The peoples of the southern Urals. Traditions and customs of the Middle Urals

Most of the Ural population lived in villages and settlements, the layout of which was not correct: estates were located either freely or lined up along a road or river. Regular or street-block building became widespread in mining settlements, settlements that were urban centers founded in the 18th century.

Construction in such settlements was carried out according to a predetermined plan: straight streets were laid in meridian-latitudinal direction, residential estates within the quarters were built at a certain distance from one another.

The architectural and planning center of the settlements was a square with a complex of administrative, religious, commercial buildings and the house of the owner or manager.

The natural place for the construction of such an area was the area around the factory dam and pond. The vast majority of residential buildings were built of wood, but more and more three-chamber (three rooms) houses appeared throughout the region, heated "in white".

"Black" huts were preserved mainly among the Russian peasants of the north of the Vyatka and Perm Urals and among the indigenous peoples. Outbuildings adjoined the peasant huts. A common phenomenon in the Urals was a covered courtyard, uniting a hut and courtyard buildings under one roof. Cornices, platbands, shutters and gates of peasant houses were decorated with carvings. The carved ridges of the roofs carried not only decorative functions, but also served as amulets.

Peasant houses were traditionally furnished with home-made furniture: wall and mobile benches, beds, lockers; in the red corner, under the shrine, there was a dining table. City dwellers, factory servants and clerks more often used custom-made mobile furniture. In city houses, the walls of living rooms were often plastered and whitewashed. At the end of the century, wealthy citizens began to decorate the interior of their dwellings with plaster moldings, engravings, oleographs and paintings.

The interior decoration of the estates of the factory owners was distinguished by luxury and was equipped like the houses of the capital's nobility. The master's house, usually two-story, was the center of an entire architectural complex, consisting of servants' quarters, outbuildings, greenhouses, kennels, stables, etc.

Gardens and parks were laid out around country estates. With the permission of the owners, their houses were often used as guest houses by passing officials, scientists and travelers.

Peter I and developed under his successors, touched mainly the privileged strata of society, civil servants, the army. European-style clothing was worn in the Urals only by representatives of these groups. Men wore shirts with wide sleeves and cuffs, cloth or satin camisoles, over which they wore cloth (less often velvet) single-breasted or double-breasted caftans with turn-down collars and cuffs. Short trousers made of the same material as the caftans were fastened at knee level with cuffs with buttons. Pants were relied on linen or silk stockings, shoes or shoes, often decorated with buckles. The men's suit was complemented by muslin, silk, cambric ties, tied like a neckerchief.

Men's wigs were widely used: long (up to the shoulders), curled, with a high coque on the forehead or whipped parting (in the first half of the 18th century) and short powdered ones with a braid and curls (in the second half of the century). Triangular hats made of wool or down served as a headdress.

At army officials there was a uniform that did not fundamentally differ in cut from that described above, but had a uniform finish regulated by decrees (from the color of collars, lapels and cuffs to the number and size of buttons).

During the XVIII century. The military uniform has changed several times. In 1755 uniforms for mountain officials were introduced. Since 1782, nobles who were not members of public service, also received the right to wear uniforms. In each viceroy, for noble uniforms, their own colors were established, which were changed by subsequent decrees.

At the end of the XVIII century. caftans with a high collar and narrow cuffs came into fashion.

Woman suit It was distinguished by a puffy skirt on a frame - fizhma and a tight corsage - a corset with lacing, covering the waist and chest. A swinging wide crinoline dress was worn over the top. This attire was supplemented with a variety of capes, scarves, scarves. Like men, ladies used stockings, shoes, shoes, only more elegant and fine dressing, fur coats and epanches - in winter. Caps and hats were put on the head, with late XVIII in. - hats with round brim, trimmed with lace and ribbons.

Culture and life of the population of the Urals in the XII-XVII centuries.

