Objects in the style of classicism in Russia. School encyclopedia What style belongs to late classicism

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Classicism (French classicisme, from Latin classicus - exemplary) is an artistic and architectural style, a trend in European art of the 17th-19th centuries.

Classicism went through three stages in its development:

* Early Classicism (1760s - early 1780s)
* Strict classicism (mid-1780s - 1790s)
* Empire (from French empire - "empire")
Empire - the style of late (high) classicism in architecture and applied arts. Originated in France during the reign of Emperor Napoleon I; developed during the first three decades of the 19th century; replaced by eclectic currents.

Although such a phenomenon in European culture as classicism touched all manifestations of art (painting, literature, poetry, sculpture, theater), in this article we will consider classicism in architecture and interior design.

The history of the emergence of classicism

Classicism in architecture replaced the pompous rococo, a style that had already been widely criticized since the middle of the 18th century for excessive complexity, pomposity, mannerism, for complicating the composition with decorative elements. During this period, the ideas of enlightenment began to attract more and more attention in European society, which was reflected in architecture. Thus, the attention of the architects of that time was attracted by the simplicity, conciseness, clarity, calmness and rigor of ancient and, above all, Greek architecture. The growing interest in antiquity was facilitated by the discovery in 1755 of Pompeii with the richest artistic monuments, excavations in Herculaneum, the study of ancient architecture in southern Italy, on the basis of which new views on Roman and Greek architecture were formed. The new style - classicism became a natural result of the development of Renaissance architecture and its transformation.

Famous architectural buildings of classicism:

• David Mayernik
  Exterior of the Fleming Library at the American School in Lugano, Switzerland (1996) " target="_blank"> Fleming Library Fleming Library
• Robert Adam
  An example of British Palladianism is London's Osterley Park mansion " target="_blank"> osterley park osterley park
• Claude-Nicolas Ledoux
  Customs outpost on Stalingrad Square in Paris " target="_blank"> customs outpost customs outpost
• Andrea Palladio
  Andrea Palladio. Villa Rotunda near Vicenza" target="_blank"> Villa Rotunda Villa Rotunda

The main features of classicism

The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by the regularity of planning and the clarity of volumetric form. The order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity, became the basis of the architectural language of classicism. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular planning system.

Architects of classicism

Andrea Palladio (Italian Andrea Palladio; 1508-1580, real name Andrea di Pietro) - the great Italian architect of the late Renaissance. Founder of Palladianism and Classicism. Probably one of the most influential architects in history.

Inigo Jones (1573-1652) was an English architect, designer and artist who pioneered the British architectural tradition.

Claude Nicolas Ledoux (1736-1806) is a master of French classicism architecture, anticipating many principles of modernism. Blondel's student.

The most significant interiors in the style of classicism were designed by the Scot Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. He was greatly impressed by both the archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi. In the interpretation of Adam, classicism was a style that was hardly inferior to rococo in terms of sophistication of interiors, which gained him popularity not only among democratic-minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French counterparts, Adam preached a complete rejection of details devoid of a constructive function.

In Russia, Karl Rossi, Andrey Voronikhin and Andrey Zakharov showed themselves to be outstanding masters of the Empire style. Many foreign architects who worked in Russia were able to show their talent to the fullest extent only here. Among them are the Italians Giacomo Quarenghi, Antonio Rinaldi, the Frenchman Vallin-Delamote, the Scot Charles Cameron. All of them mainly worked at the court in St. Petersburg and its environs.

In Britain, the Empire corresponds to the so-called "Regency style" (the largest representative is John Nash).

German architects Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel build up Munich and Berlin with grandiose museum and other public buildings in the spirit of the Parthenon.

Types of buildings in the style of classicism

The nature of the architecture in most cases remained dependent on the tectonics of the load-bearing wall and the vault, which became flatter. The portico becomes an important plastic element, while the walls are divided from the outside and from the inside by small pilasters and cornices. Symmetry prevails in the composition of the whole and details, volumes and plans.

The color scheme is characterized by light pastel tones. White color, as a rule, serves to reveal architectural elements that are a symbol of active tectonics. The interior becomes lighter, more restrained, the furniture is simple and light, while the designers used Egyptian, Greek or Roman motifs.

Classicism is associated with the most significant urban planning concepts and their implementation in nature at the end of the 18th and the first half of the 19th century. During this period, new cities, parks, resorts are laid.

Classicism in the interior

Furniture of the era of classicism - solid and respectable, was made of precious wood. The texture of wood is of great importance, acting as a decorative element in the interior. Pieces of furniture were often finished with carved inserts made of precious wood. Decor elements are more restrained, but expensive. The shapes of objects are simplified, the lines are straightened. The legs are straightened, the surfaces become simpler. Popular colors: mahogany plus light bronze finish. Chairs and armchairs are upholstered in fabrics with floral patterns.

Chandeliers and lamps are supplied with crystal pendants and are quite massive in execution.

The interior also contains porcelain, mirrors in expensive frames, books, paintings.

The colors of this style often have clear, almost primary yellows, blues, and purples and greens, the latter being used with black and gray, as well as bronze and silver jewelry. Popular color is white. Colored varnishes (white, green) are often used in combination with light gilding of individual details.

• David Mayernik
  Interior of the Fleming Library at the American School in Lugano, Switzerland (1996) " target="_blank"> Fleming Library Fleming Library
• Elizabeth M. Dowling
  Modern interior design in classic style " target="_blank"> Modern classic Modern classic
• Classicism
  Modern interior design in classic style " target="_blank"> Hall Hall
• Classicism
  Modern dining room interior design in classic style " target="_blank"> Canteen Canteen

The art of classicism followed antique, that is, classical, patterns, which were considered the ideal aesthetic standard. Unlike the masters of the Baroque, the creators of classicism tried to follow the firmly established canons of beauty. The new era developed strict rules that determined how to write poetry and plays, how to create paintings, how to dance, etc. The main principles of classicism are strict adherence to established norms and majesty.

Through the efforts of the French Academy, founded in 1634, in France, instead of numerous local dialects, a single literary language was gradually established, which became the most important means of not only developing culture, but also strengthening national unity. The Academy dictated linguistic norms and artistic tastes, contributing to the formation of the general canons of French culture. The formation of classicism was also facilitated by the activities of the Academy of Painting and Sculpture, the Academy of Architecture, the Academy of Music, which determined the norms of artistic creativity in the respective fields of art. The artistic canons of that era were formed under the influence of philosophical rationalism, the founder of which was the outstanding French thinker of the first half of the 17th century. R. Descartes.

Cartesianism, as the philosophy of Descartes is called, asserted faith in the omnipotence of the human mind and its ability to organize all human life on rational foundations.

The leading poet of classicism and its theorist in the field of poetry was N. Boileau, author of the poetic treatise "Poetic Art" (1674).

Dramaturgy

In dramaturgy, where classicism reached its greatest completeness, the principle of "three unities" was established, which meant that the whole plot unfolded in one place, at one time and in one action. Tragedy was recognized as the highest genre of theatrical art. In classical drama, the characters were clearly distinguished and opposed to each other: positive characters embodied only virtues, negative ones became the personification of vice. At the same time, good always had to win over evil.

The basis of the classical French tragedy was P. Kornel, who not only wrote plays that are still recognized as masterpieces of world drama, but also became a leading theorist of theatrical art.

Ballet

High perfection in the era of classicism was achieved by the ballet, to which the "king-sun" had a weakness, often going on stage himself. Ballet, which came from Renaissance Italy, under the auspices of the King of France, turned into a special kind of stage art. By the end of the XVII century. its canons were developed, turning ballet into the most classical of all types of classical arts.

