Classicism style. general characteristics

Alexey Tsvetkov.
Classicism.
Classicism is an artistic style of speech and aesthetic direction in fiction of the 17th-18th centuries, formed in France in the 17th century. The founder of classicism is Boileau, in particular his work "Poetic Art" (1674). Boileau was based on the principles of harmony and proportionality of parts, logical harmony and conciseness of composition, simplicity of plot, clarity of language. France special development reached "Low" genres - fable (J. Lafontaine), satire (N. Boileau). The flourishing of classicism in world literature was the tragedies of Corneille, Racine, Molière's comedies, La Fontaine's fables, La Rochefoucauld's prose. In the era of enlightenment, the work of Voltaire, Lessing, Goethe and Schiller is associated with classicism.

The most important features of classicism:
1. Appeal to the images and forms of ancient art.
2. Heroes are clearly divided into positive and negative.
3. The plot is usually based on love triangle: the heroine is a hero-lover, a second lover.
4. At the end of a classic comedy, vice is always punished and good triumphs.
5. The principle of three unities: time (the action lasts no more than a day), place, action.

The aesthetics of classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres:
1. "High" genres - tragedy, epic, ode, historical, mythological, religious picture.
2. "Low" genres - comedy, satire, fable, conversation piece. (The exception is the best comedies of Moliere, they were assigned to the "high" genres)

In Russia, classicism originated in the first half of the 18th century. The first writer to use classicism was Antioch Cantemir. In Russian literature, classicism is represented by the tragedies of Sumarokov and Knyazhnin, the comedies of Fonvizin, the poetry of Kantemir, Lomonosov, Derzhavin. Pushkin, Griboyedov, Belinsky criticized the "rules" of classicism.
The history of the emergence of Russian classicism according to V.I. Fedorov:
1. Literature of the time of Peter the Great; it is of a transitional nature; the main feature - an intensive process of "secularization" (that is, the replacement of religious literature with secular literature - 1689-1725) - the prerequisites for the emergence of classicism.
2. 1730-1750 - these years are characterized by the formation of classicism, the creation of a new genre system, and the in-depth development of the Russian language.
3. 1760-1770 - the further evolution of classicism, the flowering of satire, the emergence of prerequisites for the emergence of sentimentalism.
4. The last quarter of a century - the beginning of the crisis of classicism, the design of sentimentalism, the strengthening of realistic tendencies
a. Direction, development, inclination, aspiration.
b. Concept, idea of ​​presentation, images.

Representatives of classicism gave great value educational function of art, striving in their works to create images of heroes worthy of imitation: resistant to the harshness of fate and the vicissitudes of life, guided in their actions by duty and reason. Literature created the image of a new man who was confident that he needed to live for the good of society, to be a citizen and a patriot. The hero penetrates the secrets of the universe, becomes an active creative nature, such literary works turn into a textbook of life. Literature posed and solved the burning questions of its time, helped readers figure out how to live. By creating new heroes, diverse in character, representing different classes, the writers of classicism made it possible for the next generation to find out how the people of the 18th century lived, what worried them, what they felt.

Classicism - artistic and architectural direction in the world culture of the 17th-19th centuries, where the aesthetic ideals of antiquity became a role model and creative guide. Having originated in Europe, the trend also actively influenced the development of Russian urban planning. The classical architecture created at that time is rightfully considered a national treasure.

Historical background

• As a style of architecture, the classic originated in the 17th century in France and at the same time in England, naturally continuing the cultural values ​​​​of the Renaissance.

In these countries, there was a rise and flourishing of the monarchy, values Ancient Greece and Rome were perceived as an example of an ideal state system and the harmonious interaction of man and nature. The idea of ​​a reasonable arrangement of the world has penetrated into all spheres of society.

• The second stage in the development of the classical direction dates back to the 18th century, when the philosophy of rationalism became the motive for turning to historical traditions.

In the Age of Enlightenment, the idea of ​​the logic of the universe and following strict canons were sung. Classical traditions in architecture: simplicity, clarity, rigor - came to the fore instead of excessive pomposity and an excess of decorative baroque and rococo.

• The theorist of style is considered the Italian architect Andrea Palladio (another name for classicism is "Palladianism").

At the end of the 16th century, he described in detail the principles of the ancient order system and the modular construction of buildings, and put them into practice in the construction of urban palazzos and country villas. A characteristic example of the mathematical precision of proportions is the Villa Rotunda, decorated with Ionic porticoes.

Classicism: style features

It is easy to recognize the signs of the classical style in the appearance of buildings:

• clear spatial solutions,
• strict forms,
• laconic exterior finish,
• soft colors.

If the Baroque masters preferred to work with three-dimensional illusions, which often distorted the proportions, then clear perspectives dominated here. Even park ensembles of this era were performed in a regular style, when lawns had correct form, and shrubs and ponds were located in straight lines.

• One of the main features of classicism in architecture is the appeal to the antique order system.

Translated from Latin, ordo means "order, order", the term was applied to the proportions of ancient temples between the bearing and carried parts: columns and entablature (upper ceiling).

Three orders came to the classics from Greek architecture: Doric, Ionic, Corinthian. They differed in the ratio and size of the base, capitals, frieze. The Tuscan and composite orders were inherited from the Romans.

Elements of classical architecture

• The order has become the leading feature of classicism in architecture. But if in the Renaissance the ancient order and portico played the role of a simple stylistic decoration, now they have again become a constructive basis, as in ancient Greek construction.
• Symmetrical composition is an obligatory element of classics in architecture, closely related to ordering. The implemented projects of private houses and public buildings were symmetrical about the central axis, the same symmetry was traced in each individual fragment.
• The golden section rule (an exemplary ratio of height and width) determined the harmonious proportions of buildings.
• Leading decor techniques: decorations in the form of bas-reliefs with medallions, stucco floral ornaments, arched openings, window cornices, Greek statues on the rooftops. To emphasize the snow-white decorative elements, the color scheme for decoration was chosen in light pastel shades.
• Among the features of classical architecture is the design of the walls according to the principle of order division into three horizontal parts: the lower one is the plinth, in the middle is the main field, and at the top is the entablature. Cornices above each floor, window friezes, architraves of various shapes, as well as vertical pilasters, created a picturesque relief of the facade.
• The design of the main entrance included marble staircases, colonnades, pediments with bas-reliefs.

Types of classical architecture: national features

Ancient canons, revived in the era of classicism, were perceived as the highest ideal of beauty and rationality of all things. Therefore, the new aesthetics of rigor and symmetry, pushing aside baroque pomposity, has widely penetrated not only into the sphere of private housing construction, but also into the scale of the whole urban planning. European architects were pioneers in this respect.

English classicism

The work of Palladio strongly influenced the principles of classical architecture in Great Britain, in particular in the works of the outstanding English master Inigo Jones. In the first third of the 17th century, he created the Queen's House ("Queen's House"), where he applied order divisions and balanced proportions. The construction of the first square in the capital, carried out according to a regular plan, Covent Garden, is also associated with his name.

Another English architect Christopher Wren went down in history as the creator of St. Paul's Cathedral, where he applied a symmetrical order composition with a two-tiered portico, two side towers and a dome.

During the construction of urban and suburban private apartments, English classicism in architecture brought into fashion Palladian mansions - compact three-story buildings with simple and clear forms.

The first floor was trimmed with rusticated stone, the second floor was considered the main one - it was combined with the upper (residential) floor using a large facade order.

Features of classicism in the architecture of France

The heyday of the first period of French classics came in the second half of the 17th century during the reign of Louis XIV. The ideas of absolutism as a reasonable state organization manifested themselves in architecture with rational order compositions and the transformation of the surrounding landscape according to the principles of geometry.

The most significant events of this period were the erection of the eastern facade of the Louvre with a huge two-story gallery and the creation of an architectural and park ensemble in Versailles.

In the 18th century, the development of French architecture passed under the sign of Rococo, but already in the middle of the century its pretentious forms gave way to strict and simple classics in both urban and private architecture. Medieval buildings are replaced by a plan that takes into account the tasks of infrastructure, the placement of industrial buildings. Residential buildings are built on the principle of multi-storey buildings.

The order is perceived not as a decoration of the building, but as a structural unit: if the column does not carry a load, it is superfluous. An example of the architectural features of classicism in France of this period is the church of St. Genevieve (Pantheon) designed by Jacques Germain Souflot. Its composition is logical, the parts and the whole are balanced, the drawing of the lines of the beads is clear. The master sought to accurately reproduce the details of ancient art.

Russian classicism in architecture

The development of the classical architectural style in Russia fell on the reign of Catherine II. In the early years, elements of antiquity are still mixed with baroque decor, but they push them into the background. In the projects of Zh.B. Wallen-Delamot, A.F. Kokorinov and Yu. M. Felten, baroque chic gives way to the dominant role of the logic of the Greek order.

A feature of the classics in Russian architecture of the late (strict) period was the final departure from the Baroque heritage. This direction was formed by 1780 and is represented by the works of C. Cameron, V. I. Bazhenov, I. E. Starov, D. Quarenghi.