The development of the Urals by Russian people had a significant impact on the culture and life of the inhabitants of the region. During the XII-XVII centuries. there was a mutual enrichment of the cultures of the indigenous population and Russians, among whom the vast majority were peasants. The impact of Russian culture is most clearly felt in the transfer of plow farming skills, in the influence on wooden architecture, in the spread of the Russian language, writing, Orthodoxy as the official religion of the Russian feudal state. In turn, the Russians adopted many hunting, fishing and other elements of culture from the indigenous people. The development of Russian culture in the Urals, while remaining part of the all-Russian cultural and historical process, had at the same time some features associated with the conditions for the development of this region, the nature of socio-economic relations and contacts with other peoples. In the Urals at that time, the black-eared peasantry and the townspeople prevailed. Serfdom relations here had a weaker effect than in the counties located in the center of the country. More high level personal independence, opportunities for initiative, enterprise created relatively favorable conditions for the development of culture. In the Urals in the XVI-XVII centuries. chronicle traditions continue, books are created and rewritten, folklore is preserved and enriched; literacy was widespread among the townspeople, service people, part of the peasantry. A major cultural center was formed in the estates of the "eminent people" of the Stroganovs, who had large book collections, icon-painting workshops, which encouraged the development of musical and choral art. Already in the XV-XVII centuries. in the Urals, residents widely used technical knowledge related primarily to the search, extraction and processing of the mineral resources of the region. Salt mining has reached a high technical level. Here, drilling of wells to a greater depth, pumps for lifting brine, and more advanced equipment for salt pans were used. The technical knowledge and practical skills of the local population became an important condition for the transformation of the Urals in the 18th century. in the center of the domestic mining industry.