Opera

Opera also came from Italy to France. The national operatic tradition, which originated at the court of Louis XIV, was also formed in line with classicism.

Classical canons in painting formed N. Poussin. French painting of the 17th century laid the foundations of a great national tradition, the further development of which brought France undeniable primacy in the field of fine arts.

Portrait

Louis XIV gave the royal palace of the Louvre at the disposal of the ministers of the Muses, which acquired its majestic eastern facade with him. Paris and its suburbs during the reign of the "sun king" were decorated with wonderful architectural monuments. "His Majesty's Buildings" turned into an entire industry, and everything built then is, in the words of the biographer Louis XIV, "a permanent world exhibition of masterpieces of French classical taste."

Since the time of Louis XIV, the primacy of France in many areas of culture has become universally recognized. French influence for a long time determined the main directions in the development of world art. Paris has become the center of the artistic life of Europe, a trendsetter and tastes that have become role models in other countries. material from the site

Palace and Park Ensemble Versailles

An outstanding achievement of that era is the grandiose palace and park ensemble Versailles. The best architects, sculptors and artists of that time participated in its construction. The parks of Versailles are a classic example of French park art. Unlike the English park, which is more natural, landscape in nature, embodying the desire for harmony with nature, the French park is characterized by a regular layout and a desire for symmetry. Alleys, flower beds, ponds - everything is arranged in accordance with the strict laws of geometry. Even trees and bushes are trimmed in the form of regular geometric shapes. The attractions of Versailles were also various fountains, rich sculpture, luxurious interiors of palaces. According to the French historian, no treaty "has given so much to the glory of our country as the ensemble of Versailles." “One of a kind in proportion, connecting the play of all the arts, reflecting the culture of a unique era,” Versailles still amazes the imagination of visitors.

CLASSICISM (from the Latin classicus - exemplary), style and artistic direction in literature, architecture and art of the 17th - early 19th centuries, classicism is successively associated with the Renaissance; occupied, along with baroque, an important place in the culture of the 17th century; continued its development during the Enlightenment. The origin and spread of classicism is associated with the strengthening of the absolute monarchy, with the influence of the philosophy of R. Descartes, with the development of the exact sciences. At the heart of the rationalist aesthetics of classicism is the desire for balance, clarity, logic of artistic expression (largely perceived from the aesthetics of the Renaissance); belief in the existence of universal and eternal, not subject to historical changes, the rules of artistic creativity, which are interpreted as skill, mastery, and not a manifestation of spontaneous inspiration or self-expression.

Having perceived the idea of ​​creativity, which goes back to Aristotle, as an imitation of nature, the classicists understood nature as an ideal norm, which had already been embodied in the works of ancient masters and writers: an orientation towards “beautiful nature”, transformed and ordered in accordance with the unshakable laws of art, thus assumed imitation antique samples and even competition with them. Developing the idea of ​​art as a rational activity based on the eternal categories of "beautiful", "expedient", etc., classicism, more than other artistic movements, contributed to the emergence of aesthetics as a generalizing science of beauty.

The central concept of classicism - plausibility - did not imply an accurate reproduction of empirical reality: the world is recreated not as it is, but as it should be. The preference for the universal norm as "due" to everything private, random, concrete corresponds to the ideology of the absolutist state expressed by classicism, in which everything personal and private is subject to the indisputable will of state power. The classicist depicted not a specific, single person, but an abstract person in a situation of a universal, non-historical moral conflict; hence the orientation of the classicists to ancient mythology as the embodiment of universal knowledge about the world and man. The ethical ideal of classicism presupposes, on the one hand, the subordination of the personal to the common, of passions to duty, reason, resistance to the vicissitudes of life; on the other - restraint in the manifestation of feelings, compliance with the measure, appropriateness, the ability to please.

Classicism strictly subordinated creativity to the rules of the genre-style hierarchy. "High" (for example, epic, tragedy, ode - in literature; historical, religious, mythological genre, portrait - in painting) and "low" (satire, comedy, fable; still life in painting) genres were distinguished, which corresponded to a certain style, circle of themes and heroes; a clear delineation of the tragic and the comic, the sublime and the base, the heroic and the mundane was prescribed.

From the middle of the 18th century, classicism was gradually replaced by new trends - sentimentalism, pre-romanticism, romanticism. The traditions of classicism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries were resurrected in neoclassicism.

The term "classicism", which goes back to the concept of classics (exemplary writers), was first used in 1818 by the Italian critic G. Visconti. It was widely used in the polemics of classicists and romantics, and among the romantics (J. de Stael, V. Hugo, etc.) it had a negative connotation: classicism and the classics, imitating antiquity, were opposed to innovative romantic literature. In literary criticism and art history, the concept of "classicism" began to be actively used after the works of scientists of the cultural-historical school and G. Wölfflin.

Stylistic trends similar to the classicism of the 17th-18th centuries are seen by some scientists in other eras; in this case, the concept of "classicism" is interpreted in a broad sense, denoting a stylistic constant that is periodically updated at various stages of the history of art and literature (for example, "ancient classicism", "Renaissance classicism").

N. T. Pakhsaryan.

Literature. The origins of literary classicism are in normative poetics (Yu. Ts. Scaliger, L. Castelvetro, etc.) and in Italian literature of the 16th century, where a genre system was created, correlated with the system of language styles and oriented towards antique samples. The highest flowering of classicism is associated with French literature of the 17th century. The founder of the poetics of classicism was F. Malherbe, who regulated the literary language on the basis of live colloquial speech; the reform he carried out was secured by the French Academy. In the most complete form, the principles of literary classicism were set forth in the treatise "Poetic Art" by N. Boileau (1674), who summarized the artistic practice of his contemporaries.

Classical writers treat literature as an important mission of translating into words and conveying to the reader the requirements of nature and reason, as a way of "teaching while entertaining." The literature of classicism is striving for a clear expression of significant thought, meaning (“... meaning always lives in my creation” - F. von Logau), it refuses stylistic sophistication, rhetorical embellishments. The classicists preferred laconicism to verbosity, simplicity and clarity to metaphorical complexity, decentness to extravagant. Following the established norms did not mean, however, that the classicists encouraged pedantry and ignored the role of artistic intuition. Although the rules were presented to the classicists as a way to keep creative freedom within the boundaries of reason, they understood the importance of intuitive insight, forgiving talent for deviation from the rules, if it was appropriate and artistically effective.

The characters of the characters in classicism are built on the allocation of one dominant feature, which contributes to their transformation into universal universal types. Favorite collisions are the clash of duty and feelings, the struggle of reason and passion. At the center of the works of the classicists is a heroic personality and at the same time a well-bred person who stoically strives to overcome his own passions and affects, to curb or at least realize them (like the heroes of the tragedies of J. Racine). Descartes' "I think, therefore I am" plays the role of not only a philosophical and intellectual, but also an ethical principle in the attitude of the characters of classicism.

At the heart of literary theory, classicism is a hierarchical system of genres; the analytical separation of "high" and "low" heroes in various works, even artistic worlds, and thus is combined with the desire to ennoble "low" genres; for example, to rid satire of rough burlesque, comedy - of farcical features (Moliere's "high comedy").