The rapidly developing economy of the country contributed to the rapid change of styles. Domestic and foreign trade expanded, academies and institutes, industrial shops were opened. There was a need for the rapid construction of new buildings: guest houses, fairgrounds, stock exchanges, banks, hospitals, boarding houses, libraries.

Under these conditions, the deliberately lush and complex forms of the Baroque revealed their shortcomings: the long duration of construction work, the high cost and the need to attract an impressive staff of skilled craftsmen.

Classicism in Russian architecture, with its logical and simple compositional and decorating solutions, was a successful response to the economic needs of the era.

Examples of domestic architectural classics

Taurida Palace - project by I.E. Starov, realized in the 1780s, is a vivid example of the direction of classicism in architecture. The modest facade is made with clear monumental forms, the Tuscan portico of strict design attracts attention.

A great contribution to the architecture of both capitals was made by V.I. Bazhenov, who created the Pashkov House in Moscow (1784-1786) and the project of the Mikhailovsky Castle (1797-1800) in St. Petersburg.

The Alexander Palace of D. Quarenghi (1792-1796) attracted the attention of contemporaries with a combination of walls, almost devoid of decor, and a majestic colonnade, made in two rows.

Naval Cadet Corps (1796-1798) F.I. Volkov is an example of the exemplary construction of barrack-type buildings according to the principles of classicism.

Architectural features of the classics of the late period

The stage of transition from the style of classicism in architecture to the Empire style is called the Alexandrov stage after the name of Emperor Alexander I. The projects created in the period of 1800-1812 have characteristic features:

• accentuated antique styling
• monumentality of images
• the predominance of the Doric order (without excessive decorations)

Outstanding projects of this time:

• architectural composition of the Spit of Vasilyevsky Island by Tom de Thomon with the Stock Exchange and Rostral Columns,
• Mining Institute on the Neva Embankment A. Voronikhin,
• the building of the Main Admiralty A. Zakharov.

Classics in modern architecture

The era of classicism is called the golden age of estates. The Russian nobility was actively engaged in the construction of new estates and the alteration of outdated mansions. Moreover, the changes affected not only buildings, but also the landscape, embodying the ideas of the theorists of landscape gardening art.

In this regard, modern classical architectural forms, as the embodiment of the heritage of ancestors, are strongly associated with symbolism: this is not only a stylistic appeal to antiquity, with emphasized splendor and solemnity, a set of decorative techniques, but also a sign of the high social status of the owner of the mansion.

Modern designs of classic houses - a subtle combination of tradition with current construction and design solutions.

Classicism Classicism

Artistic style in European art XVII - early XIX centuries, one of the most important features of which was the appeal to the forms of ancient art as an ideal aesthetic standard. Continuing the traditions of the Renaissance (admiration for the ancient ideals of harmony and measure, faith in the power of the human mind), classicism was also its kind of antithesis, since with the loss of Renaissance harmony, the unity of feeling and reason, the tendency of the aesthetic experience of the world as a harmonious whole was lost. Such concepts as society and personality, man and nature, elements and consciousness, in classicism are polarized, become mutually exclusive, which brings it closer (while maintaining all the cardinal worldview and stylistic differences) to baroque, also imbued with the consciousness of general discord generated by the crisis of Renaissance ideals. Usually, classicism of the 17th century is distinguished. and XVIII - early XIX centuries. (the latter in foreign art history is often referred to as neoclassicism), but in plastic arts tendencies of classicism emerged already in the second half of the 16th century. in Italy - in the architectural theory and practice of Palladio, the theoretical treatises of Vignola, S. Serlio; more consistently - in the writings of G. P. Bellori (XVII century), as well as in the aesthetic standards of the academicians of the Bologna school. However, in the XVII century. Classicism, which developed in an acutely polemical interaction with the Baroque, only in French artistic culture developed into an integral stylistic system. In the bosom of French artistic culture, classicism of the 18th century was also predominantly formed, which became a pan-European style. The principles of rationalism underlying the aesthetics of classicism (the same that determined the philosophical ideas of R. Descartes and Cartesianism) determined the view of a work of art as the fruit of reason and logic, triumphing over the chaos and fluidity of sensually perceived life. Aesthetic value in classicism has only enduring, timeless. Attaching great importance to the social and educational function of art, classicism puts forward new ethical norms that form the image of its heroes: resistance to the cruelty of fate and the vicissitudes of life, subordination of the personal to the common, passions to duty, reason, the supreme interests of society, the laws of the universe. Orientation to a reasonable beginning, to enduring patterns, also determined the normative requirements of the aesthetics of classicism, the regulation of artistic rules, a strict hierarchy of genres - from "high" (historical, mythological, religious) to "low", or "small" (landscape, portrait, still life) ; each genre had strict content boundaries and clear formal features. The activities of the Royal Schools founded in Paris contributed to the consolidation of the theoretical doctrines of classicism. Academies - painting and sculpture (1648) and architecture (1671).

The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by a logical layout and geometrism of a three-dimensional form. The constant appeal of the architects of classicism to the heritage of ancient architecture meant not only the use of its individual motifs and elements, but also the comprehension general laws her architectonics. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms closer to antiquity than in the architecture of previous eras; in buildings, it is used in such a way that it does not obscure the overall structure of the building, but becomes its subtle and restrained accompaniment. The interior of classicism is characterized by clarity of spatial divisions, softness of colors. Widely using perspective effects in monumental and decorative painting, the masters of classicism fundamentally separated the illusory space from the real one. The urban planning of classicism of the 17th century, genetically connected with the principles of the Renaissance and Baroque, actively developed (in the plans of fortified cities) the concept of the "ideal city", created its own type of regular absolutist city-residence (Versailles). In the second half of the XVIII century. new planning techniques are emerging that provide for the organic combination of urban development with elements of nature, the creation of open spaces that spatially merge with the street or the embankment. The subtlety of laconic decor, the expediency of forms, the inextricable connection with nature are inherent in the buildings (mainly country palaces and villas) of representatives of Palladianism in the 18th - early 19th centuries.

The tectonic clarity of classicism architecture corresponds to a clear delimitation of plans in sculpture and painting. The plastic of classicism, as a rule, is designed for a fixed point of view, it is distinguished by the smoothness of forms. The moment of movement in the poses of figures usually does not violate their plastic isolation and calm statuary. In the painting of classicism, the main elements of form are line and chiaroscuro (especially in late classicism, when painting sometimes gravitates towards monochrome, and graphics towards pure linearity); local color clearly reveals objects and landscape plans (brown - for the near, green - for the middle, blue - for the distant plans), which brings the spatial composition of the painting closer to the composition of the stage.

The founder and greatest master of classicism of the 17th century. was french artist N. Poussin, whose paintings are marked by the loftiness of the philosophical and ethical content, the harmony of the rhythmic structure and color. High development in the painting of classicism of the 17th century. received an "ideal landscape" (Poussin, C. Lorrain, G. Duguet), which embodied the dream of the classicists of the "golden age" of mankind. The formation of classicism in French architecture is associated with the buildings of F. Mansart, marked by clarity of composition and order divisions. High examples of mature classicism in the architecture of the 17th century. - The eastern facade of the Louvre (C. Perrault), the work of L. Levo, F. Blondel. From the second half of the XVII century. French classicism incorporates some elements of baroque architecture (the palace and park of Versailles - architects J. Hardouin-Mansart, A. Le Nôtre). In the XVII - early XVIII centuries. classicism was formed in the architecture of Holland (architects J. van Kampen, P. Post), which gave rise to a particularly restrained version of it, and in the "Palladian" architecture of England (architect I. Jones), where the national version was finally formed in the works of K. Ren and others English classicism. Cross-links with French and Dutch classicism, as well as with the early baroque, were reflected in the short, brilliant flowering of classicism in the architecture of Sweden in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. (architect N. Tessin the Younger).

AT mid-eighteenth in. the principles of classicism were transformed in the spirit of the aesthetics of the Enlightenment. In architecture, the appeal to "naturalness" put forward the requirement for constructive justification of the order elements of the composition, in the interior - the development of a flexible layout of a comfortable residential building. The landscape environment of the "English" park became the ideal environment for the house. A huge influence on the classicism of the XVIII century. had a rapid development of archaeological knowledge about Greek and Roman antiquity (the splits of Herculaneum, Pompeii, etc.); The works of I. I. Winkelmann, J. V. Goethe, and F. Militsiya made their contribution to the theory of classicism. French classicism of the 18th century. new architectural types were defined: an exquisitely intimate mansion, a front public building, an open city square (architects J. A. Gabriel, J. J. Souflot). Civic pathos and lyricism were combined in the plastic arts of J. B. Pigalle, E. M. Falcone, J. A. Houdon, in the mythological painting of J. M. Vienne, and in the decorative landscapes of J. Robert. The eve of the French Revolution (1789-94) gave rise to a striving for severe simplicity in architecture, a bold search for the monumental geometrism of a new, orderless architecture (K. N. Ledoux, E. L. Bulle, J. J. Lekeux). These searches (noted also by the influence of the architectural etchings of G. B. Piranesi) served as the starting point for the late phase of classicism - Empire. The painting of the revolutionary direction of French classicism is represented by the courageous drama of historical and portrait images of J. L. David. During the years of the empire of Napoleon I, magnificent representativeness was growing in architecture (C. Percier, P. F. L. Fontaine, J. F. Chalgrin). Painting of late classicism, despite the appearance of separate major masters(J. O. D. Ingres), degenerates into official apologetic or sentimental erotic salon art.