Culture of the indigenous peoples of the Urals

During his campaigns in the XI-XV centuries. Russians were quite well oriented in the vast territory of the Northern and Middle Urals. In the Urals, they used the same paths that had long been mastered by the ancestors of the Komi, Mansi. As a rule, representatives of the local population served as guides for the Russians. It is known that Yermak's squad included Komi and Mansi, who knew the way through the Ural Mountains. Not without the participation of the Mansi, who lived in the upper reaches of the Yaiva and Kosva, he found at the end of the 16th century. Artemy Babinov is the shortest way from Solikamsk to Siberia. After the annexation of Kazan and Bashkiria, the Russians began to use the old Kazan road, well mastered by the Tatars and Bashkirs, to penetrate into the Southern Trans-Urals. The peoples of the Urals have accumulated centuries of experience in the use of its natural resources. They boiled salt, smelted metal, mastered the forest. rivers, explored the diverse animal world. Arab and Central Asian geographers have repeatedly written that neither the Urals know native gold and gems. With the advent of the Russians, ores, salt springs, and timber began to be developed more widely. The tsarist government ordered to look for both new deposits of ores and to develop the remains of ancient mines. By the end of the XVII century. more than 50 mineral deposits have already been discovered in the Urals. This success was largely facilitated by observations and the direct assistance of miners from among the local population. It is known that in the Sylvensko-Irensky river region, the miners often used the services of the Tatars and Mansi. The indigenous population of the Urals has developed many production skills and practical knowledge, which were already successfully mastered by Russians in the early stages. At the same time, it itself perceived many aspects of experience that was new to it. The mutual transfer of knowledge took place within the framework of the emerging economic and cultural complexes. The most active spread of the traditions of Russian culture and life is observed in the agricultural zones, in which the three-field system used by immigrants from European Russia became predominant. Russian plows, more advanced axes, sickles, scythes, which in in large numbers found during excavations of ancient settlements. In places of hunting and fishing, the Russians perceived many skills of the local population: means of transporting weights (sledges), fishing tools (raw materials, owls), clothes (luzan, malitsa, sovik), shoes (nyary, uledp), etc. Among the indigenous Ural population developed different kinds applied arts. All of them were closely connected with the economic life and the traditional worldview. The processing of wood and birch bark, bone and metal, the manufacture of patterned fabrics and knitted products date back to ancient times. The peoples of Komi and Udmurts owned mortgage, warp and multi-shaft weaving. According to archaeological finds, it can be assumed that the ancestors of the Komi-Lomovatov and Vanvizda tribes (III-VIII centuries) already knew clothes with a woven pattern and geometric embroidery. A prominent place in men's and women's costumes has long been occupied by belts, so they were decorated with plaques or a woven pattern. In the traditional Komi costume, women's headdresses are known, decorated with shells, pearls, stripes, and among the Udmurts - with silver plaques. From the end of the 17th century Udmurts have embroidery on women's shirts. The Komi, Udmurts and Mansi, who lived in the forest taiga zone, made for themselves a variety of carved wooden utensils for food storage and cooking: troughs, cups, salt boxes, spoons, ladles, jugs, etc. Many products were given a convenient and beautiful shape, decorated with three-sided , contour or sculptural carving in the form of stylized zoomorphic images. important place in everyday life they occupied objects made of birch bark and root. > Komi were widely used boxes, chumans, shoulder pesters, tuesas, shoulder bags-peshchorki, kudas and baskets for storing dry products. Komi and Udmurt birch bark products were decorated with carvings and embossing. On wooden utensils, the owner often carved family or personal signs - passes, which were often an ornamental decoration of the item. Woodworking techniques were common, but among some peoples of the Urals, wooden things differed in originality / For example, among the hunters and fishermen of the Komi-Zyryans and Komi-Permyaks, a large salt shaker in the form of a waterfowl was widely used. An indispensable accessory of the Udmurt family sanctuary and the front corner of the dwelling was a carved chair made from a single tree trunk and served at the same time for storing clothes. Komi-Zyryans and Komi-Permyaks paid considerable attention to the decor of residential and outbuildings. Roofs erected on "males" without nails were especially decorated. Ice skates stood out above the gable roofs, and “hens” stood out on the sides. Ohlupni and "hens" were cut from a tree trunk with a