The main place in the literature of classicism was occupied by drama based on the rule of three unities (see The theory of three unities). Tragedy became its leading genre, the highest achievements of which are the works of P. Corneille and J. Racine; in the first, the tragedy acquires a heroic character, in the second, a lyrical character. Other "high" genres play a much smaller role in the literary process (the unsuccessful experience of J. Chaplin in the genre of the epic poem is later parodied by Voltaire; solemn odes were written by F. Malherbe and N. Boileau). At the same time, the "low" genres were developing significantly: the heroic-comic poem and satire (M. Renier, Boileau), the fable (J. de La Fontaine), and the comedy. Genres of small didactic prose are cultivated - aphorisms (maxims), "characters" (B. Pascal, F. de La Rochefoucauld, J. de La Bruyère); oratorical prose (J. B. Bossuet). Although the theory of classicism did not include the novel in the system of genres worthy of serious critical reflection, M. M. Lafayette's psychological masterpiece The Princess of Cleves (1678) is considered an example of a classicist novel.

At the end of the 17th century, there was a decline in literary classicism, but the archaeological interest in antiquity in the 18th century, the excavations of Herculaneum, Pompeii, the creation by I. I. Winkelman of the ideal image of Greek antiquity as “noble simplicity and calm grandeur” contributed to its new rise in the Enlightenment. The main representative of the new classicism was Voltaire, in whose work rationalism, the cult of reason served to justify not the norms of absolutist statehood, but the right of the individual to be free from the claims of church and state. Enlightenment classicism, actively interacting with other literary trends of the era, relies not on "rules", but rather on the "enlightened taste" of the public. The appeal to antiquity becomes a way of expressing the heroism of the French Revolution of the 18th century in the poetry of A. Chenier.

In France in the 17th century, classicism developed into a powerful and consistent artistic system, and had a noticeable impact on baroque literature. In Germany, classicism, having arisen as a conscious cultural effort to create a “correct” and “perfect” poetic school worthy of other European literatures (M. Opitz), on the contrary, was drowned out by the baroque, whose style was more in line with the tragic era of the Thirty Years’ War; the belated attempt of I. K. Gottsched in the 1730s and 40s to direct German literature along the path of the classicist canons caused fierce controversy and was generally rejected. An independent aesthetic phenomenon is the Weimar classicism of J. W. Goethe and F. Schiller. In the UK, early classicism is associated with the work of J. Dryden; its further development proceeded in line with the Enlightenment (A. Pope, S. Johnson). By the end of the 17th century, classicism in Italy existed in parallel with Rococo and sometimes intertwined with it (for example, in the work of the poets of Arcadia - A. Zeno, P. Metastasio, P. Y. Martello, S. Maffei); Enlightenment classicism is represented by the work of V. Alfieri.

In Russia, classicism was established in the 1730s-1750s under the influence of Western European classicism and the ideas of the Enlightenment; however, it clearly traces the connection with the baroque. Distinctive features of Russian classicism are pronounced didacticism, accusatory, socially critical orientation, national-patriotic pathos, reliance on folk art. One of the first principles of classicism was transferred to Russian soil by A. D. Kantemir. In his satires, he followed I. Boileau, but, creating generalized images of human vices, he adapted them to domestic reality. Kantemir introduced new poetic genres into Russian literature: transcriptions of psalms, fables, a heroic poem (“Petrida”, not finished). The first example of a classic laudatory ode was created by V. K. Trediakovsky ("Ode Solemn on the Surrender of the City of Gdansk", 1734), who accompanied it with the theoretical "Reasoning about the ode in general" (both of which followed Boileau). The influence of baroque poetics marked the odes of M. V. Lomonosov. The most complete and consistent Russian classicism is represented by the work of A. P. Sumarokov. Having outlined the main provisions of the classicist doctrine in the Epistle on Poetry (1747) written in imitation of Boileau's treatise, Sumarokov sought to follow them in his works: tragedies oriented towards the work of the French classicists of the 17th century and the dramaturgy of Voltaire, but addressed mainly to the events of national history; partly - in comedies, the model for which was the work of Moliere; in satires, as well as fables that brought him the glory of the "northern Lafontaine". He also developed the song genre, which was not mentioned by Boileau, but was included by Sumarokov himself in the list of poetic genres. Until the end of the 18th century, the classification of genres proposed by Lomonosov in the preface to the collected works of 1757 - “On the Usefulness of Church Books in the Russian Language”, retained its significance, which correlated the three styles of theory with specific genres, linking a heroic poem, an ode, solemn speech; with the middle - tragedy, satire, elegy, eclogue; with low - comedy, song, epigram. An example of a heroic poem was created by V. I. Maikov (“Elisha, or the Irritated Bacchus”, 1771). The first completed heroic epic was Rossiyada by M. M. Kheraskov (1779). At the end of the 18th century, the principles of classic dramaturgy appeared in the works of N. P. Nikolev, Ya. B. Knyazhnin, V. V. Kapnist. At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries, classicism was gradually replaced by new trends in literary development associated with pre-romanticism and sentimentalism, but retained its influence for some time. Its traditions can be traced in the 1800s-20s in the work of Radishchev poets (A. Kh. Vostokov, I. P. Pnin, V. V. Popugaev), in literary criticism (A. F. Merzlyakov), in literary and aesthetic program and genre-stylistic practice of the Decembrist poets, in the early work of A. S. Pushkin.

A. P. Losenko. "Vladimir and Rogneda". 1770. Russian Museum (St. Petersburg).

N. T. Pakhsaryan; T. G. Yurchenko (classicism in Russia).

Architecture and fine arts. The tendencies of classicism in European art were already outlined in the 2nd half of the 16th century in Italy - in the architectural theory and practice of A. Palladio, the theoretical treatises of G. da Vignola, S. Serlio; more consistently - in the writings of G. P. Bellori (17th century), as well as in the aesthetic standards of the academicians of the Bologna school. However, in the 17th century, classicism, which developed in an acutely polemical interaction with the Baroque, only in French artistic culture developed into an integral stylistic system. Classicism of the 18th - early 19th centuries was also predominantly formed in France, which became a pan-European style (the latter is often referred to as neoclassicism in foreign art history). The principles of rationalism underlying the aesthetics of classicism determined the view of a work of art as the fruit of reason and logic, triumphing over the chaos and fluidity of sensually perceived life. Orientation to a reasonable beginning, to enduring patterns also determined the normative requirements of the aesthetics of classicism, the regulation of artistic rules, a strict hierarchy of genres in the visual arts (the "high" genre includes works on mythological and historical subjects, as well as "ideal landscape" and ceremonial portrait; to " low" - still life, everyday genre, etc.). The activities of the royal academies founded in Paris - painting and sculpture (1648) and architecture (1671) - contributed to the consolidation of the theoretical doctrines of classicism.

The architecture of classicism, in contrast to the baroque with its dramatic conflict of forms, energetic interaction of volume and spatial environment, is based on the principle of harmony and internal completeness, both in a separate building and in an ensemble. The characteristic features of this style are the desire for clarity and unity of the whole, symmetry and balance, the certainty of plastic forms and spatial intervals that create a calm and solemn rhythm; a system of proportioning based on multiple ratios of integers (a single module that determines the patterns of shaping). The constant appeal of the masters of classicism to the heritage of ancient architecture meant not only the use of its individual motifs and elements, but also the comprehension of the general laws of its architectonics. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the architectural order, proportions and forms closer to antiquity than in the architecture of previous eras; in buildings, it is used in such a way that it does not obscure the overall structure of the building, but becomes its subtle and restrained accompaniment. The interiors of classicism are characterized by clarity of spatial divisions, softness of colors. Widely using perspective effects in monumental and decorative painting, the masters of classicism fundamentally separated the illusory space from the real one.