The international center of classicism of the XVIII - early XIX centuries. became Rome, where the academic tradition dominated in art with a combination of nobility of forms and cold, abstract idealization, which is not uncommon for academicism (German painter A. R. Mengs, Austrian landscape painter I. A. Koch, sculptors - Italian A. Canova, Dane B. Thorvaldsen) . For German classicism of the 18th - early 19th centuries. architecture is characterized by the strict forms of the Palladian F. W. Erdmansdorf, the "heroic" Hellenism of C. G. Langhans, D. and F. Gilly. In the work of K. F. Schinkel - the pinnacle of late German classicism in architecture - the severe monumentality of images is combined with the search for new functional solutions. In the visual art of German classicism, contemplative in spirit, the portraits of A. and V. Tishbein, the mythological cartoons of A. Ya. Karstens, the plastic art of I. G. Shadov, K. D. Raukh stand out; in decorative applied arts- D. Roentgen's furniture. English architecture of the 18th century. dominated by the Palladian direction, closely associated with the flourishing of suburban park estates (architects W. Kent, J. Payne, W. Chambers). The discoveries of ancient archeology were reflected in the special elegance of the order decor of R. Adam's buildings. At the beginning of the XIX century. features of the Empire style (J. Soane) appear in English architecture. The national achievement of English classicism in architecture was a high level of culture in the design of a residential estate and a city, bold urban planning initiatives in the spirit of the garden city idea (architects J. Wood, J. Wood Jr., J. Nash). In other arts, graphics and sculpture by J. Flaxman are closest to classicism, in decorative and applied art - ceramics by J. Wedgwood and the craftsmen of the factory in Derby. In the XVIII - early XIX centuries. classicism is also established in Italy (architect G. Piermarini), Spain (architect X. de Villanueva), Belgium, countries of Eastern Europe, Scandinavia, the USA (architects G. Jefferson, J. Hoban; painters B. West and J. S. Collie). At the end of the first third of the XIX century. the leading role of classicism is coming to naught; in the second half of the 19th century. classicism is one of the pseudo-historical styles of eclecticism. At the same time, the artistic tradition of classicism comes to life in neoclassicism in the second half of the 19th and 20th centuries.

The heyday of Russian classicism belongs to the last third of the 18th - the first third of the 19th centuries, although already the beginning of the 18th century. marked by a creative appeal (in the architecture of St. Petersburg) to the urban planning experience of French classicism of the 17th century. (the principle of symmetrical-axial planning systems). Russian classicism embodied a new historical stage in the flourishing of Russian secular culture, unprecedented for Russia in scope, national pathos and ideological fullness. Early Russian classicism in architecture (1760-70s; J. B. Vallin-Delamot, A. F. Kokorinov, Yu. M. Felten, K. I. Blank, A. Rinaldi) still retains plastic enrichment and dynamics forms inherent in baroque and rococo. The architects of the mature era of classicism (1770-90s; V. I. Bazhenov, M. F. Kazakov, I. E. Starov) created the classical types of the capital's palace-estate and a large comfortable residential building, which became models in the wide construction of suburban noble estates and in the new, front building of cities. The art of the ensemble in suburban park estates is a major national contribution of Russian classicism to world artistic culture. In estate construction, the Russian version of Palladianism arose (N. A. Lvov), new type chamber palace(C. Cameron, J. Quarenghi). A feature of Russian classicism in architecture is the unprecedented scale of organized state urban planning: regular plans were developed for more than 400 cities, ensembles of the centers of Kostroma, Poltava, Tver, Yaroslavl and other cities were formed; the practice of "regulating" urban plans, as a rule, successively combined the principles of classicism with the historically established planning structure of the old Russian city. The turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. marked by the largest urban development achievements in both capitals. A grandiose ensemble of the center of St. Petersburg was formed (A. N. Voronikhin, A. D. Zakharov, J. Thomas de Thomon, later K. I. Rossi). On other urban planning principles, "classical Moscow" was formed, which was built up in the period of its restoration and reconstruction after the fire of 1812 with small mansions with cozy interiors. The beginnings of regularity here were consistently subordinated to the general pictorial freedom of the spatial structure of the city. The most prominent architects of late Moscow classicism are D. I. Gilardi, O. I. Bove, A. G. Grigoriev.

In the visual arts, the development of Russian classicism is closely connected with the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts (founded in 1757). The sculpture of Russian classicism is represented by "heroic" monumental-decorative plasticity, which is a finely thought-out synthesis with empire architecture, monuments full of civil pathos, elegiac-enlightened tombstones, easel plasticity (I. P. Prokofiev, F. G. Gordeev, M. I. Kozlovsky , I. P. Martos, F. F. Shchedrin, V. I. Demut-Malinovsky, S. S. Pimenov, I. I. Terebenev). Russian classicism in painting most clearly manifested itself in the works of historical and mythological genres (A. P. Losenko, G. I. Ugryumov, I. A. Akimov, A. I. Ivanov, A. E. Egorov, V. K. Shebuev, early A. A. Ivanov). Some features of classicism are also inherent in the subtle psychological sculptural portraits of F. I. Shubin, in painting - portraits of D. G. Levitsky, V. L. Borovikovsky, landscapes of F. M. Matveev. In the decorative and applied art of Russian classicism, artistic modeling and carving in architecture, bronze products, cast iron, porcelain, crystal, furniture, damask fabrics, etc. stand out. From the second third of the 19th century. for the fine arts of Russian classicism, soulless, far-fetched academic schematism is becoming more and more characteristic, with which the masters of the democratic direction are fighting.

C. Lorrain. "Morning" ("Meeting of Jacob with Rachel"). 1666. Hermitage. Leningrad.

B. Thorvaldsen. "Jason". Marble. 1802 - 1803. Thorvaldson Museum. Copenhagen.

J. L. David. "Paris and Helena". 1788. Louvre. Paris.

Literature: N. N. Kovalenskaya, Russian classicism, M., 1964; Renaissance. Baroque. Classicism. The problem of styles in Western European art of the XV-XVII centuries, M., 1966; E. I. Rotenberg, Western European art XVII in., M., 1971; Artistic culture of the XVIII century. Materials of scientific conference, 1973, M., 1974; E. V. Nikolaev, Classical Moscow, Moscow, 1975; Literary manifestos of Western European classicists, M., 1980; The dispute about the ancient and new, (translated from French), M., 1985; Zeitier R., Classizismus und Utopia, Stockh., 1954; Kaufmann E., Architecture in the age of Reason, Camb. (Mass.), 1955; Hautecoeur L., L "histoire de l" architecture classique en France, v. 1-7, P., 1943-57; Tapiy V., Baroque et classicisme, 2nd d., P., 1972; Greenhalgh M., The classical tradition in art, L., 1979.

Source: Popular Art Encyclopedia. Ed. Field V.M.; M.: Publishing house "Soviet Encyclopedia", 1986.)

(from lat. classicus - exemplary), artistic style and direction in European art 17 - early. 19th century important feature which was an appeal to the heritage of antiquity (Ancient Greece and Rome) as a norm and an ideal model. The aesthetics of classicism are characterized by rationalism, the desire to establish certain rules for creating a work, a strict hierarchy (subordination) of types and genres art. Architecture reigned in the synthesis of the arts. High genres in painting were considered historical, religious and mythological paintings, giving the viewer heroic examples to follow; the lowest - portrait, landscape, still life, everyday painting. Each genre was assigned strict boundaries and clearly defined formal features; it was not allowed to mix the sublime with the base, the tragic with the comic, the heroic with the ordinary. Classicism is a style of contrasts. Its ideologists proclaimed the superiority of the public over the personal, reason over emotions, a sense of duty over desires. Classical works are distinguished by conciseness, clear logic of design, balance compositions.

In the development of style, two periods are distinguished: classicism of the 17th century. and neoclassicism second floor. 18 - the first third of the 19th century. In Russia, where culture remained medieval before the reforms of Peter I, style manifested itself only from the end. 18th century Therefore, in Russian art history, in contrast to the Western one, classicism means Russian art 1760s–1830s

Classicism 17th century showed itself mainly in France and established itself in the confrontation with baroque. In the architecture of A. Palladio became a model for many masters. Classicist buildings are distinguished by the clarity of geometric shapes and the clarity of planning, the appeal to the motifs of ancient architecture, and above all to the order system (see Art. Architectural order). Architects are increasingly using post-and-beam structure, in buildings, the symmetry of the composition was clearly revealed, straight lines were preferred to curved ones. The walls are interpreted as smooth surfaces painted in soothing colors, laconic sculptural decor emphasizes structural elements(built by F. Mansard, east facade Louvre, created by C. Perrault; works of L. Levo, F. Blondel). From the second floor. 17th century French classicism incorporates more and more baroque elements ( Versailles, architect J. Hardouin-Mansart and others, the layout of the park - A. Le Nôtre).

