live, work, study and relax.

The primitive man, without knowing it, became an "architect", creating housing for himself in order to hide from the weather. He was content, depending on climatic conditions, or random dwellings (caves, semi-caverns), or easily erected and fragile huts, sheds, walls, pits.

In addition to housing, primitive built structures from huge boulders, which received various names.

Menhirs (from the Breton "men" - a stone and "khir" - long) are standing alone vertical pillars-blocks more than 20 meters high.

Their exact purpose has not been established, but researchers associate their appearance with funeral rites; perhaps they served to mark the boundaries of possessions.

Cromlechs (from the Breton "krom" - a circle, "lech" - a stone) are the most complex type of megalithic structures. They are found mainly in Europe - in western France and Great Britain, as well as in Asia and America. For example, in Stonehenge (England) stone circles reach a diameter of 30 meters. Cromlechs consist of vertically placed stones covered with horizontal slabs. Inside the circle, tall blocks with slabs placed in pairs form the center of the space. It is believed that the cromlechs had a cult significance.

Dolmens (from the Breton "tol" - table, "men" - stone) were a volume of three or four stones in the form of a table or a burial chamber (Fig. 1.4). In essence, among the ancient peoples (Egyptians, Etruscans, etc.), the living and mortuary chambers had the same shape.

In addition to stone, primitive man used branches, brushwood, tree trunks, sand, clay, limestone, animal skins, and in exceptional cases even ice as a building material.

With the development of society (depending on the way of life), people began to create more durable dwellings, for example, yurts for nomadic shepherds, houses for the settled population. Dwellings could grow to large clusters (Sumerian "cities" of Mesopotamia, Caucasian villages, American pueblos). Over the millennia, the purpose of buildings has changed, their size has increased.

In ancient Greece, the first place was given to the house for ordinary citizens, and not to palaces. The man was not humiliated, he was aware of his strength, and the architecture of Greece acquired a humanistic character. The main buildings of Greek architecture are public. Among them, the first place was given to the temple. The temple was intended for the life of a humanoid god.

The Etruscans, who inhabited in the 1st millennium BC. e. northwestern part of the Apennine Peninsula (modern region of Tuscany, Italy), achieved technical perfection and introduced the design of the vault.

The Romans, who first subjugated the Etruscans, and then the Greeks, adopted the column and vault from them, included monumental secular buildings in the circle of buildings being erected, the construction of which was caused by the needs of Rome's life (terms, basilicas, amphitheaters and arches). The Romans influenced the development of the architecture of the conquered territories.

Roman heritage

The Roman heritage was long used in the Middle Ages. In the 5th and 6th centuries, Byzantine architects, combining elements of Christian, ancient and oriental architecture, with the support of Roman technology, guided by the Greek understanding of beauty, created a special central-domed building for Christian worship.

The central dome system has become widespread in the architecture of all countries located along the Black Sea coast. Then, on its basis, a kind of architecture began to be created that meets the conditions of the climate and the life of society. This can be seen in Armenian and Georgian churches.

Since the 7th century, Islamic states have used the architectural forms of the conquered cultural peoples, adapting them to their cult. This is how mosques were created, consisting of a quadrangular courtyard with a fountain for ablution, a room for worship and a high minaret for calling to prayer. Along with religious architecture, palace architecture developed in Islamic states with many luxurious halls, shady and cozy chambers.

With the adoption of Christianity by Russia in the 10th century, Byzantine architecture first came to Kyiv and Novgorod, then to Vladimir, and in the 16th-17th centuries to Moscow. The forms borrowed from Byzantine architecture, combined with the old traditions of Russian wooden architecture, taking into account climatic, social and other conditions, became the basis for creating a completely independent Russian architectural style of the 16th-17th centuries.

In the second half of the 10th century in Europe, two main forces - feudal society and the church - determined two areas of architecture: the construction of castles and temples. The architecture of this era was called Romanesque.