An important place in the architecture of classicism belongs to the problems of urban planning. Projects of "ideal cities" are being developed, a new type of regular absolutist city-residence (Versailles) is being created. Classicism strives to continue the traditions of antiquity and the Renaissance, laying in the basis of its decisions the principle of proportionality to a person and, at the same time, a scale that gives the architectural image a heroic-elevated sound. And although the rhetorical splendor of palace decor comes into conflict with this dominant trend, the stable figurative structure of classicism preserves the unity of style, no matter how diverse its modifications in the process of historical development.

The formation of classicism in French architecture is associated with the works of J. Lemercier and F. Mansart. The appearance of buildings and construction techniques at first resemble the architecture of castles of the 16th century; a decisive turning point occurred in the work of L. Levo - first of all, in the creation of the palace and park ensemble of Vaux-le-Vicomte, with a solemn enfilade of the palace itself, imposing murals by Ch. Lebrun and the most characteristic expression of new principles - the regular parterre park of A. Le Nôtre. The eastern facade of the Louvre, realized (since the 1660s) according to the plan of C. Perrault, became the programmatic work of classicism architecture (it is characteristic that the projects of J. L. Bernini and others in the Baroque style were rejected). In the 1660s, L. Levo, A. Le Nôtre and Ch. Lebrun began to create an ensemble of Versailles, where the ideas of classicism are expressed with particular completeness. Since 1678, the construction of Versailles was led by J. Hardouin-Mansart; according to his designs, the palace was significantly expanded (wings were added), the central terrace was converted into the Mirror Gallery - the most representative part of the interior. He also built the Grand Trianon Palace and other buildings. The ensemble of Versailles is characterized by a rare stylistic integrity: even the jets of fountains were combined into a static form, similar to a column, and trees and shrubs were trimmed in the form of geometric shapes. The symbolism of the ensemble is subordinated to the glorification of the "Sun King" Louis XIV, but its artistic and figurative basis was the apotheosis of reason, imperiously transforming the natural elements. At the same time, the emphasized decorativeness of the interiors justifies the use of the stylistic term “baroque classicism” in relation to Versailles.

In the 2nd half of the 17th century, new planning techniques were developed that provided for the organic connection of urban development with elements of the natural environment, the creation of open areas that spatially merge with the street or embankment, ensemble solutions for the key elements of the urban structure (Louis the Great Square, now Vendôme, and Victory Square ; the architectural ensemble of the Les Invalides, all - J. Hardouin-Mansart), triumphal entrance arches (Saint-Denis gate designed by N. F. Blondel; all - in Paris).

The traditions of classicism in France of the 18th century were almost not interrupted, but in the 1st half of the century the rococo style prevailed. In the middle of the 18th century, the principles of classicism were transformed in the spirit of the aesthetics of the Enlightenment. In architecture, the appeal to "naturalness" put forward the requirement for constructive justification of the order elements of the composition, in the interior - the need to develop a flexible layout of a comfortable residential building. The landscape (landscape) environment became the ideal environment for the house. The rapid development of knowledge about Greek and Roman antiquity (excavations of Herculaneum, Pompeii, etc.) had a huge impact on the classicism of the 18th century; The works of J. I. Winkelmann, J. W. Goethe, and F. Militsia made their contribution to the theory of classicism. In the French classicism of the 18th century, new architectural types were defined: an exquisitely intimate mansion (“hotel”), a front public building, an open square connecting the main thoroughfares of the city (Louis XV Square, now Place de la Concorde, in Paris, architect J. A. Gabriel; he also built the Petit Trianon Palace in the Versailles Park, combining the harmonic clarity of forms with the lyrical refinement of the drawing). J. J. Souflot carried out his project of the Sainte-Genevieve church in Paris, based on the experience of classical architecture.

In the era preceding the French Revolution of the 18th century, architecture manifested a striving for severe simplicity, a bold search for the monumental geometrism of a new, orderless architecture (K. N. Ledoux, E. L. Bulle, J. J. Lekeux). These searches (noted also by the influence of the architectural etchings of G. B. Piranesi) served as the starting point for the late phase of classicism - the French Empire (1st third of the 19th century), in which magnificent representativeness is growing (C. Percier, P. F. L. Fontaine , J. F. Chalgrin).

English Palladianism of the 17th and 18th centuries is in many respects related to the system of classicism, and often merges with it. Orientation to the classics (not only to the ideas of A. Palladio, but also to antiquity), strict and restrained expressiveness of plastically clear motives are present in the work of I. Jones. After the "Great Fire" of 1666, K. Wren built the largest building in London - St. Paul's Cathedral, as well as over 50 parish churches, a number of buildings in Oxford, marked by the influence of ancient solutions. Extensive urban plans were realized by the middle of the 18th century in the regular development of Bath (J. Wood the Elder and J. Wood the Younger), London and Edinburgh (the Adam brothers). The buildings of W. Chambers, W. Kent, J. Payne are associated with the flourishing of country park estates. R. Adam was also inspired by Roman antiquity, but his version of classicism takes on a softer and more lyrical appearance. Classicism in Great Britain was the most important component of the so-called Georgian style. At the beginning of the 19th century, features similar to the Empire style appeared in English architecture (J. Soane, J. Nash).

In the 17th - early 18th century, classicism was formed in the architecture of Holland (J. van Kampen, P. Post), which gave rise to a particularly restrained version of it. Cross-links with French and Dutch classicism, as well as with the early baroque, affected the short flowering of classicism in the architecture of Sweden in the late 17th and early 18th centuries (N. Tessin the Younger). In the 18th and early 19th centuries, classicism also established itself in Italy (G. Piermarini), Spain (J. de Villanueva), Poland (J. Kamsetzer, H. P. Aigner), and the USA (T. Jefferson, J. Hoban). The strict forms of the Palladian F. W. Erdmansdorf, the “heroic” Hellenism of K. G. Langhans, D. and F. Gilly, and the historicism of L. von Klenze are characteristic of the German classicism architecture of the 18th - 1st half of the 19th century. In the work of K. F. Shinkel, the harsh monumentality of images is combined with the search for new functional solutions.

By the middle of the 19th century, the leading role of classicism was coming to naught; it is replaced by historical styles (see also Neo-Greek style, Eclecticism). At the same time, the artistic tradition of classicism comes to life in the neoclassicism of the 20th century.

Fine art of classicism is normative; its figurative structure is characterized by clear signs of social utopia. The iconography of classicism is dominated by ancient legends, heroic deeds, historical plots, i.e., interest in the fate of human communities, in the "anatomy of power." Not satisfied with a simple "portrait of nature", the artists of classicism strive to rise above the concrete, the individual - to the universally significant. The classicists defended their idea of ​​artistic truth, which did not coincide with the naturalism of Caravaggio or the Little Dutch. The world of rational deeds and bright feelings in the art of classicism rose above the imperfect everyday life as the embodiment of a dream of the desired harmony of being. Orientation to the lofty ideal gave rise to the choice of "beautiful nature". Classicism avoids the casual, the deviant, the grotesque, the crude, the repulsive. The tectonic clarity of classical architecture corresponds to a clear delimitation of plans in sculpture and painting. The plastic of classicism, as a rule, is designed for a fixed point of view, it is distinguished by the smoothness of forms. The moment of movement in the poses of figures usually does not violate their plastic isolation and calm statuary. In classical painting, the main elements of form are line and chiaroscuro; local colors clearly reveal objects and landscape plans, which brings the spatial composition of the painting closer to the composition of the stage.