The sculpture is dominated by balanced, closed, laconic volumes, usually designed for a fixed point of view, a carefully polished surface shines with a coldish sheen (F. Girardon, A. Coisevox).
The establishment in Paris of the Royal Academy of Architecture (1671) and the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture (1648) contributed to the consolidation of the principles of classicism. The latter was headed by Ch. Lebrun, from 1662 the first painter of Louis XIV, who painted the Mirror Gallery of the Palace of Versailles (1678–84). In painting, the primacy of line over color was recognized, a clear drawing and statuary forms were valued; preference was given to local (pure, unmixed) colors. The classic system that developed at the Academy served to develop plots and allegories who glorified the monarch (the "sun king" was associated with the god of light and patron of the arts, Apollo). The most outstanding classicist painters - N. Poussin and K. Lorrain linked their lives and work with Rome. Poussin interprets ancient history as a collection heroic deeds; in his later period, the role of the epic majestic landscape increased in his paintings. Compatriot Lorrain created ideal landscapes in which the dream of a golden age came to life - an era of happy harmony between man and nature.

The rise of neoclassicism in the 1760s happened in opposition to the style rococo. The style was formed under the influence of ideas Enlightenment. Three main periods can be distinguished in its development: early (1760–80), mature (1780–1800) and late (1800–30), otherwise called style empire, which developed at the same time as romanticism. Neoclassicism became an international style, gaining popularity in Europe and America. Most clearly, he was embodied in the art of Great Britain, France and Russia. In the addition of style played a significant role archaeological finds in the ancient Roman cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii. Pompeian motives frescoes and items arts and crafts became widely used by artists. The formation of the style was also influenced by the works of the German art historian I. I. Winkelmann, who considered the most important qualities of ancient art to be “noble simplicity and calm grandeur”.

In Great Britain, where in the first third of the 18th century. architects showed interest in antiquity and the heritage of A. Palladio, the transition to neoclassicism was smooth and natural (W. Kent, J. Payne, W. Chambers). One of the founders of the style was Robert Adam, who worked with his brother James (Cadlestone Hall, 1759–85). Adam's style was clearly manifested in the design of interiors, where he used light and refined ornamentation in the spirit of Pompeian frescoes and ancient Greek vase painting("The Etruscan Room" at Osterley Park Mansion, London, 1761–79). At the enterprises of D. Wedgwood, ceramic dishes, decorative overlays for furniture, and other decorations in the style of classicism were produced, which received all-European recognition. Relief models for Wedgwood were made by sculptor and draftsman D. Flaxman.

In France, the architect J. A. Gabriel created in the spirit of early neoclassicism both chamber, lyrical in mood buildings (“The Petit Trianon” in Versailles, 1762–68), and the ensemble of Louis XV Square (now Concorde) in Paris, which was new by decision, which acquired an unprecedented openness. The Church of St. Genevieve (1758–90; turned into the Pantheon in the late 18th century), built by J. J. Soufflot, has a Greek cross in plan, is crowned with a huge dome and more academically and dryly reproduces ancient forms. In French sculpture of the 18th century. elements of neoclassicism appear in separate works by E. Falcone, in tombstones and busts of A. Houdon. Closer to neoclassicism are the works of O. Page (“Portrait of Du Barry”, 1773; monument to J. L. L. Buffon, 1776), at the beginning. 19th century - D. A. Chode and J. Shinar, who created a type of ceremonial bust with a base in the form herms. The most significant master of French neoclassicism and Empire in painting was J. L. David. The ethical ideal in the historical canvases of David was distinguished by strictness and uncompromisingness. In The Oath of the Horatii (1784), the features of late classicism acquired the clarity of a plastic formula.

Russian classicism most fully expressed itself in architecture, sculpture and historical painting. To architectural works transitional period from rococo to classicism include buildings Petersburg Academy of Arts(1764–88) A. F. Kokorinov and J. B. Vallin-Delamot and the Marble Palace (1768–1785) A. Rinaldi. Early classicism is represented by the names of V.I. Bazhenov and M.F. Kazakova. Many of Bazhenov's projects remained unfulfilled, but the master's architectural and urban planning ideas had a significant impact on the formation of the classicism style. A distinctive feature of the Bazhenov buildings was the subtle use of national traditions and the ability to organically incorporate classicist buildings into existing buildings. The Pashkov House (1784–86) is an example of a typical Moscow noble mansion that has retained the features country estate. The purest examples of the style are the Senate building in the Moscow Kremlin (1776–87) and the Dolgoruky House (1784–90s). in Moscow, erected by Kazakov. The early stage of classicism in Russia was focused mainly on the architectural experience of France; later, the heritage of antiquity and A. Palladio (N. A. Lvov; D. Quarenghi) began to play a significant role. Mature classicism has developed in the work of I.E. Starova(Tauride Palace, 1783–89) and D. Quarenghi (Alexander Palace in Tsarskoe Selo, 1792–96). In Empire architecture early. 19th century architects strive for ensemble solutions.
The originality of Russian classic sculpture is that in the work of most masters (F. I. Shubin, I. P. Prokofiev, F. G. Gordeev, F. F. Shchedrin, V. I. Demut-Malinovsky, S. S. Pimenov , I. I. Terebeneva) classicism was closely intertwined with the trends of baroque and rococo. The ideals of classicism were more clearly expressed in monumental and decorative than in easel sculpture. Classicism found its purest expression in the works of I.P. Martos, who created high examples of classicism in the tombstone genre (S. S. Volkonskaya, M. P. Sobakina; both - 1782). M. I. Kozlovsky in the monument to A. V. Suvorov on the Field of Mars in St. Petersburg presented the Russian commander as a powerful ancient hero with a sword in his hands, in armor and a helmet.
In painting, the ideals of classicism were most consistently expressed by the masters of historical paintings (A.P. Losenko and his students I. A. Akimov and P. I. Sokolov), whose works are dominated by subjects of ancient history and mythology. At the turn of the 18th-19th centuries. interest in national history is growing (G. I. Ugryumov).
The principles of classicism as a set of formal techniques continued to be used throughout the 19th century. representatives academicism.

Another influential style of the XVII century. became classicism (from the Latin "classicus" - "exemplary"). He was guided by the imitation of ancient models, which did not at all mean their simple repetition. The formation of classicism as an integral style system was associated with the establishment of absolutism in France. The monarchs were impressed by the idea of ​​stately order, impressive unity, strict subordination. The state claiming to be "reasonable" strove to be seen as a stabilizing, unifying principle. Similar aspirations were also inherent in the consciousness of the bourgeoisie, who shared the ideal of a rationally organized state. The attractive side of classicism was its moral and civic orientation.

Proponents of classicism believed that art should reflect not so much the real as the ennobled, ideal life, built on the principles of rationality, contributing to the improvement of man and society. In this regard, classicism strove for the expression of lofty ideals, for symmetry and strict organization, logical and clear proportions, for the harmony of form and content of a literary, pictorial or musical work.

The aesthetics of classicism formed a strict hierarchy of genres. They were divided into "high"(tragedy, epic, ode, historical, mythological, religious picture, etc.) and "low"(comedy, satire, fable, genre painting, landscape, still life, etc.). Each genre had strict boundaries, and mixing them was considered unacceptable.

Architecture. In contrast to the pretentious baroque, the architecture of classicism was characterized by a clear geometry of forms, logic and regularity of planning, a combination of a smooth wall with an order, porticoes, colonnades, statues, reliefs and restrained decor. To all my appearance the building had to demonstrate clarity, order and representativeness. Symmetry has become an integral feature of all architectural compositions. The restrained and majestic art of the ancient Greeks and Romans became a role model, so the basis of the architectural language of classicism was an order close in proportions and shapes to the ancient one. The spatial solution of the buildings was distinguished by clear plans, a clear logic of the facade, in which the architectural decor served only as an "accompaniment" that did not hide overall structure building. Already in the buildings of one of the founders of French classicism, the architect François Mansart(1598 - 1666) the plastic richness of the Baroque decor of the facades is combined with the clarity and simplicity of the overall volumetric and spatial composition ( palace Maisons– Laffite).

Strict order was introduced even into nature. French gardener and landscape architect André Le Nôtre(1613–1700) became the creator of a system of regular, so-called " French» park.

The interiors of buildings were distinguished by the softness of colors, the moderate use of plastic and sculptural details, and the widespread use of pictorial and perspective effects.

Classicism was adopted as the leading style in the absolutist monarchies of Europe. He also had great success in England, where from the end of the 17th century. became the leading style of official buildings. The most notable of these was the London cathedral of st. Paul is the largest Protestant church in the world. Ideas of the largest English architect and scientist ChristopherRena(1632-1723), embodied in this temple, had a significant impact on the development of church architecture in Europe and the United States.