rhizome, which was most often shaped into horse heads or some fantastic animals and birds. In addition, among the Komi, it was customary to fix carved figures of birds on high poles near houses. Similar decorations are also known among the old-timer Russian population of the Upper Kama region. The zoomorphic motifs both in dwellings and in household utensils have their origins in the animalistic representations of ancestors and the well-known metal plasticity of the Permian animal style. Based high art wood processing among the Komi-Zyryans and Komi-Permyaks, sculpture also developed. About the wooden idols of the Vychegodsk-Vym Komi, which "the essence of stuccoed, sculpted, carved blockheads," wrote at the end of the 14th century. Epiphanius the Wise. About the same wooden idols, located in the pagan “jokers” and temples, is reported in the message of Metropolitan Simon in 1501 to the “Permians” in Great Perm. Wooden god-idols were also known to other peoples of the Urals, in particular the Mansi, who kept them in the sanctuaries of the caves along Yaiva and Chusovaya. For a long time, the local population considered the statue to be the main deity. With the adoption of Christianity, the official church made a compromise: the functions of pagan idols were transferred to church sculpture. The basis for this conclusion is the surviving Permian wooden sculpture of the 17th-18th centuries, in which, in addition to Christian subjects, the traditions of both local paganism and Russian, brought to the Ural lands by the first settlers from the European North, are clearly distinguished. That's why permian sculpture similar to Novgorod, Pskov, Arkhangelsk and Vologda. In written monuments of the XIV-XVII centuries. Komi musical instruments are called by one term "surgum", which means a pipe or a horn. Since ancient times, shepherds and hunters have used birch bark pipes and wooden drums not only for signaling, but also for musical entertainment. Among the Komi-Permyaks and the Vychegda Komi-Zyryans, playing on “glades” was widespread - a kind of multi-barreled flutes carved from the stems of pikans. The Komi-Zyryans also know the stringed musical instrument "sigudbk", which is similar in structure to the Russian whistle. The influence of Russian culture was felt somewhat weaker in Bashkiria. It was connected. with the spread of Islam here, which already in the XVI century. became the dominant religion in Bashkiria, as well as with the peculiarities of the economic activity of the Bashkirs. Until the 18th century The main occupation of most of the population of Bashkiria (especially in its eastern part) was semi-nomadic cattle breeding and hunting. But here, too, following the example of the Russian and non-Russian population, penetrating into Bashkiria from the Volga region, the Bashkirs-cattle breeders in the 17th century. expanded the hayfields and increased haymaking for the winter. The more active penetration of the alien population (Russians, Tatars and other peoples of the Volga region) into the regions of northern and western Bashkiria led to noticeable changes in the employment and life of the local population. There has been an economic and ethnographic division of Bashkiria into the agricultural western and cattle-breeding eastern regions. The Western Bashkirs borrowed household tools from peoples who, in essence, were the conductors of agricultural culture. The most widespread, especially in mountainous areas, was the Russian plow. To raise the virgin lands, a heavy Tatar plow - Saban was most often used. Prior to the entry of the Urals into the Russian state, the local population, with the exception of the Komi-Zyryans, did not have their own written language. Writing among the Komi-Zyryans appeared in the second half of the 14th century. Its creation is associated with the name of the missionary Stephen of Perm. In the history of the Russian state, this was the first attempt to develop an alphabet for a non-literate people. The Komi alphabet, known as the ancient Permian, consisted of 24 letters. It used Greek and Slavic letters, as well as local tribal tamgi-passes. Stefan of Perm himself, being the son of a Komi-Zyryanka, knew the language of this people well. He translated into the Komi-Zyryan language liturgical books opened a literacy school. However, later the ancient Permian writing lagged far behind the spoken Komi language and in the 18th century. was completely translated into Russian graphic basis. The Komi-Permyaks also partially knew this letter: long time they had icons with inscriptions from ancient Perm letters. The entry of the peoples of the Urals into the Russian state inevitably led to the mastery of Russian writing, which was necessary for compiling various business papers. So, at the end of the XVI-XVII century. The Vishersky, Chusovsky, Lyalinsky and Lozvinsky Mansi repeatedly sent their petitions to the Russian Tsar with a request to establish the exact boundaries of their possessions and the size of the yasak. Among the Mansi, the so-called interpreters were the first to master Russian literacy. They were instructed to write petitions, letters, act