The founder and greatest master of classicism of the 17th century was the French artist N. Poussin, whose paintings are marked by the loftiness of the philosophical and ethical content, the harmony of the rhythmic structure and color.

The "ideal landscape" (N. Poussin, C. Lorrain, G. Duguet), which embodied the dream of the classicists of the "golden age" of mankind, was highly developed in the painting of classicism of the 17th century. The most significant masters of French classicism in sculpture of the 17th - early 18th centuries were P. Puget (heroic theme), F. Girardon (search for harmony and laconism of forms). In the second half of the 18th century, French sculptors again turned to socially significant themes and monumental solutions (J. B. Pigalle, M. Clodion, E. M. Falcone, J. A. Houdon). Civic pathos and lyricism were combined in the mythological painting of J. M. Vienne, the decorative landscapes of J. Robert. The painting of the so-called revolutionary classicism in France is represented by the works of J. L. David, whose historical and portrait images are marked by courageous drama. In the late period of French classicism, painting, despite the appearance of individual major masters (J. O. D. Ingres), degenerates into official apologetic or salon art.

Rome became the international center of classicism in the 18th - early 19th centuries, where the academic tradition dominated in art with a combination of nobility of forms and cold, abstract idealization, which is not uncommon for academicism (painters A. R. Mengs, J. A. Koch, V. Camuccini, sculptors A. Kakova and B. Thorvaldsen). In the visual art of German classicism, contemplative in spirit, the portraits of A. and V. Tishbein, the mythological cartoons of A. Ya. Karstens, the plastic art of I. G. Shadov, K. D. Raukh stand out; in arts and crafts - furniture by D. Roentgen. In Great Britain, the classicism of graphics and sculpture by J. Flaxman are close, in the arts and crafts - ceramics by J. Wedgwood and the masters of the factory in Derby.

A. R. Mengs. "Perseus and Andromeda". 1774-79. Hermitage (St. Petersburg).

The heyday of classicism in Russia dates back to the last third of the 18th - 1st third of the 19th century, although already the beginning of the 18th century was marked by a creative appeal to the urban planning experience of French classicism (the principle of symmetrical-axial planning systems in the construction of St. Petersburg). Russian classicism embodied a new historical stage in the flourishing of Russian secular culture, unprecedented for Russia in scope and ideological fullness. Early Russian classicism in architecture (1760-70s; J. B. Vallin-Delamot, A. F. Kokorinov, Yu. M. Felten, K. I. Blank, A. Rinaldi) still retains the plastic enrichment and dynamics of forms characteristic of baroque and rococo.

The architects of the mature era of classicism (1770-90s; V. I. Bazhenov, M. F. Kazakov, I. E. Starov) created the classical types of the capital's palace-estate and comfortable residential building, which became models in the extensive construction of suburban noble estates and in the new, front building of cities. The art of the ensemble in suburban park estates is a major contribution of Russian classicism to world artistic culture. The Russian variant of Palladianism arose in manor construction (N. A. Lvov), and a new type of chamber palace developed (C. Cameron, J. Quarenghi). A feature of Russian classicism is the unprecedented scale of state urban planning: regular plans were developed for more than 400 cities, ensembles of the centers of Kaluga, Kostroma, Poltava, Tver, Yaroslavl, etc. were formed; the practice of "regulating" city plans, as a rule, successively combined the principles of classicism with the historically established planning structure of the old Russian city. The turn of the 18th-19th century was marked by the largest urban development achievements in both capitals. A grandiose ensemble of the center of St. Petersburg was formed (A. N. Voronikhin, A. D. Zakharov, J. F. Thomas de Thomon, later K. I. Rossi). On other urban planning principles, “classical Moscow” was formed, which was built up in the period of its restoration after the fire of 1812 with small mansions with cozy interiors. The beginnings of regularity here were consistently subordinated to the general pictorial freedom of the spatial structure of the city. The most prominent architects of late Moscow classicism are D. I. Gilardi, O. I. Bove, A. G. Grigoriev. The buildings of the 1st third of the 19th century belong to the Russian Empire style (sometimes called Alexander classicism).

In the visual arts, the development of Russian classicism is closely connected with the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts (founded in 1757). Sculpture is represented by “heroic” monumental-decorative plasticity, which forms a finely thought-out synthesis with architecture, monuments filled with civic pathos, gravestones imbued with elegiac enlightenment, easel plasticity (I.P. Prokofiev, F.G. Gordeev, M.I. Kozlovsky, I. P. Martos, F. F. Shchedrin, V. I. Demut-Malinovsky, S. S. Pimenov, I. I. Terebenev). In painting, classicism was most clearly manifested in the works of the historical and mythological genre (A. P. Losenko, G. I. Ugryumov, I. A. Akimov, A. I. Ivanov, A. E. Egorov, V. K. Shebuev, early A. A. Ivanov, in scenography - in the work of P. di G. Gonzago). Some features of classicism are also inherent in the sculptural portraits of F. I. Shubin, in painting - portraits of D. G. Levitsky, V. L. Borovikovsky, landscapes of F. M. Matveev. In the decorative and applied art of Russian classicism, artistic modeling and carved decor in architecture, bronze products, cast iron, porcelain, crystal, furniture, damask fabrics, etc., stand out.

A. I. Kaplun; Yu. K. Zolotov (European fine arts).

Theatre. The formation of theatrical classicism began in France in the 1630s. The activating and organizing role in this process belonged to literature, thanks to which the theater established itself among the "high" arts. The French saw samples of theatrical art in the Italian "learned theater" of the Renaissance. Since the court society was the legislator of tastes and cultural values, the court ceremonial and festivities, ballets, and ceremonial receptions also influenced the stage style. The principles of theatrical classicism were worked out on the Parisian stage: in the theater "Mare" headed by G. Mondori (1634), in the Palais-Cardinal built by Cardinal Richelieu (1641, from 1642 "Palais-Royal"), whose arrangement met the high requirements of Italian stage technology ; in the 1640s, the Burgundy Hotel became the site of theatrical classicism. Simultaneous decoration gradually, by the middle of the 17th century, was replaced by a picturesque and uniform perspective decoration (palace, temple, house, etc.); a curtain appeared, which rose and fell at the beginning and at the end of the performance. The scene was framed like a painting. The game took place only on the proscenium; the performance was centered by several figures of protagonist characters. An architectural backdrop, a single scene of action, a combination of acting and pictorial plans, a common three-dimensional mise-en-scene contributed to the creation of the illusion of plausibility. In stage classicism of the 17th century, there was the concept of the “fourth wall”. “He acts like this,” F. E. a'Aubignac wrote about the actor (“The Practice of the Theater”, 1657), “as if the audience does not exist at all: his characters act and speak as if they really are kings, and not Mondori and Belrose, as if they were in the palace of Horace in Rome, and not in the Burgundy hotel in Paris, and as if they were seen and heard only by those who are present on the stage (i.e., in the depicted place).

In the high tragedy of classicism (P. Corneille, J. Racine), the dynamics, entertainment and adventure plots of the plays by A. Hardy (the repertoire of the first permanent French troupe of V. Leconte in the 1st third of the 17th century) were replaced by static and in-depth attention to the spiritual the world of the hero, the motives of his behavior. The new dramaturgy required changes in the performing arts. The actor became the embodiment of the ethical and aesthetic ideal of the era, creating a close-up portrait of his contemporary with his acting; his costume, stylized as antiquity, corresponded to modern fashion, plastic obeyed the requirements of nobility and grace. The actor had to have the pathos of a speaker, a sense of rhythm, musicality (for the actress M. Chanmele, J. Racine inscribed notes over the lines of the role), the art of eloquent gesture, the skills of a dancer, even physical strength. The dramaturgy of classicism contributed to the emergence of a school of stage recitation, which combined the entire set of performing techniques (reading, gesture, facial expressions) and became the main expressive means of the French actor. A. Vitez called the recitation of the 17th century "prosodic architecture". The performance was built in the logical interaction of monologues. With the help of the word, the technique of excitation of emotion and its control was worked out; the success of the performance depended on the strength of the voice, its sonority, timbre, possession of colors and intonations.