In France, during the reign of Louis XIV (1643-1715), on the basis of classicism, the formation of the so-called " big style". Strict and rational classicism could not fully reflect the triumph and greatness of the absolute monarchy. Therefore, the French masters turned to the forms of the Italian baroque, from which classicism borrowed some of the decorative elements. The result of this was the creation of two grandiose ensembles - the royal palace Louvre and country royal residence Versailles. One of the leading masters of French classicism took an active part in their construction. Louis Levo(c.1612–1670). Another famous creator of Versailles is an architect and urban planner. Jules Hardouin-Mansart(1646-1708) was also the author of a magnificent Cathedral of the Invalides in Paris. " big style” ensured the gradual spread of the ideas of classicism in most European countries and laid the foundations for an international European court culture.

Painting. As in other forms of art, in painting, artists had to focus on perfect examples of the era of antiquity and the High Renaissance. The plots of the canvases were borrowed mainly from mythology and ancient history, and the heroes were depicted as people of strong characters and deeds. One of the main ones was the theme of duty, the theme of affirming the highest ethical principles. According to the aesthetics of classicism, the mind was the main criterion for beauty, therefore, in contrast to the baroque, classicism did not allow exaggerated emotional expressiveness. Measure and order became the basis of the pictorial classic work. Picturesque works were to be distinguished by general harmony, and figures - by rigor and classical completeness. Line and chiaroscuro became the main elements of modeling the form. Color, on the other hand, was assigned a subordinate role, it was used to reveal the plasticity of figures and objects, to separate the spatial plans of the picture.

The logical development of the plot, the proportionality of the parts of the whole, the external orderliness, harmony, balance of the composition - all this became the characteristic features of the style of the famous French artist. NikolaPoussin(1594–1665). Poussin often turned to the subjects of ancient history (" Death of Germanicus"), mythology (" Kingdom of Flora”), placing them at the service of his contemporary era. Singing examples of high morality and civic prowess, he strove to bring up a perfect personality. The artist revealed the deep philosophical meaning of Christian dogmas in the cycle “ seven sacraments».

The principles of classicism are clearly reflected in the landscape. Artists sought to portray not real, but "improved" nature, created by the artistic imagination of the creator. The “ideal landscape”, which embodied the dream of the classicists of the “golden age” of mankind, was reflected in the paintings Claude Lorrain(1600–1682). His idyllic landscapes with endless distance (" Sanctuary at Delphi"") provided a huge impact on the development of European, and, above all, English, landscape painting.

Theater and literature. The laws of classicism manifested themselves most clearly in dramaturgy. In the 17th century the main rules for the construction of a classic tragedy were formed: the unity of action, place and time; the simplicity of the plot, in which reason and duty prevailed over spontaneous human feelings and passions. The main intrigue was not to confuse the viewer and deprive the picture of integrity. Much attention was paid to the inner world of the hero, who embodies the contradiction of the human personality.

A prominent representative of classicism was the French playwright Pierre Corneille(1606-1684). The theme of the state as the embodiment of reason and national interests sounded in many of his tragedies (“ Horace», « cinna"). The tragic conflict of passion and duty lay at the heart of the tragicomedy " Sid».

The problems of the relationship between the individual and the state became the basis of the plot of many tragedies Jean Racine(1639-1699). His " Phaedra”became the pinnacle of dramaturgy not only of the writer himself, but of all French classicism.

The requirements of classicism were less clearly manifested in comedies. In the 17th century, French dramaturgy gave birth to the greatest comedian, the creator of the genre of social comedy Jean Baptiste Molière(1622–1673). In his work, he ridiculed the class prejudices of the nobles, the narrow-mindedness of the bourgeoisie, the hypocrisy of churchmen, the corrupting power of money (“ Tartuffe», « Don Juan», « Tradesman in the nobility"). It was thanks to Moliere that in 1680 the famous Comedie Francaise theater appeared in Paris.

Theater in the 17th century there was a classic school of tragic play ( Floridor, Scaramouche, M. Bejart, Molière). She was characterized by a special demeanor of actors on stage, measured poetry reading, a whole system of intonations and gestures.

In the literature of classicism, an important role is played by prose. Prose works written in the classical style, as a rule, reflected the political, philosophical, religious and ethical views of their authors, were of a pronounced educational, moralizing nature. Prose literature was dominated by works in the form of letters, moralistic or philosophical experiments, aphorisms, sermons, funerary words, and memoirs.

Music. In France the principles of classicism influenced the formation of the French operatic style. So, in the operas of the outstanding French composer and conductor Jean-Baptiste Lully(1632-1687) embodied such characteristic classic features as pathos and heroism, the primacy of the principle of "musical symmetry", the predominance of mythological plots (" Perseus», « Phaeton»).

There was a penetration of classicism into instrumental music. In Italy, the tradition of classical violin technique was born, which has survived mainly to this day. Its founder was Arcangelo Corelli(1653–1713). He also became one of the creators of the violin sonata and the genre concerto grosso(“great concerto”), which served as the basis for the development of symphonic music.

Born in absolutist France, classicism was widely recognized in almost all European countries, becoming a significant milestone in their artistic development.

Classicism(from lat. classicus- exemplary), like baroque, turned out to be a phenomenon of a pan-European scale. The poetics of classicism began to take shape in the late Renaissance in Italy. On the eve of classicism is the tragedy of the Italian playwright J. Trissino "Sofonisba" (1515), written in imitation of ancient tragedians. It outlined features that later became characteristic of classic dramaturgy - a logically built plot, reliance on the word, and not on stage action, rationalism and supra-individual character. actors. A significant influence on the formation of classicism in European countries was exerted by the "Poetics" (1561) by the Italian Yu. Ts. Scaliger, who successfully anticipated the taste of the next century, the age of logic and reason. Nevertheless, the formation of classicism stretched out for a whole century, and as an integral artistic system, classicism initially developed in France by the middle of the 17th century.

The development of classicism in France is closely connected with the establishment and flourishing of centralized royal power (absolute monarchy). Autocratic statehood limited the rights of the willful feudal aristocracy, sought to legislatively define and regulate the relationship between the individual and the state, and clearly distinguish between the spheres of private and personal life. The spirit of regulation and discipline extends to the sphere of literature and art, determining their content aspect and formal features. In order to control literary life, on the initiative of the first minister, Cardinal Richelieu, the French Academy was created, and the cardinal himself repeatedly intervened in literary disputes in the 1630s.

The canons of classicism evolved in sharp controversy with precision literature, as well as with Spanish playwrights (Lope de Vega, Tirso de Molina). The latter ridiculed, in particular, the demand for the unity of time. ("As for your 24 hours, what could be more absurd than love, starting in the middle of the day, ending in the evening with a wedding!") Continuing certain traditions of the Renaissance (admiration for antiquity, faith in reason, the ideal of harmony and measure), classicism was the Renaissance and a kind of antithesis, which made it related, for all their deep differences, with the baroque.

The humanists of the Renaissance saw the highest value in the freely manifesting natural nature of man. Their hero is a harmonious personality, freed from the power of a class corporation and unrestrained in his individualism. The humanists of the 17th century - the founders of classicism - due to the historical European experience, passions seemed to be a force destructive, anarchic, generated by egoism. In the assessment of a person now receive priority moral standards(virtue). The main content of creativity in classicism is the contradiction between the natural nature of man and civic duty, between his passions and reason, which gave rise to tragic conflicts.

The classicists saw the goal of art in the knowledge of truth, which acts for them as an ideal of beauty. The classicists put forward a method to achieve it, based on the three central categories of their aesthetics: reason, model and taste (these concepts have also become objective criteria of artistry). In order to create a great work, according to the classicists, it is necessary to follow the dictates of reason, relying on "exemplary", i.e. classical, works of antiquity (antiquity) and guided by the rules of good taste ("good taste" is the supreme judge of "beautiful"). Thus, the classicists contribute to artistic creativity elements scientific activity.

The principles of classic poetics and aesthetics are determined by the system of philosophical views of the era, which are based on the rationalism of Descartes. For him reason is the highest criterion of truth. Rational-analytically, one can penetrate into the ideal essence and purpose of any object or phenomenon, comprehend the eternal and unchanging laws that underlie the world order, and hence the basis of artistic creativity.

Rationalism contributed to the overcoming of religious prejudices and medieval scholasticism, but it also had its own weakness. The world in this philosophical system was considered from metaphysical positions - as unchanging and motionless.

This concept convinced the classicists that the aesthetic ideal is eternal and unchanged at all times, but with the greatest completeness and perfection it was embodied in the art of antiquity. In order to reproduce this ideal, it is necessary to turn to ancient art and thoroughly study its rules and laws. At the same time, in accordance with the political ideals of the 17th century, special attention was drawn to the art of imperial Rome (the era of concentration of power in the hands of one person - the emperor), the poetry of the "golden age" - the work of Virgil, Ovid, Horace. In addition to Aristotle's Poetics, N. Boileau relied on Horace's Epistle to the Pisons in his poetic treatise Poetic Art (1674), bringing together and summarizing the theoretical principles of classicism, summing up the artistic practice of his predecessors and contemporaries.

Trying to recreate the world of antiquity ("ennobled" and "corrected"), the classicists borrow only "clothes" from it. Although Boileau, referring to contemporary writers, writes:

And the customs of countries and years you need to study.