The new word "Gothic" in architecture was said in the middle of the XII century. In Gothic buildings, the vertical line prevailed over the horizontal. The lancet arch and vault on light, thin columns transferred the load to the pillars and retaining walls with the help of light arches. Massive walls were no longer erected, huge windows appeared, and instead of darkness, light reigned in the cathedrals. Gothic architecture originated in France and there it was the most elegant, and in Germany - the most majestic. Gothic covered all the Catholic countries of Europe and dominated for two centuries.

From the XIV century begins a new era - the Renaissance. At this time, the personality of a person comes to the fore. There is a liberation of man from medieval ideals, and the new society turns to ancient world imbued with humanistic ideals.

The architectural style created in this era reflected all the changes in society. By the name of the era, it was called the Renaissance and was widespread throughout Europe in the 15th-17th centuries.

In the architecture of the 17th and early 19th centuries, two trends are developing - baroque; why classicism. It should be noted here that these directions in Russia had their own individuality.

Since the 60s of the XIX century in Western Europe there has been a gradual transition from classicism to antiquity and eclecticism (a mixture of different styles). At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, a new style, the Art Nouveau, took shape in architecture.

During these years, in the architecture of Russia, rich in the traditions of ancient Russian architecture, styles differ: Russian-Byzantine, eclecticism, pseudo-Russian, modern, neo-Russian and neoclassicism. Russian architects of these periods create interesting buildings and structures.

Architecture is the history of the development of human society, immortalized in stone.

Architectural monuments help a person to comprehend the history of society, awaken his thought and imagination.

THREE REQUIREMENTS FOR ARCHITECTURE (COMFORT, BEAUTY, STRENGTH)

Many people, like you, dear reader, live in cities and towns around the world. These cities consist of a variety of buildings and structures that form streets, squares, parks and gardens.

All buildings are divided into residential and public. Dwelling houses are the houses in which we live; public buildings - kindergartens, schools, various institutions, cinemas, stadiums, museums and theaters where we study, work and relax. There are other buildings as well. These are factories and plants - industrial enterprises in which people produce something.

Buildings and structures are designed and built by the builder. " is a Greek word, it means "chief builder". This concept came to Europe more than 400 years ago. In Russia, before Peter I, the word "" was not used, and the builders were called "architect", "ward master", "stone and carpenter headman". Only at the beginning of the 18th century, in the era of Peter I, in Russia they began to use the word "", adopted in the countries of Western Europe.

The architect, when he creates buildings, has always faced and faces a more difficult task than the artist, composer or writer. An artist may hide a bad painting in the basement of a museum, a composer may not play a poorly written piece of music, a reader may leave an uninteresting book on a bookshelf.

But what can be done with a poorly designed and built architectural structure?! The great German poet Goethe said: "You can make mistakes, but you can't build mistakes."

However, not only the architect is responsible for a bad building. Builders are also responsible. How they build the building together will determine its beauty and strength.

In distant historical times, buildings were designed and built by the same person. He drew and drew, and when all the drawings were ready, he supervised the construction. Many great architects erected their wonderful architectural structures, which have remained for centuries. In Ancient Egypt, Imhotep built a stepped tomb, in Ancient Greece, Mne-sikl Propylen, in Ancient Rome, Ves pasiap - the Colosseum, in the Middle Ages in France, Pierre de Montreau - Saint-I Herons, in the Renaissance in Italy, F. Brunelleschi - the Educational House.

In Russia, architects B. Rastrelli built the Winter Palace, A. Zakharov - the Admiralty, A. Voronikhin - the Kazan Cathedral. At the same time, the latter proved himself not only as a talented architect and urban planner, but also as a brilliant engineer, having created the first metal dome of the cathedral. Other architectural monuments are also associated with the names of many architects.

Since ancient times, people have sought to build in such a way that buildings, whatever they are intended for, are comfortable, beautiful and durable. These three basic requirements have been observed since the dawn of architecture. These requirements are still followed today.

Each building has its purpose and is built for specific purposes. No one ever built unnecessary buildings.