"Andromache" by J. Racine in the Burgundy hotel. Engraving by F. Chauveau. 1667.

The division of theatrical genres into "high" (tragedy in the Burgundy hotel) and "low" (comedy in the "Palais Royal" of the time of Molière), the emergence of roles fixed the hierarchical structure of the theater of classicism. Remaining within the boundaries of "ennobled" nature, the performance pattern and outlines of the image were determined by the individuality of the major actors: J. Floridor's manner of recitation was more natural than that of the excessively posing Belrose; M. Chanmelet was characterized by a sonorous and melodious "recitation", and Montfleury did not know equal in the affects of passion. The concept that developed later on the canon of theatrical classicism, which consisted of standard gestures (surprise was depicted with hands raised to shoulder level and palms facing the audience; disgust - with the head turned to the right, and hands repelling the object of contempt, etc.) , refers to the era of decline and degeneration of style.

In the 18th century, despite the decisive retreat of the theater towards educational democracy, the actors of the Comedie Francaise A. Lecouvreur, M. Baron, A. L. Lequin, Dumesnil, Cleron, L. Preville developed the style of stage classicism in accordance with tastes and demands era. They departed from the classic norms of recitation, reformed the costume and made attempts to direct the play, creating an ensemble of actors. At the beginning of the 19th century, at the height of the struggle of the romantics with the tradition of the “court” theater, F.J. Talma, M.J. ”and sought-after style. The traditions of classicism continued to influence the theatrical culture of France at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries and even later. The combination of styles of classicism and modernity is characteristic of the game of J. Mounet-Sully, S. Bernard, B.C. Coquelin. In the 20th century, the French director's theater became closer to the European one, the stage style lost its national specificity. Nevertheless, significant events in the French theater of the 20th century correlate with the traditions of classicism: the performances of J. Copeau, J. L. Barraud, L. Jouvet, J. Vilard, Vitez's experiments with the classics of the 17th century, productions by R. Planchon, J. Desart and etc.

Having lost the importance of the dominant style in France in the 18th century, classicism found successors in other European countries. J. W. Goethe consistently introduced the principles of classicism in the Weimar theater led by him. The actress and entrepreneur F. K. Neuber and the actor K. Eckhoff in Germany, the English actors T. Betterton, J. Quinn, J. Kemble, S. Siddons propagandized classicism, but their efforts, despite personal creative achievements, turned out to be ineffective and, ultimately were rejected. Stage classicism became the object of a pan-European controversy, and thanks to the German, and after them the Russian theorists of the theater, it received the definition of "false classical theater".

In Russia, the classic style flourished at the beginning of the 19th century in the work of A. S. Yakovlev and E. S. Semyonova, later manifested itself in the achievements of the St. Petersburg theater school in the person of V. V. Samoilov (see Samoilovs), V. A. Karatygin (see Karatygin), then Yu. M. Yuriev.

E. I. Gorfunkel.

Music. The term "classicism" in relation to music does not imply an orientation towards ancient samples (only monuments of ancient Greek musical theory were known and studied), but a series of reforms designed to put an end to the remnants of the Baroque style in musical theater. Classicist and Baroque tendencies were inconsistently combined in the French musical tragedy of the 2nd half of the 17th - 1st half of the 18th century (the creative collaboration of the librettist F. Kino and composer J. B. Lully, operas and opera-ballets by J. F. Rameau) and in Italian opera seria, which occupied a leading position among the musical and dramatic genres of the 18th century (in Italy, England, Austria, Germany, Russia). The heyday of the French musical tragedy came at the beginning of the crisis of absolutism, when the ideals of heroism and citizenship of the period of the struggle for a nationwide state were replaced by the spirit of festivity and ceremonial officialdom, an attraction to luxury and refined hedonism. The sharpness of the conflict of feeling and duty typical of classicism in the context of a mythological or knightly-legendary plot of a musical tragedy decreased (especially in comparison with tragedy in a drama theater). The norms of classicism are associated with the requirements of genre purity (lack of comedy and everyday episodes), unity of action (often also place and time), a “classical” 5-act composition (often with a prologue). The central position in musical drama is occupied by recitative - an element closest to rationalistic verbal-conceptual logic. In the intonational sphere, declamatory-pathetic formulas (interrogative, imperative, etc.) associated with natural human speech predominate, at the same time, rhetorical and symbolic figures characteristic of baroque opera are excluded. Extensive choral and ballet scenes with fantastic and pastoral-idyllic themes, a general orientation towards spectacle and entertainment (which eventually became dominant) were more in line with the traditions of the Baroque than with the principles of classicism.

Traditional for Italy were the cultivation of singing virtuosity and the development of a decorative element inherent in the opera seria genre. In line with the requirements of classicism put forward by some representatives of the Roman Academy "Arcadia", the northern Italian librettists of the early 18th century (F. Silvani, J. Frigimelica-Roberti, A. Zeno, P. Pariati, A. Salvi, A. Piovene) were expelled from serious opera comic and everyday episodes, plot motifs associated with the intervention of supernatural or fantastic forces; the circle of plots was limited to historical and historical-legendary, moral and ethical issues were brought to the fore. At the center of the artistic concept of the early opera seria is an exalted heroic image of a monarch, less often a statesman, courtier, epic hero, demonstrating the positive qualities of an ideal personality: wisdom, tolerance, generosity, devotion to duty, heroic enthusiasm. The 3-act structure, traditional for Italian opera, was preserved (5-act dramas remained experiments), but the number of actors was reduced, intonational expressive means, overture and aria forms, and the structure of vocal parts were typified in music. The type of dramaturgy, entirely subordinated to musical tasks, was developed (from the 1720s) by P. Metastasio, whose name is associated with the pinnacle stage in the history of the opera seria. In his stories, the classicist pathos is noticeably weakened. The conflict situation, as a rule, arises and deepens due to the protracted "delusion" of the main actors, and not due to a real conflict of their interests or principles. However, a special predilection for an idealized expression of feelings, for the noble impulses of the human soul, albeit far from strict rational justification, ensured the exceptional popularity of Metastasio's libretto for more than half a century.

The culmination in the development of musical classicism of the Age of Enlightenment (in the 1760s and 70s) was the creative collaboration of K.V. Gluck and librettist R. Calcabidgi. In Gluck's operas and ballets, classicist tendencies were expressed in an emphasis on ethical issues, the development of ideas about heroism and generosity (in the musical dramas of the Parisian period, in a direct appeal to the theme of duty and feeling). The norms of classicism also corresponded to genre purity, the desire for maximum concentration of action, reduced to almost one dramatic collision, a strict selection of expressive means in accordance with the tasks of a particular dramatic situation, the utmost limitation of a decorative element, a virtuoso beginning in singing. The enlightening nature of the interpretation of the images was reflected in the interweaving of the noble qualities inherent in the classic heroes, with the naturalness and freedom of expression of feelings, reflecting the influence of sentimentalism.