After all, the climate cannot but affect people.

But be afraid to soak in vulgar bad taste

French spirit of Rome... –

it is nothing more than a declaration. In the literary practice of classicism, people of the 17th-18th centuries hide under the names of ancient heroes, and ancient plots reveal the staging of, first of all, the most acute problems modernity. Classicism is fundamentally anti-historical, as it is guided by the "eternal and unchanging" laws of reason.

Classicists proclaim the principle of imitation of nature, but at the same time they do not at all strive to reproduce reality in its entirety. They are not interested in what is, but in what should be according to the ideas of their mind. Everything that does not correspond to the model and "good taste" is expelled from art, declared "indecent". In cases where it is necessary to reproduce the ugly, it is aesthetically transformed:

Embodied in art, and the monster and the reptile

We are still pleased with a wary look:

The artist's brush shows us transformation

Objects vile into objects of admiration...

Another key problem of classic poetics is the problem of truth and plausibility. Should the writer depict exceptional phenomena, incredible, out of the ordinary, but recorded by history (“truth”), or create images and situations that are fictitious, but corresponding to the logic of things and the requirements of reason (i.e., “believable”)? Boileau prefers the second group of phenomena:

Do not torment us with incredible things, disturbing the mind:

And the truth is sometimes not the truth.

Wonderful nonsense I will not admire:

The mind does not care what it does not believe.

The concept of plausibility also underlies the classic character: a tragic hero cannot be "petty and insignificant",

But still, without weaknesses, his character is false.

Achilles captivates us with his ardor,

But if he cries, I love him more.

After all, in these little things, nature comes to life,

And the truth is that our picture is amazing.

(N. Boileau, "Poetic Art")

Boileau is close to the position of J. Racine, who, relying on the "Poetics" of Aristotle, in the preface to the tragedy "Andromache" wrote about his heroes that "they should be average people in their spiritual qualities that is to say, to possess virtue, but to be subject to weaknesses, and misfortunes must fall upon them as a result of some error capable of arousing pity for them, and not disgust.

Not all classicists shared this concept. P. Corneille, the initiator of the French classic tragedy, tended to create exceptional characters. His heroes do not shed tears from the audience, but cause undeniable admiration for their stamina and heroism. In the preface to his tragedy "Nycomedes" Corneille declared: "Tenderness and passions, which should be the soul of tragedy, do not have a place here: only heroic greatness reigns here, throwing such a look of contempt at its sorrows that it does not allow them to tear out of the heart the hero does not have a single complaint. It is faced with an insidious policy and opposes it only with noble prudence, marching with an open visor, it foresees danger without a shudder and does not expect help from anyone, except from its valor and love ... "Corneille motivates the persuasiveness of the created them images with the concept of vital truth and historical authenticity: "History, which gave me the opportunity to show the highest degree of this greatness, was taken by me from Justin".

The cult of reason among the classicists also determines the principles of creating character - one of the central aesthetic categories of classicism. For the classicists, character does not imply a set of individual traits of a particular person, but embodies a certain generic and at the same time eternal warehouse of human nature and psychology. Only in the aspect of the eternal, unchanging and universal character did it become an object of artistic research in classic art.

Following the theorists of antiquity - Aristotle and Horace - Boileau believed that "art" should preserve "for each of his special feelings." These "special feelings" determine the psychological make-up of a person, making one a vulgar dandy, another a miser, a third a spendthrift, etc. Character, thus, was reduced to one dominant trait. Even Pushkin noticed that the hypocrite Tartuffe even "asks for a glass of water, the hypocrite" in Moliere, and the stingy Harpagon is "stingy and nothing more." There is no point in looking for more psychological content in them. When Harpagon talks to his lover, he behaves like a miser, and with his children he behaves like a miser. "There is only one paint, but it is superimposed thicker and thicker and, finally, brings the image to the level of everyday, psychological implausibility." This principle of typification led to a sharp division of heroes into positive, virtuous and negative, vicious.

The characters of the characters in tragedies are also determined by some one leading feature. The one-line character of Corneille's heroes emphasizes their integrity, which substantiates the "core" of their character. Racine is more difficult: the passion that defines the character of his characters is contradictory in itself (usually it is love). It is in exhausting the whole gamut of psychological shades of passion that the method of Racine's characterization consists - a method, like that of Corneille, deeply rationalistic.

Embodying in the character the traits of the generic, "eternal", the classicist artist himself strove to speak not from his special, uniquely individual "I", but from the standpoint of a statesman. That is why "objective" genres predominate in classicism - primarily dramatic ones, and among the lyrical genres those dominated by those where the impersonal, universally significant orientation is obligatory (ode, satire, fable).

The normativity and rationality of classic aesthetics are also manifested in the strict hierarchy of genres. There are "high" genres - tragedy, epic, ode. Their scope is public life, historical events, mythology; their heroes are monarchs, generals, historical and mythological characters. Such a choice of tragic heroes was determined not so much by the tastes and influence of the court, but by the measure of the moral responsibility of those people who were entrusted with the fate of the state.

"High" genres are opposed to "low" genres - comedy, satire, fable - turned into the sphere of private daily life of nobles and townspeople. An intermediate place is given to "middle" genres - elegy, idyll, message, sonnet, song. Depicting the inner world of an individual, these genres in the heyday of classic literature, imbued with high civic ideals, did not take any noticeable place in literary process. The time for these genres will come later: they will have a significant impact on the development of literature in the era of the crisis of classicism.

Prose, especially fiction, is valued by classicists much lower than poetry. “Love thought in verse,” Boileau exclaims at the beginning of his treatise and “raises to Parnassus” only poetic genres. Those who receive distribution prose genres, which, first of all, are of an informational nature - sermons, memoirs, letters. At the same time, scientific, philosophical and epistolary prose, becoming in the era of the cult of science in the public domain, acquires the features of a truly literary work and already has value not only scientific or historical, but also aesthetic ("Letters of the Provincial" and "Thoughts" by B. Pascal, "Maxims, or Moral Reflections" by F. de La Rochefoucauld, "Characters" by J. de La Bruyère, etc.).

Each genre in classicism has strict boundaries and clear formal features. No mixture of the sublime and the base, the tragic and the comic, the heroic and the ordinary is allowed: what is allowed in satire is excluded in tragedy, what is good in comedy is unacceptable in epic. Here reigns "a peculiar law of the unity of style" (G. Gukovsky) - each genre unit has its own rigid formal-stylistic canon. Mixed genres, for example, tragicomedy, which was very popular in the first half of the 17th century, are being squeezed out of the boundaries of "real literature". "From now on, only the entire system of genres is capable of expressing the diversity of life."

The rationalistic approach also determined the attitude to the poetic form:

You learn to think, then write.

Speech follows the thought; clearer or darker

And the phrase is modeled after the idea;

What is clearly understood, it will sound clearly,

And the exact word will immediately come running.

(N. Boileau, "Poetic Art")

Each work must be strictly thought out, the composition must be logically built, the individual parts must be proportionate and inseparable, the style must be clear to the point of transparency, the language must be concise and precise. The concept of measure, proportion, symmetry is inherent not only in literature, but also in the entire artistic culture of classicism - architecture, painting, gardening art. Both scientific and artistic thinking of the era has a pronounced mathematical character.

In architecture, public buildings are beginning to set the tone, expressing the idea of ​​statehood. The basis of planning schemes are regular geometric shapes (square, triangle, circle). Classicist architects mastered the construction of a huge complex, consisting of a palace and a park. They become subject to detailed, mathematically verified compositions. In France, for the first time, new trends were fully embodied in the grandiose ensemble of Versailles (1661–1689, architects L. Levo, A. Le Nôtre, J. Hardouin-Mansart, and others).

Clarity, logicality, compositional harmony are distinguished by paintings classicists. N. Poussin - the creator and head of French classicism in painting - chose subjects that gave the mind food for thought, brought up virtue in a person and taught him wisdom. He found these stories primarily in ancient mythology and the legendary history of Rome. His paintings "The Death of Germanicus" (1627), "The Capture of Jerusalem" (1628), "The Rape of the Sabine Women" (1633) are devoted to the image of "heroic and unusual actions". The composition of these paintings is strictly ordered, it resembles the composition of ancient bas-reliefs (the actors are located in a shallow space, divided into a number of plans). Poussin draws the volumes of the figures in an almost sculptural way, carefully aligning them anatomical structure, tucks their clothes into classic pleats. The distribution of colors in the picture is subject to the same strict harmony.

Strict laws prevailed in verbal art. These laws were especially rigidly established for high genres, clothed in a mandatory poetic form. Thus, the tragedy, like the epic, must necessarily be expounded in the majestic Alexandrian verse. The plot of the tragedy, historical or mythological, was taken from ancient times and was usually known to the viewer (later the classicists began to draw material for their tragedies from Eastern history, while Russian classicists preferred plots from their own national history). The fame of the plot set the viewer not to perceive a complex and intricate intrigue, but to analyze the emotional experiences and opposing aspirations of the characters. According to the definition of G. A. Gukovsky, "classical tragedy is not a drama of action, but a drama of conversations; the classical poet is not interested in facts, but in analysis, directly formed in the word" .