Consider the requirements that are necessary for the construction of buildings. The requirement of convenience for each building is understood differently. In kindergarten, children study, relax and play while their fathers and mothers work and are in other buildings that have their own specific purpose. The school building is intended for children to receive education. Stores are necessary to provide people with the right goods. Theaters and cinemas introduce viewers to new performances and films. The museum is a repository of historical and cultural monuments. It hosts exhibitions of works of art. Each of these structures should have its own artistic image that meets its Purpose.

Each of these buildings has different rooms with different requirements. So, in an apartment of a residential building, the rooms should be bright and ventilated, and the kitchens should be comfortable. The classrooms at the school are spacious and bright. For shops design large trading floors. In the theater and cinema, the seats are arranged so that the viewer can hear and see the actions on the stage and on the screen well. One of the main requirements for the halls of the museum is the illumination necessary for a better view of works of art.

All rooms in buildings and structures have their specific purpose and location. When designing all the necessary premises in accordance with the rules, and most importantly, common sense, taking into account the terrain and the construction site, the architect strives to ensure that the number, volume and layout of the premises are reasonable. All these requirements are recorded in the Building Regulations and Rules (their accepted designation is SNiP). They must be carried out by everyone who is responsible for the quality of construction.

The building must be beautiful. By beauty we mean both buildings (color), and the material from which) it is built, and the decoration of interiors, and most importantly, shape and proportions.

Let's take a closer look at the last one. It is difficult for an architect to imagine the shape of a building if he does not imagine what material it will be built from, how thick the walls will be to protect from frost and heat, what design the floor and ceiling slabs will be to keep noise out. All these questions relate to the third requirement - strength. They are also recorded in C H and 11.

Think about the meaning of the words "strength", "durably". Monuments of architecture speak about them. The famous Colosseum in Rome has been standing for about 2000 years; gladiator fights took place. The cathedral in Constantinople (Fig. 1.7), built 1400 years ago, amazes with its internal space. Architectural monuments in Transcaucasia have stood for the same number of years: the Rinsim Church in Echmiadzin (Armenia) (Fig. 1.8) and the Cross Church in Mtskheta (Georgia) (Fig. 1.10). For 900 years the cathedrals of St. Sophia in Kyiv (Fig. 1.9) and Novgorod (Fig. 1.11). When we say “Moscow”, the ensemble of the Moscow Kremlin appears before our eyes, which has stood guard over the city for 500 years with its twenty towers. Many events have seen the old walls of the Kremlin.

In all times, buildings were built on long years. They had to be strong and stable, to withstand her natural phenomenon.

In the 20th century, buildings began to be built from the most modern materials (concrete and reinforced concrete), metal products, modern construction equipment, excavators, bulldozers, tower cranes, panel trucks, dump trucks, etc.

But the most important thing is the working hands, without which it is impossible to build residential buildings, kindergartens, schools, hospitals and other buildings.

Urban planning is the art of building large and small towns and settlements. Urban planning as a science began its existence with the last thirds of XIX century. But this does not mean that before that no one dealt with the problem of building cities. Even in the IV millennium BC. e. Susa was located in what is now Iran. The construction of residential areas and the planting of green spaces in the city were carried out according to a specific plan.

The construction of one of the most ancient cities - Babylon ("Babilu" - "Gate of God"), located along the Euphrates River (the territory of modern Iraq) was subordinated to a clear planning. Babylon was a huge, elongated regular rectangle surrounded by a triple outer wall. The first wall (made of raw brick) reached a thickness of 7 meters; the second (made of baked bricks) was at a distance of 12 meters from the first and had a width of 7.8 meters; the third (stone) wall was 3.3 meters thick.

The Euphrates river divided the city into two parts: the eastern one - the "old city" and the western one - " new town". The building had the form of a rectangular system. Part of the straight streets needle parallel to the Euphrates, other streets crossed them at right angles and went to the Euphrates River (Fig. 1.12). The rectangular building plan, used for the first time in Babylon, determined for many centuries the system that would be repeated in various versions in subsequent periods of urban development.