In the 1780s and 1790s, revolutionary classicist tendencies, reflecting the ideals of the French Revolution of the 18th century, found expression in the French musical theater. Genetically connected with the previous stage and represented mainly by the generation of composers who followed the Gluckian opera reform (E. Megul, L. Cherubini), revolutionary classicism emphasized, first of all, the civic, tyrannical pathos that had previously been characteristic of the tragedies of P. Corneille and Voltaire. In contrast to the works of the 1760s and 70s, in which the resolution of the tragic conflict was difficult to achieve and required the intervention of external forces (the tradition of "deus ex machina" - Latin "God from the machine"), for the works of the 1780s and 1790s, a characteristic denouement became through a heroic deed (denial of obedience, protest, often an act of retribution, the murder of a tyrant, etc.), which created a vivid and effective release of tension. This type of dramaturgy formed the basis of the genre of "rescue opera", which appeared in the 1790s at the intersection of the traditions of classicist opera and realistic philistine drama.

In Russia, in the musical theater, original manifestations of classicism are rare (the opera “Cefal and Prokris” by F. Araya, the melodrama “Orpheus” by E. I. Fomin, the music by O. A. Kozlovsky for the tragedies of V. A. Ozerov, A. A. Shakhovsky and A. N. Gruzintseva).

In relation to comic opera, as well as instrumental and vocal music of the 18th century, not related to theatrical action, the term "classicism" is used to a large extent conditionally. It is sometimes used in a broad sense to refer to the initial stage of the classical-romantic era, gallant and classical styles (see the article Vienna Classical School, Classics in Music), in particular to avoid judgment (for example, when translating the German term "Klassik" or in expression "Russian classicism" applied to all Russian music of the 2nd half of the 18th - early 19th centuries).

In the 19th century, classicism in the musical theater gave way to romanticism, although certain features of classicist aesthetics were sporadically revived (by G. Spontini, G. Berlioz, S. I. Taneyev, and others). In the 20th century, classicist artistic principles were revived again in neoclassicism.

P. V. Lutsker.

Lit.: General works. Zeitler R. Classizismus und Utopia. Stockh., 1954; Peyre H. Qu'est-ce que le classicisme? R., 1965; Bray R. La formation de la doctrine classique en France. R., 1966; Renaissance. Baroque. Classicism. The problem of styles in Western European art of the XV-XVII centuries. M., 1966; Tapie V. L. Baroque et classicisme. 2 ed. R., 1972; Benac H. Le classicisme. R., 1974; Zolotov Yu. K. Moral foundations of action in French classicism of the 17th century. // Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Ser. literature and language. 1988. V. 47. No. 3; Zuber R., Cuénin M. Le classicisme. R., 1998. Literature. Vipper Yu. B. Formation of classicism in French poetry in the early 17th century. M., 1967; Oblomievsky D. D. French classicism. M., 1968; Serman I. Z. Russian classicism: Poetry. Drama. Satire. L., 1973; Morozov A. A. The fate of Russian classicism // Russian literature. 1974. No. 1; Jones T. W., Nicol B. Neo-classical dramatic criticism. 1560-1770. Camb., 1976; Moskvicheva G. V. Russian classicism. M., 1978; Literary manifestos of Western European classicists. M., 1980; Averintsev S. S. Ancient Greek Poetics and World Literature // Poetics of Ancient Greek Literature. M., 1981; Russian and Western European classicism. Prose. M., 1982; L'Antiquité gréco-romaine vue par le siècle des lumières / Éd. R. Chevalier. Tours, 1987; Classic im Vergleich. Normativität und Historizität europäischer Klassiken. Stuttg.; Weimar, 1993; Pumpyansky L.V. On the history of Russian classicism // Pumpyansky L.V. Classical tradition. M., 2000; Genetiot A. Le classicisme. R., 2005; Smirnov A. A. Literary theory of Russian classicism. M., 2007. Architecture and fine arts. Gnedich P. P. History of Arts. M., 1907. T. 3; he is. Art history. Western European Baroque and Classicism. M., 2005; Brunov N.I. Palaces of France in the 17th and 18th centuries. M., 1938; Blunt A. Francois Mansart and the origins of French classical architecture. L., 1941; idem. Art and architecture in France. 1500 to 1700. 5th ed. New Haven, 1999; Hautecoeur L. Histoire de l'architecture classique en France. R., 1943-1957. Vol. 1-7; Kaufmann E. Architecture in the age of Reason. Camb. (Mass.), 1955; Rowland V. The classical tradition in western art. Camb. (Mass.), 1963; Kovalenskaya N. N. Russian classicism. M., 1964; Vermeule S. S. European art and the classical past. Camb. (Mass.), 1964; Rotenberg E. I. Western European art of the 17th century. M., 1971; he is. Western European painting of the 17th century. Thematic principles. M., 1989; Nikolaev E.V. Classical Moscow. M., 1975; Greenhalgh M. The classical tradition in art. L., 1978; Fleming J. R. Adam and his circle, in Edinburgh and Rome. 2nd ed. L., 1978; Yakimovich A. K. Classicism of the Poussin era. Fundamentals and principles // Soviet art history'78. M., 1979. Issue. one; Zolotov Yu. K. Poussin and freethinkers // Ibid. M., 1979. Issue. 2; Summerson J. The classical language of architecture. L., 1980; Gnudi C. L'ideale classico: saggi sulla tradizione classica nella pittura del Cinquecento e del Seicento. Bologna, 1981; Howard S. Antiquity restored: essays on the afterlife of the antique. Vienna, 1990; The French Academy: classicism and its antagonists / Ed. J Hargrove. newark; L., 1990; Arkin D. E. Images of architecture and images of sculpture. M., 1990; Daniel S. M. European classicism. St. Petersburg, 2003; Karev A. Classicism in Russian painting. M., 2003; Bedretdinova L. Ekaterininsky classicism. M., 2008. Theatre. Celler L. Les décors, les costumes et la mise en scène au XVIIe siècle, 1615-1680. R., 1869. Gen., 1970; Mantius K. Moliere. Theater, public, actors of his time. M., 1922; Mongredien G. Les grands comediens du XVIIe siècle. R., 1927; Fuchs M. La vie théâtrale en province au XVIIe siècle. R., 1933; About the theatre. Sat. articles. L.; M., 1940; Kemodle G. R. From art to theatre. Chi., 1944; Blanchart R. Histoire de la mise en scène. R., 1948; Vilar J. On the theatrical tradition. M., 1956; History of the Western European Theatre: In 8 vols. M., 1956-1988; Velekhova N. In disputes about style. M., 1963; Boyadzhiev G. N. The Art of Classicism // Questions of Literature. 1965. No. 10; Leclerc G. Les grandes aventures du theater. R., 1968; Mints N. V. Theatrical collections of France. M., 1989; Gitelman L. I. Foreign acting art of the XIX century. St. Petersburg, 2002; History of foreign theater. SPb., 2005.

Music. Materials and documents on the history of music. 18th century / Under the editorship of M. V. Ivanov-Boretsky. M., 1934; Buken E. Music of the epoch of Rococo and Classicism. M., 1934; he is. Heroic style in opera. M., 1936; Livanova T.N. On the way from the Renaissance to the Enlightenment of the 18th century. // From the Renaissance to the XX century. M., 1963; she is. The problem of style in music of the 17th century. // Renaissance. Baroque. Classicism. M., 1966; she is. Western European music of the 17th-18th centuries. in the arts. M., 1977; Liltolf M. Zur Rolle der Antique in der musikalischen Tradition der französischen Epoque Classique // Studien zur Tradition in der Musik. Munch., 1973; Keldysh Yu. V. The problem of styles in Russian music of the 17th-18th centuries. // Keldysh Yu. V. Essays and research on the history of Russian music. M., 1978; Lutsker P.V. Style problems in musical art at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries. // Epochal milestones in the history of Western art. M., 1998; Lutsker P. V., Susidko I. P. Italian opera of the 18th century. M., 1998-2004. Ch. 1-2; Kirillina L. V. Gluck's reformist operas. M., 2006.