The laws of formal logic determined the structure of dramatic genres, especially tragedy, which was supposed to consist of five acts. Comedies could also be three-act (in the 18th century one-act comedies), but in no case four or two acts. For dramatic genres, the classicists raised the principle of three unities - place, action and time, formulated in the treatises of J. Trissino and J. Scaliger, based on Aristotle's "Poetics", into an indisputable law. According to the rule of unity of place, all the action of the play must take place in one place - a palace, a house, or even a room. The unity of time required that the whole action of the play fit within no more than a day, and the more it corresponded to the time of the performance - three hours - the better. Finally, the unity of action assumed that the events depicted in the play must have their beginning, development and end. In addition, the play should not contain "extra" episodes or characters that are not directly related to the development of the main plot. Otherwise, theorists of classicism believed, the diversity of impressions prevented the viewer from perceiving the "reasonable basis" of life.

The requirement of three unities fundamentally changed the structure of the drama, as it forced the playwrights to depict not the entire system of events (as was the case, for example, in medieval mystery plays), but only the episode that completed this or that event. The events themselves were "taken off stage" and could cover a large period of time, but they were of a retrospective nature, and the viewer learned about them from the monologues and dialogues of the characters.

At first, the three unities were not formal. The principle of plausibility underlying them, the fundamental principle of classicism, developed in the struggle against traditions medieval theater, with his plays, the action of which sometimes stretched over several days, covering hundreds of performers, and the plot was full of all kinds of miracles and naive naturalistic effects. But, elevating the principle of three unities into an unshakable rule, the classicists did not take into account the peculiarities of the subjective perception of art, which allows artistic illusion, non-identity artistic image reproduced object. The romantics, who discovered the "subjectivity" of the spectator, will begin the assault on the classicist theater by overthrowing the rule of three unities.

Of particular interest on the part of writers and theorists of classicism was the genre epic, or heroic poem, which Boileau put even above tragedy. Only in the epic, according to Boileau, did the poet "gain space for himself / Captivate our mind and gaze with high fiction." Classical poets in the epic are also attracted by a special heroic theme based on the most important events of the past, and heroes, exceptional in their qualities, and the manner of narrating events, which Boileau formulated as follows:

Let your story be mobile, clear, concise,

And in the descriptions and magnificent and rich.

As in tragedy, the moral and didactic setting is important in the epic. Depicting heroic times, the epic, according to V. Trediakovsky, gives "a firm instruction to the human race, teaching this one to love virtue" ("An Explanation on the Heroic Poem", 1766).

AT artistic structure of the epic Boileau assigns a decisive role to fiction (“Laying a myth as a basis, he lives by fiction ...”). Boileau's attitude to ancient and Christian mythology is consistently rationalistic - the ancient myth attracts him with the transparency of an allegory that does not contradict reason. Christian miracles, on the other hand, cannot be the subject of aesthetic embodiment; moreover, according to Boileau, their use in poetry can compromise religious dogmas ("Christ's sacraments are not for fun"). In characterizing the epic, Boileau relies on the ancient epic, primarily Virgil's Aeneid.

Criticizing the "Christian epic" T. Tasso ("The Liberated Jerusalem"), Boileau also opposes the national heroic epic based on the material of the early Middle Ages ("Alaric" J. Scuderi, "Virgin" J. Chaplin). The classicist Boileau does not accept the Middle Ages as an era of "barbarism", which means that plots taken from this era cannot have aesthetic and didactic value for him.

The principles of the epic formulated by Boileau, focused on Homer and Virgil, did not receive a full and comprehensive embodiment in the literature of the 17th century. This genre has already become obsolete, and J. G. Herder, the theorist of the literary movement in Germany "Storm and Onslaught" (70s of the XVIII century), from the position of historicism, explained the impossibility of its resurrection (he is talking about the ancient epic) : "The epic belongs to the childhood of mankind." In the 18th century, attempts to create a heroic epic based on national material within the framework of the classic artistic system were all the more unsuccessful (Voltaire's Henriade, 1728; M. Kheraskov's Rossiyada, 1779).

Ode, one of the main genres of classicism, also has a strict form. Its obligatory feature is a "lyrical disorder", suggesting the free development of poetic thought:

Let Ode's tempestuous style strive at random:

Beautiful crumpled beautiful her outfit.

Away with timid rhymers whose minds are phlegmatic

In the passions themselves, a dogmatic order is observed...

(N. Boileau, "Poetic Art")

Nevertheless, this "dogmatic order" was strictly observed. The ode, like an oratorical word, consisted of three parts: an "attack", that is, an introduction to the topic, reasoning where this topic developed, and an energetic, emotional conclusion. The "lyrical disorder" is purely external in nature: passing from one thought to another, introducing digressions, the poet subordinated the construction of the ode to the development of the main idea. The lyricism of the ode is not individual, but, so to speak, collective, it expresses "the aspirations and aspirations of the entire state organism" (G. Gukovsky).

In contrast to the "high" tragedy and epic, the classic "low genres" - comedy and satire - are turned into modern everyday life. The purpose of comedy is to educate, ridiculing shortcomings, "to correct temper with a mockery; / To laugh and use its direct charter" (A. Sumarokov). Classicism rejected the pamphlet (that is, directed against specific individuals) satirical comedy Aristophanes. The comedian is interested in universal human vices in their everyday manifestation - laziness, extravagance, stinginess, etc. But this does not mean at all that the classic comedy is devoid of social content. Classicism is characterized by a clear ideological and moral-didactic orientation, and therefore the appeal to socially significant issues gave many classic comedies a public and even topical sound (Tartuffe, Don Giovanni, Misanthrope by Moliere; Brigadier, Undergrowth by D. Fonvizin, "Snake" by V. Kapnist).

In his judgments about the comedy, Boileau focuses on the "serious" moralizing comedy presented in antiquity by Menander and Terence, and in modern times by Molière. Boileau considers "The Misanthrope" and "Tartuffe" to be the highest achievement of Molière, but criticizes the comedian for using the traditions of the folk farce, considering them rude and vulgar (the comedy "The Tricks of Scapin"). Boileau advocates the creation of a comedy of characters as opposed to a comedy of intrigue. Later, this type of classic comedy, which touches on problems of social or socio-political significance, will be assigned the definition of "high" comedy.

Satire has much in common with comedy and fable. All these genres have a common subject of depiction - human flaws and vices, a common emotional and artistic assessment - ridicule. The basis of the compositional structure of satire and fable is the combination of the author's and narrative principles. The author of satire and fable often uses dialogue. However, unlike comedy, in satire the dialogue is not connected with the action, with the system of events, and the image of life phenomena, unlike the fable, is based in satire on a direct, and not on an allegorical image.

Being a satirical poet by his talent, Boileau in theory departs from ancient aesthetics, which attributed satire to "low" genres. He sees satire as a socially active genre. Giving a detailed description of satire, Boileau recalls the Roman satirists Lucilius, Horace, Persia Flaccus, who boldly denounced the vices of the powerful of this world. But above all he puts Juvenal. And although the French theorist notes the "square" origins of the Roman poet's satire, his authority for Boileau is undeniable:

The terrible truth of his poems live,

And yet the beauty in them sparkle here and there.

The temperament of the satirist prevailed over Boileau's theoretical postulates in his defense of the right to personal satire directed against specific, well-known people ("Discourse on satire"; it is characteristic that Boileau did not recognize satire on faces in comedy). Such a technique brought a topical, journalistic color to the classic satire. The Russian classicist-satirist A. Kantemir also widely used the technique of satire on faces, giving his "supra-individualistic" characters, personifying some kind of human vice, a portrait resemblance to his enemies.

An important contribution of classicism to the further development of literature was the development of a clear and harmonious language of works of art ("What is clearly understood, it will sound clearly"), freed from foreign vocabulary, capable of expressing various feelings and experiences ("Anger is proud - he needs arrogant words, / But the sorrows of the complaint are not so tense"), correlated with the characters and the age of the characters ("So choose your language carefully: / Can't speak like a young man, an old man").

The formation of classicism in both France and Russia begins with linguistic and poetic reforms. In France, this work was started by F. Malherbe, who was the first to put forward the concept of good taste as a criterion of artistic skill. Malherbe did a lot to cleanse the French language of numerous provincialisms, archaisms and the dominance of borrowed Latin and Greek words introduced into literary circulation by the poets of the Pleiades in the 16th century. Malherbe carried out the codification of the French literary language, which eliminated everything accidental from it, focused on the speech skills of the enlightened people of the capital, on the condition that the literary language should be understandable to all segments of the population. Malherbe's contribution to the field of French versification is also significant. The rules of metrics he formulated (the fixed place of the caesura, the prohibition of transfers from one poetic line to another, etc.) not only entered the poetics of French classicism, but were also assimilated by the poetic theory and practice of other European countries.