In the ancient period of cultural development, the basic principles of urban planning develop and acquire clear and definite rules. Until the middle of the 5th century BC. e. Athens and other cities with acropolises were located mainly on hills and had two characteristic features. The first was that the acropolis, the elevated fortress of the city, became a fortified part of the city. The second is that the acropolis became the center around which the city grew on the slopes, on a complex relief. The figure on the left shows what one of the most famous acropolises of Athens looked like (Fig. 1.13).

Greece in the 5th-4th centuries BC. e. the construction of new cities was carried out according to a predetermined plan. So, Pericles (490-429 BC, Athenian commander and leader of the democrats), announced a competition for the construction of a city on the island of Sicily. In the IV century BC. e. Plato (428-348 BC, ancient Greek philosopher-idealist) in his "Laws" expressed the idea of ​​​​a reasonable city planning.

In the Hellenistic era, the city of Alexandria, located in northwestern Egypt, was built by Deinocrates according to a complex rectangular layout (Fig. 1.14). The plan was notable for the fact that the main street of the city was an absolutely straight highway 6 kilometers long and 28 meters wide.

The cities of the Roman Empire had the layout of military camps. Rome has always been famous for its well-organized squares: the Roman forums (squares), with a system of straight and perpendicular streets, constituted a complex artistically enclosed space. The spacious square in the cities of Italy was intended not only for public events and meetings, it brought variety to the same rows of streets, served as a place for the main architectural structures of the city: monuments, cathedrals, palaces.

On planning ancient rome, located on seven hills, the terrain was STRONGLY reflected. In the years 64-68, under Emperor Nero (37-68), after a fire, the layout of the city was completely changed, which was completed in the Baroque era.

In the Middle Ages in Europe and in Ancient Russia, the construction of cities was not carried out according to plan. Wooden houses were erected in groups, spontaneously. The streets of the cities were narrow, winding, covered with impenetrable mud for most of the year. The peculiarity of these cities is that they served as defensive fortifications. Cities were closed, surrounded by water, ditches, walls.

With the development of trade in cities, trade and craft centers appear. These centers are built outside the fenced area - this is how cities begin to grow.

Over time, not only the outlines of the city change, but also happening! changes within the city: market squares are added to church squares, and later palace squares. As the city grows, the former central part acquires the significance of a historical monument.

During the Renaissance, three types of space planning were used. The first was that the area was a unity free space and architectural structures. The second technique: the area is a closed space. The third technique is the combination of several squares - an ensemble. It was according to this plan that the square of St. Peter's in Rome, created in the transitional period between the Renaissance and the Baroque: the oval square is combined with the square, which has the shape of a trapezoid.

An example of an excellent solution for a closed square is St. Petra in the city of Mantua, where every street ends in a square. Another feature of urban planning in the Baroque era is the restructuring of quarters according to a strictly deliberate plan.

At the turn of the 17th-18th centuries, urban planning in France reached a high level. Open (Place de la Concorde) and closed (Vandome) squares are being created. Great changes are taking place in the construction of the cities of France—Strasbourg, Bordeaux, Nancy, and others.

In the 19th century, cities were growing not only in Europe, but also in America. Urban planning of this period is carried out mainly in the capitals: architects are engaged in the creation of separate ensembles. Only in the second half of the XIX century, with the development of industry, there was a rapid growth of cities. An example of reasonable urban planning remains, mainly, Paris, where all work is carried out according to a certain plan.

In the 20th century, the main cities are rapidly developing due to the creation of new districts, where urban planning problems are mainly solved. One of the difficult issues is the reconstruction of the historical part of the city, where there are many architectural monuments.

Urban planning solves huge problems related to the planning and development of cities, the organization of urban surface and underground transport, the placement of public recreation areas, and the creation of zones for industrial enterprises. All these issues are interconnected with each other and are solved simultaneously.

GARDEN AND PARK ARCHITECTURE (LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE)

Garden and park architecture is one of the most important aspects of urban planning, which sets the task of organizing a space free from buildings.