Classicism gave the world the architecture of such cities as London, Paris, Venice and St. Petersburg. Classicism in architecture dominated for more than three hundred years, from the 16th to the 19th centuries, and it was loved for its harmony, simplicity, rigor and at the same time elegance. Turning to the forms of ancient architecture, classicism in architecture is characterized by clear three-dimensional forms, symmetrical-axial compositions, monumentality, direct and spacious city planning system.

The origin of classicism in architecture, Italy

Classicism in architecture originated at the end of the Renaissance, in the 16th century, and the great Italian, Venetian architect Andrea Palladio is considered to be the father of this architectural style. As the writer Peter Vail said about Palladio in his book The Genius of Place:

“In order not to go into architectural details, the easiest way is to conjure up the Bolshoi Theater or the regional House of Culture - they are such thanks to Palladio. And if you were to make a list of people whose efforts the world - at least the world of the Hellenic-Christian tradition from California to Sakhalin - looks like it looks, and not otherwise, Palladio would take first place.

The city where Andrea Palladio lived and worked is the Italian Vicenza, located in the north-east of Italy near Venice. Now Vicenza is widely known in the world as the city of Palladio, who created many beautiful villas. In the second half of his life, the architect moved to Venice, where he designed and built wonderful churches, palazzos and other public buildings. Andrea Palladio was awarded the title of "the most prominent citizen of Venice".

Cathedral of San Giorgio Mangiore, Andrea Palladio

Villa Rotunda by Andrea Palladio

Loggia del Capagno, Andrea Palladio

Teatro Olimpico, Andrea Palladio and Vincenzo Scamozzi

A follower of Andrea Palladio was his talented student Vincenzo Scamozzi, who, after the death of his teacher, completed work on the Teatro Olimpico.

The works and ideas of Palladio in the field of architecture fell in love with his contemporaries and were continued in the works of other architects of the 16-17th century. The architecture of classicism received the most powerful impetus in its development from England, Italy, France and Russia.

Further development of classicism

Classicism in England

Classicism literally swept into England, becoming the royal architectural style. A whole galaxy of the most talented architects of England of those times studied and continued the ideas of Palladio: Inigo Jones, Christopher Wren, Earl of Burlington, William Kent.

The English architect Inigo Jones, an admirer of the work of Andrea Palladio, brought the architectural legacy of Palladio to England in the 17th century. It is believed that Jones was one of the architects who laid the foundation for the English school of architecture.

Queens House in Greenwich, Inigo Jones

House of Banquets, Inigo Jones

England was rich in classicist architects - along with Jones, such masters as Christopher Wren, Lord Burlington and William Kent brought a huge contribution to the architecture of England.

Sir Christopher Wren, architect and professor of mathematics at Oxford, rebuilt the center of London after the great fire in 1666, created the national English classicism "Wren Classicism".

Royal Chelsea Hospital Christopher Wren

Richard Boyle, Earl Architect of Burlington, philanthropist and patron of architects, poets and composers. The Count Architect studied and collected the manuscripts of Andrea Palladio.

Burlington House, Earl Architect of Burlington

The English architect and gardener William Kent collaborated with the Earl of Burlington, for whom he designed gardens and furniture. In horticulture, he created the principle of harmony of form, landscape and nature.

palace complex in golkham

Classicism in French architecture

In France, classicism has been the dominant style since the French Revolution, when the desire for conciseness arose in architecture.

It is believed that the beginning of classicism in France was laid by the construction of the church of Saint Genevieve in Paris. , designed by French self-taught architect Jacques Germain Soufflot in 1756, later called the Pantheon.

Temple of Saint Genevieve in Paris (Pantheon), Jacques Germain Soufflot

Classicism brought serious changes to the planning system of the city; winding medieval streets were replaced by majestic, spacious avenues and squares, at the intersection of which architectural monuments were placed. At the end of the 18th century, a unified urban planning concept appeared in Paris. An example of a new urban planning concept of classicism was Rivoli Street in Paris.

Rivoli street in Paris

The architects of the imperial palace, prominent representatives of architectural classicism in France, are Charles Percier and Pierre Fontaine. Together they created a number of majestic architectural monuments - the Arc de Triomphe on Carruzel Square in honor of Napoleon's victory in the battle of Austerlitz. They own the construction of one of the wings of the Louvre, the Marchand Pavilion. Charles Percier participated in the restoration of the Compiègne Palace, created the interiors of Malmaison, Saint-Cloud Castle and Fontainebleau Palace.

Arc de Triomphe in honor of Napoleon's victory at the Battle of Autherlitz, Charles Percier and Pierre Fontaine

Wing of the Louvre, Marchand Pavilion, Charles Percier and Pierre Fontaine

Classicism in Russia

In 1780, at the invitation of Catherine II, Giacomo Quaregi arrived in St. Petersburg as "Her Majesty's architect". Giacomo himself was from Bergamo, Italy, studied architecture and painting, his teacher was the largest German painter of the Classical era, Anton Raphael Mengs.

The authorship of Quarenghi belongs to several dozen of the most beautiful buildings in St. Petersburg and its environs, including the English Palace in Peterhof, the pavilion in Tsarskoye Selo, the building of the Hermitage Theater, the Academy of Sciences, the Assignation Bank, the summer palace of Count Bezborodko, the Horse Guards Manege, the Catherine Institute of Noble Maidens and a lot others.

Alexander Palace, Giacomo Quarenghi

The most famous projects of Giacomo Quarenghi are the buildings of the Smolny Institute in St. Petersburg and the Alexander Palace in Tsarskoye Selo.

Smolny Institute, Giacomo Quarenghi

An admirer of the traditions of the Palladian and the new Italian school of architecture, Quarenghi designed amazingly elegant, noble and harmonious buildings. The beauty of the city of St. Petersburg is largely due to the talent of Giacomo Quaregi.

Russia in the 18th and 19th centuries was rich in talented architects who worked in the style of classicism along with Giacomo Quarenghi. In Moscow, the most famous masters of architecture were Vasily Bazhenov and Matvey Kazakov, and Ivan Starov in St. Petersburg.

The artist and architect, teacher, Vasily Bazhenov, a graduate of the Academy of Arts and a student of the French professor of architecture Charles Devayi, created projects for the Tsaritsyna Palace and Park Ensemble and the Grand Kremlin Palace, which remained unrealized, since the architect fell out of favor with Catherine II. The objects were completed by M.Kazakov.

Plan of the architectural ensemble of Tsaritsino, Vasily Bazhenov

Russian architect Matvey Kazakov during the reign of Catherine the Great worked in the center of Moscow in the Palladian style. His work belongs to such architectural ensembles as the Senate Palace in the Kremlin, the Petrovsky Travel Palace, the Grand Tsaritsy Palace.

Petrovsky Travel Palace, Matvey Kazakov

Tsarina's Palace, Vasily Bazhenov and Matvey Kazakov

Academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences Ivan Starov is the author of such architectural structures as the Trinity Cathedral in the Alexander Nevsky Lavra, St. Sophia Cathedral near Tsarskoye Selo, the Pellinsky Palace, the Tauride Palace and other beautiful buildings.