In Russia, M. Lomonosov carried out similar work a century later. Lomonosov's theory of the "three calms" eliminated the variegation and disorder of literary forms of communication, characteristic of Russian literature of the late 17th - first third of the 18th century, streamlined literary word usage within a particular genre, determining the development of literary speech up to Pushkin. No less important is the poetic reform of Trediakovsky-Lomonosov. Reforming versification on the basis of the syllabo-tonic system, which is organic to the Russian language, Trediakovsky and Lomonosov thus laid the foundation for the national poetic culture.

In the 18th century, classicism experienced its second heyday. The decisive influence on it, as well as on other stylistic directions, is exerted by enlightenment- an ideological movement that took shape in the conditions of an acute crisis of absolutism and directed against the feudal-absolutist system and the church supporting it. The ideas of enlightenment are based on the philosophical concept of the Englishman J. Locke, who proposed a new model of the process of cognition, based on feeling, sensation, as the only source human knowledge about the world ("Experience on the human mind", 1690). Locke resolutely rejected the doctrine of R. Descartes' "innate ideas", likening the soul of a born person to a clean slate (tabula rasa), where experience writes "its own letters" throughout life.

Such a view of human nature led to the idea of ​​a decisive influence on the formation of the personality of the social and natural environment, which makes a person good or bad. Ignorance, superstition, prejudices, generated by the feudal social order, determine, according to the enlighteners, social disorder, distort the original moral nature of man. And only general education can eliminate the discrepancy between existing social relations and the requirements of reason and human nature. Literature and art began to be regarded as one of the main instruments for the transformation and re-education of society.

All this determined fundamentally new features in the classicism of the 18th century. While maintaining the basic principles of classic aesthetics in art and literature enlightenment classicism the understanding of the purpose and tasks of a number of genres is changing significantly. Especially clearly the transformation of classicism in the spirit of educational settings is visible in the tragedies of Voltaire. Remaining true to the basic aesthetic principles of classicism, Voltaire seeks to influence not only the mind of the audience, but also their feelings. He is looking for new themes and new means of expression. Continuing to develop the ancient theme familiar to classicism, in his tragedies Voltaire also refers to medieval plots ("Tancred", 1760), oriental ("Mohammed", 1742), associated with the conquest of the New World ("Alzira", 1736). He gives a new rationale for tragedy: "Tragedy is a moving painting, an animated picture, and the people depicted in it must act" (that is, dramaturgy is thought of by Voltaire not only as the art of words, but also as the art of movement, gesture, facial expressions).

Voltaire fills the classic tragedy with a sharp philosophical and socio-political content related to the actual problems of our time. The playwright focuses on the fight against religious fanaticism, political arbitrariness and despotism. So, in one of his most famous tragedies "Mohammed" Voltaire proves that any deification of an individual leads, in the end, to its uncontrolled power over other people. Religious intolerance leads the heroes of the tragedy "Zaire" (1732) to a tragic denouement, and merciless gods and treacherous priests push weak mortals to commit crimes ("Oedipus", 1718). In the spirit of high social issues, Voltaire rethinks and transforms the heroic epic and ode.

During the period of the French Revolution (1789-1794), the classicist trend in literary life is of particular importance. The classicism of this time not only generalized and assimilated innovative features Voltaire's tragedy, but also radically rebuilt high genres. M. J. Chenier refuses to denounce despotism in general, and that is why he takes as the subject of the image not only antiquity, but also Europe of modern times ("Charles IX", "Jean Calas"). The hero of the tragedies Chenier promotes the ideas of natural law, freedom and law, he is close to the people, and the people in the tragedy not only enter the stage, but also act along with the main character (Kai Gracchus, 1792). The concept of the state as a positive category, opposed to the personal, individualistic, is replaced in the playwright's mind by the category "nation". It is no coincidence that Chenier called his play "Charles IX" a "national tragedy."

Within the framework of classicism of the era of the French Revolution, a new type of ode is also being created. Preserving the classic principle of the priority of reason over reality, the revolutionary ode includes like-minded people of the lyrical hero in its world. The author himself no longer speaks on his own behalf, but on behalf of fellow citizens, using the pronoun "we". Rouget de Lisle in the Marseillaise pronounces revolutionary slogans, as it were, together with his listeners, thus prompting them and himself to revolutionary transformations.

The creator of classicism of a new type, in line with the spirit of the times, in painting was J. David. Together with his painting "The Oath of the Horatii" (1784), French art comes new topic- civil, journalistic in its straightforward expression, the new hero is a Roman republican, morally whole, putting duty to his homeland above all else, a new manner - severe and ascetic, opposed to refined chamber style french painting second half of the 18th century.

Under the influence of French literature in the 18th century, national models of classicism were formed in other European countries: in England (A. Pope, J. Addison), in Italy (V. Alfieri), in Germany (I. K. Gottsched). In the 1770s and 1780s, such an original artistic phenomenon as "Weimar classicism" (JV Goethe, F. Schiller) appeared in Germany. Turning to the artistic forms and traditions of antiquity, Goethe and Schiller set themselves the task of creating a new high-style literature as the main means of aesthetic education of a harmonious person.

The formation and flourishing of Russian classicism fall on the years 1730-1750 and take place in quite similar conditions to the French conditions for the formation of an absolutist state. But, despite a number of common points in the aesthetics of Russian and French classicism (rationalism, normativity and genre regulation, abstractness and conventionality as the leading features of the artistic image, recognition of the role of an enlightened monarch in establishing a fair social order based on the law), Russian classicism has its own unique national traits.

The ideas of the Enlightenment have nourished Russian classicism from the very beginning. The assertion of the natural equality of people leads Russian writers to the idea of ​​the extra-class value of a person. Already Cantemir in his second satire "Filaret and Eugene" (1730) declares that "the same blood flows in both free and slaves," and "noble" people "will show one virtue." Forty years later, A. Sumarokov, in his satire "On Nobility," will continue: "What is the difference between a master and a peasant? Both that and that animated lump of earth." Fonvizinsky Starodum ("Nedorosl", 1782) will determine the nobility of a person by the number of deeds performed for the fatherland ("without noble deeds, a noble state is nothing"), and the enlightenment of a person will be directly dependent on the education of virtue in him ("The main goal of all human knowledge - benevolence").

Seeing in education a "guarantee of the welfare of the state" (D. Fonvizin) and believing in the usefulness of an enlightened monarchy, Russian classicists begin a long process of educating autocrats, reminding them of their duties towards their subjects:

The gods did not make him king for his benefit;

He is the king, so that a man be to all people mutually:

He must give his people the whole time,

All your cares, everything and zeal for people ...

(V. Trediakovsky, "Tilemakhida")

If the king does not fulfill his duties, if he is a tyrant, he must be deposed from the throne. This can also happen through a popular uprising ("Dmitry the Pretender" by A. Sumarokov).

The main material for Russian classicists is not antiquity, but their own national history, from which they preferred to draw plots for high genres. And instead of abstract ideal ruler, "philosopher on the throne", characteristic of European classicism, Russian writers as an exemplary sovereign, "worker on the throne", recognized a very specific historical personality- Peter I.

The theoretician of Russian classicism Sumarokov, relying in his Epistle on Poetry (1748) on Boileau's Poetic Art, introduces a number of new provisions into his theoretical treatise, pays tribute not only to the masters of classicism, but also to representatives of other trends. So, he erects on Helicon, along with Malherbe and Racine, Camões, Lope de Vega, Milton, Pop, the "unenlightened" Shakespeare, as well as contemporary writers - Detouche and Voltaire. Sumarokov speaks in sufficient detail about the heroic-comic poem and the epistle, not mentioned by Boileau, explains in detail the features of the fable "warehouse" on the example of the fables of the bypassed Boileau La Fontaine, and dwells on the genre of the song, which the French theorist mentions in passing. All this testifies not only to Sumarokov's personal aesthetic predilections, but also to the changes that are ripening in European classicism XVIII century.

These changes are associated primarily with the growing interest of literature in the inner life of an individual, which ultimately led to a significant restructuring of the genre structures of classicism. A characteristic example here is the work of G. Derzhavin. Remaining "predominantly a classic" (V. Belinsky), Derzhavin introduces a strong personal element into his poetry, thereby destroying the law of the unity of style. Genre-complex formations appear in his poetry - an ode-satire (“Felitsa”, 1782), anacreontic poems written on an odic plot (“Poems for the birth of a porphyry-born child in the North”, 1779), an elegy with features of a message and an ode (“ On the death of Prince Meshchersky", 1779), etc.

Giving way to new literary trends, classicism does not leave literature without a trace. The turn to sentimentalism takes place within the framework of the "middle" classicist genres - elegies, messages, idylls. The poets of the early 19th century, K. Batyushkov and N. Gnedich, while remaining fundamentally faithful to the classical ideal (partly also to the canon of classicism), each went their own way to romanticism. Batyushkov - from "light poetry" to psychological and historical elegy, Gnedich - to the translation of the Iliad and genres associated with folk art. The strict forms of the classic tragedy of Racine were chosen by P. Katenin for his Andromache (1809), although he, as a romantic, is already interested in the spirit itself ancient culture. The high civic tradition of classicism found its continuation in the freedom-loving lyrics of the Radishchevites, Decembrists and Pushkin.