The term "landscape architecture" originated in 1861 in the United States, at a congress dedicated to the organization national parks in America. In Europe, this term appeared only in the 20th century.

The emergence of parks and gardens, garden and park ensembles depends on many conditions: topographic (relief), climatic and social. The variety of garden and park architecture is influenced by the level of culture of society, its way of life and the era in which this art develops.

Landscape architecture has its origins in ancient Egypt. The first information about the gardens of Egypt we find in the drawings on papyri, reliefs on stone. Ancient Egyptian gardens were rectangular in shape.

On the territory of the garden, as a rule, there was a small residential building, pools, pergolas covered with ivy.

From the legends, we know about the famous gardens of Babylon, named after the queen of Assyria, which were arranged on the roofs of palaces in Babylon.

But there are gardens not from legends. By order of King Nebuchadnezzar, gardens were arranged for his wife Amitis. Gardens were arranged in the palace, raised to the height of a four-story structure, on artificially designed man-made terraces. Terraces-gardens rose in ledges and were connected by stairs with a very slight inclination. The Persians, who captured Assyria, were amazed at the "hanging" gardens. They adopted the way of gardening and set up hunting parks in their homeland, calling them parades. Unlike Nami's garden, the gam trees grew on natural land. The parks had well-maintained roads, canals, houses for hunters.

Among the ancient Hindus, in the sacred groves, the Brahmins protected the trees. The veneration of trees was associated with the cult of the Buddha.

In ancient Greece, gardens were planted around numerous temples. Gardens were a place of communication, scientists, philosophers, poets performed there.

Garden art in ancient Greece is usually called classical.

It was a highly artistic ensemble of nature and art - ridiculous plantings, hearths, sculptures and architecture of houses or temples.

Gardening art in Rome reached its peak, and the floor also became widespread among other European peoples. In Rome, gardens were arranged at city houses, palaces and country rich houses - villas. At the house of the urban type there were small gardens for intimate conversations. In country houses, they arranged large gardens, planted on terraces. The gardens had straight alleys, decorated with balustrades with vases, ponds and sculpture. Particular importance was attached to the shearing of plantings, and in the II-IV centuries, shearing had unusual shapes (ships, birds, etc.). After the fall of the Roman Empire, gardening art fell into decline and was not restored for many years.

In the Middle Ages, gardening was carried out in very small areas, at monasteries, as well as in some castles.

In the XV-XVI centuries, garden art was widely spread in China, India and Iran. Chinese gardeners have achieved great results in their profession. Gardens were arranged in large areas (up to 40-50 kilometers in circumference). Gardeners sought to create such conditions for visitors to feel in the garden as in a real natural environment.

In the second half of the 18th century, the main methods of arranging Chinese gardens and decorative buildings (small architectural forms - pagodas, bridges, gates, etc.) were adopted by Western European architects.

The Japanese also adopted the style of Chinese gardens, but planted gardens in small areas, perhaps due to lack of land. In Japan, the so-called water gardens were developed: ponds and artificial reservoirs were filled with water plants and ornamental fish.

In Japan, in the 16th-17th centuries, a special type of garden appeared - the tea garden (“tyaniva”). The reason for the appearance of such a garden was the tea pavilion (“chashitsu”), in which tea ceremonies of government officials took place. Such pavilions were separated by 01 palace premises, and the territory between them was turned into a garden, decorated with stone paths, stone lanterns that illuminated the path, and water vessels that served for ritual washing of hands. General form paths, lanterns and vessels, their location in the garden was determined by the "step" - the time of transition from one room to another, from the outside world to the world of the tea ceremony.

The Renaissance style (XIV - the end of the XV century) was reflected not only in architecture. He also touched on the art of gardening. Italian gardens early renaissance had a strict geometric layout with architectural structures in front of the main building. During the High Renaissance, and especially during the Baroque era, the arrangement of gardens became widespread. The gardens were arranged in terraces, which became their hallmark. They were connected by wide staircases decorated with baroque sculpture and fountains. Various buildings, pavilions, grottoes were erected in the gardens - a new garden and park ensemble was created (Fig. 1.17).