as translators. A long tradition among the Komi population was the custom of writing on birch bark, and they wrote not only small texts of spells and prayers, but also liturgical books. With the arrival of Russians, an active process of interpenetration of Russian words into local languages ​​​​and vice versa begins. It is known that in the XVII century. in the Urals there were people who knew not only two, but also three languages. Long-term bilingualism also led to the active development of local place names by Russians. Moreover, local toponyms often acquired a new form, more convenient for use by both Russians and the Komi people. First of all, close cultural ties were established between the agricultural peoples: Russians, Komi-Permyaks and Komi-Zyryans. The influence of Russian culture was a progressive phenomenon. The Russians not only enriched the traditional everyday culture of the Ural peoples, but also accelerated its development. The Russian population brought a lot of new things to the local building practice. In the Urals, more rational buildings for threshing and storage of grain, water mills were widely used. Among Komizyryans, under the influence of Russians, elements of connection between residential and courtyard buildings appear in single complex . On the estates there are also separate buildings for special purposes - barns and cellars. With the advent of the Russians, both the Komi-Zyryans and the Komi-Permyaks built higher huts, on basements, with a northern Russian interior layout, many parts of the residential hut and its interior in the Komi language received Russian names. Obviously, it was not without reason that Izbrant wrote down to Idea during his move through the Komi lands in 1692: "... their yards are built in the same way as those of the Russians." The appearance of the dwelling is also changing in Bashkiria. If in the eastern part the felt yurt remained the main summer dwelling of pastoralists on nomads, then in western Bashkiria, except for its southern part, the yurt is already becoming a rarity. -Western Bashkirs lived, as a rule, in wooden huts, identical in type with the dwellings of the peoples of the Middle Volga region. The interior decoration of the dwellings has changed slightly and still bears the imprints of the past pastoral life. Most of the room was occupied by bunks, which replaced the tables, chairs and beds that the Bashkirs lacked. Only in the neighboring Russian villages did tables and benches begin to be used in everyday life. During the XVII-XVIII centuries. the clothes of the western Bashkirs are changing, approaching the clothes of the peoples of the Middle Volga region, in particular, boots and a kosovorotka appeared. In the northwest, leather clothing gradually disappeared. Bashkirs borrowed some items of clothing from their western neighbors: Mari, Chuvash, Udmurts. This is a syba - a caftan sewn into the waist from canvas, felt hats, onuchi, knitted stockings. In the 17th century a complex of Tatar clothing is widely distributed throughout Bashkiria, which subsequently (in the 19th-20th centuries) began to prevail in some areas of western Bashkiria. Many common features among the Komi peoples and Russians of the Northern and Middle Urals were observed in clothes, shoes, and headdresses. In the same diary of Izbrant Ides we find an entry: "... read their dress with the Russian similar." Documents of the XVI-XVII centuries. show that among the local peoples the composition of clothing is significantly expanding, under the influence of the Russians, some imported fabrics and jewelry begin to be used. Among Komi documents, Russian zipuns, ponitki, guni, zippers, shushuns, etc. are called. In the 17th century. stable territorial-ethnic boundaries of the existence of many accessories of folk costume were already outlined. Among the Komi-Zyryans and Komi-Permyaks, tunic-shaped men's and women's shirts of the northern Russian cut, old oblique oaks (sarafans) became widespread. The Komi population also borrowed Russian women's headdresses. The methods of storing and processing vegetables, preparing bread products (pies with various fillings, pancakes, pancakes, shangi) and drinks (wort, kvass) were also adopted from the Russians, imported goods (tea, sugar) began to be used more widely. In the 17th century began to use tobacco. At the same time, the Russians adopted the traditional dishes of the Komi people, such as dumplings. Russian culture had a strong influence on the folklore of the local peoples of the Urals. The Kochmi-Zyryans and Komi-Permyaks everywhere assimilated Russian fairy tales, songs, wedding lamentations. Some songs were sung in their native language. Within the framework of the established Christian rules, many family and public holidays and rituals were held by the Russians and Komi according to a single ritual. So, in the most striking wedding ceremony of the Komi-Zyryans and Komi-Permyaks, local specificity looks very weak. They have spread the wedding ceremony of the northern Russian version. AT family life often used Russian words: peasant, woman, mother, relatives, father, etc.