In France, unlike in Italy, the garden was located on a flat area. This style was called "French regular parterre garden". The creator of the style was the famous Parisian architect Andre Le Nôtre (1613-1700), a master of gardening art, the son of the chief gardener of the Tuileries in Paris, J. Le Nôtre.

Garden art in England developed under the influence of Chinese and Japanese gardens. The new style was called "landscape". The meaning of the English landscape style was its copying of nature.

In the 19th century in Western Europe, in Paris, there were several large urban parks, such as, for example, the Bois de Boulogne, created in 1853-1858 by the architects Alphen and Hausmann, and the Tuileries (1871).

In the 20th century, the construction of large public parks continues. At city mansions and villas, gardens were laid out in various styles, and sometimes their mixing was observed.

Landscape art in Russia

Landscape art in Russia had its own characteristics.

In Ancient Russia, until the 17th century, gardens were planted at monasteries. They had a purely practical meaning - they grew fruits for the monastery table. But after the 17th century, the gardens become a place for entertainment. In Moscow, such gardens were arranged on the slopes of the Kremlin hills and on the banks of the Moscow River.

Landscape art was especially developed under Peter I. This was associated with the construction of palaces and foreign residences of the imperial court in St. Petersburg and its environs. The first garden arranged in St. Petersburg was the Summer Garden (1710), which received its name from the Summer Palace (Fig. 1.18).

The author of the Summer Garden was a French architect, a master of landscape art Jean-Baptiste Leblon (1679-1719), invited by Peter 1. In 1716, Leblon expanded the Summer Garden and gave it the appearance of a French regular garden. During the reign of Catherine II, the decoratively trimmed shrub - bosquet - was destroyed, trimming was stopped, and the garden took on a neglected look.

A wonderful garden and park ensemble was laid out in 1713 in Peterhof (the residence of Peter I), on the shores of the Gulf of Finland (Fig. 1.19). This amazing garden is complemented by the famous artfully designed fountains, pavilions of Marly, Monplaisir. Ancient trees have grown in this place since ancient times.

In Tsarskoe Selo, at the Grand Palace, in the 17th century a park was laid out in a regular style (Fig. 1.20). During the reign of Catherine II, the park was converted into a landscape one. From the second half of the 18th century, St. Petersburg was surrounded by garden and park ensembles. Big park in English style was created in Gatchina (Fig. 1.21). An amazing landscape-style park was founded in Pavlovsk (Fig. 1.22) by the English architect Charles Cameron (1730-1812), and at the beginning of the 19th century the ensemble was improved and expanded by the Italian Pietro di Gottardo Gonzago (1751-1831), decorator, master of decorative painting, architect of perspective paintings and park architecture.

A park was laid out near Moscow in a regular style with a well-known architectural ensemble"Arkhangelsk". Parks appeared in Kuskovo, Kuzminki and other places near Moscow.

Designers of landscape architecture are still working on the creation of city parks and gardens, landscaping of populated areas and solve the main tasks:

- sanitary and hygienic - improvement of the air basin;

Gardens and parks improve the microclimate, reduce surfaces that are exposed to dust and overheating; - protective and insulating; green spaces reduce city noise, protect people from wind and snow, soil from destruction;

- architectural and artistic; parks isolate various populated areas from each other, create favorable conditions for work and recreation, and decorate the architectural appearance of areas of mass development.

When creating landscape architecture, mainly natural materials are used. Designers of landscape architecture create elements of park architecture, which are usually called "small architectural forms". These include park benches, flower beds, arbors, decorative pools and fountains, trellis (a thin lattice of wooden slats for climbing plants) and pergola (an arbor or gallery entwined with plants), grottoes (stone structures in the form of a cave) and alpine brisks, retaining walls for parks with hilly terrain. All these tasks are solved according to projects carried out by specialists in landscape architecture.