The influence of factory production affected the life of the inhabitants of factories and the peasantry of the Urals, not even directly connected with factory life. Many factory settlements were the basis of future cities. Residential houses built according to government projects consisted of one hut with a passage, erected on a brick foundation, chimneys and drainpipes were decorated with perforated iron. In the Middle Urals, houses were often tall, decorated with carved porches, false rosettes, and jagged ornaments. Near the house with a vestibule there was an open or semi-closed enclosed courtyard, into which wide gates led from the street. In such estates, the traditions of northern Russian folk architecture were more stable. The dwelling of the factory population of the Southern Urals was somewhat smaller; it consisted of a hut, a vestibule and a small yard. The houses were decorated sparingly. The Russian peasants of the Kama and Trans-Urals, as well as the Komi-Permyaks, further developed a dwelling such as a three-chamber connection. It still retained a hut on a high basement, and through the passage a cage was attached, which was often with a cut and in the cellar. The roof was erected of a gable, male design - on "falls", "streams" and "hens". The porch was located on the front side or side in the courtyard and was arranged on poles or with an older technique - a cut. All these signs of a dwelling were characteristic of northern Russian architecture. But the North Russian features were even more firmly expressed in the interior of residential huts. Any peasant hut was divided into four functional areas . To the right or left of the entrance there was an adobe oven, the mouth of which always turned to the wall opposite the entrance. The place in front of the stove and the front wall was reserved for the kitchen. Beds were arranged above the entrance, and the place under them was a kind of hallway. The fourth red corner remained the cleanest, they dined there, received guests, and performed various family rituals. An indispensable accessory of the peasant hut was the built-in furnishings - benches along the walls, shelves above the windows. Under the ceiling, from the stove corner to the front wall, a bed-shelf was arranged, which in the original version always consisted of two bars located parallel to each other at a distance of up to half a meter. The ceiling was made of round logs and only in the middle of the 19th century. they were replaced by hewn half-logs. Near the stove, from the side of the entrance, a wooden cupboard was attached - golbets, through which they went down the stairs to the basement, where food and various household utensils were stored. In the descriptions of dwellings in the XVIII century. more and more often the upper room is mentioned. In a three-chamber connection, it was erected instead of the cage by wealthy owners, and at first in cities and settlements with salt production. The whole family lived in the hut, and the upper room served to receive guests, in the summer they slept in it. It differed from the hut by a large number of windows, a variety of interior decoration, it was heated with a brick stove or a Tollandka, and there were no shelves in it. From the second half of the XVIII century. in towns and settlements, houses of a more complex design are more common. Often, a three-chamber connection was built on two floors, the size of the room increased, portage and deck windows were replaced by slanted ones with mica and glass, cornices and window sill boards were carved. Property and social differences were reflected more and more noticeably in the furnishings of the dwelling. From the end of the XVIII century. stone residential construction is born. The use of brick for residential huts was possible not only in cities, but also in rich trading villages. But, despite this, a long-standing commitment to wood also affected here: often the bottom of the houses was built of brick, and the top - of wood. In the Kama region, in the areas of the original Russian settlement, mansion houses were still preserved, in which the residential part with the courtyard was located close and they were closed by adjacent roofs. In places with a population from the Central Russian zone, the traditions of an open or semi-closed one-story courtyard, in which outbuildings were located at a distance from a two-chamber dwelling - a hut with a passage, were more widely developed. The structure of Russian and Komi-Permyak estates also included barns, cellars, baths. On the estates of wealthy owners, there were a greater number of outbuildings: barns, stables, shelters, imports, etc. The three-chamber dwelling was also known to the Udmurt population. In residential huts, the North Russian layout was also preserved. The obligatory accessory of the estates was the ancient kua and barns - kenos, they stored property, food, in the summer they were also used as living quarters. Northern Russian planning traditions were preserved in the Mari huts: the stove was placed near the front door on a chopped base, the red corner was diagonally away from it. In the Kama Mari huts, according to travelers of the first half of the 19th century, there were features of the Tatar-Bashkir dwelling. To a greater extent, this was expressed in the presence of bunks. In all Mari villages for a long time: a three-chamber dwelling was preserved, consisting of a hut, a vestibule and a cage. An ancient decoration of the dwelling was a carved cord ornament. In the XVIII - early XIX in. in the Tatar settlements, estates continued to be placed according to the kinship principle - near the dwelling of the eldest in the family. Therefore, the building looked rather crowded. An old type of Tatar peasant house was a four-walled house, the size of which depended on the wealth of the owners. A wooden canopy was attached to the log house. The house was heated by a Russian stove and a hearth attached to it on the side with a smeared cauldron. Like the Russian peasants, the stove was placed with a firebox towards the front wall. An obligatory accessory of the Tatar hut was the bunks, which were located near the front wall. A long tradition of external decoration of Tatar houses was the multi-colored coloring of architraves, frames, cornices, frieze boards. The houses of wealthy peasants were furnished in a more varied way, with a half allocated for receiving guests, in which the owner of the house usually lived. This feature was caused by the undivided dominance in the family of the father-owner. Among the Bashkirs who lived in the Kama region, one can also find a log dwelling consisting of four or six walls. For a long time, adobe buildings were preserved. For some groups of the population, a yurt was a long-standing dwelling. But at the beginning of the XIX century. they fell into disuse, although the traditions in the setting were transferred to the log hut. In the XVIII century. clothes for men living in mining settlements were motley pants and a shirt, outerwear was sewn from homespun or factory cloth, fitted - “with interception”, double-breasted caftans. In the cold season, a fur coat (azyam, chekmen) with a large shawl collar was worn over the caftan. They wore it wide open, girdling it with a belt. Work clothes were supplemented with a zapon - an apron - an apron. The shoes were leather "cats" - soft shoes, "boot covers" with high tops. Festive shoes were "Russian" boots. In winter, both men and women wore felt boots - "pims", often decorated with lace embroidery. Women's clothing consisted of a "complex with a sundress", common for the entire North, the central regions of Russia and the Volga region. It included, first of all, a sundress (usually skew-wedge), which was sewn from various fabrics, often differing in quality and price (“old”, “Chinese”, “kumashnye” and “dyed”). A festive sundress was often decorated in front with a ribbon of gold and silver braids. Under the sundress they wore a shirt with long tapering sleeves. Over the sarafan, they put on a shower warmer, sometimes lined with fur. The sundress was certainly girded with a woven belt.

The headdress of an unmarried girl consisted of a bandage - a strip of brocade, satin or braid. Married women were required to cover their heads. After the wedding, the bride was plaited with two braids, laid on her head and put on a headdress: shamshur (samshur), kokoshnik, warrior, cap. Kokoshniks and shamshurs were the usual women's headdress in the Urals, around the band of which scarves were tied. Festive kokoshniks and shamshurs made of velvet, damask fabric, brocade were decorated with gold braids, mother-of-pearl, freshwater pearls.

Peter's decrees on the wearing of German, and in the summer French dress by the inhabitants did not have any profound effect on the clothing of the majority of the inhabitants of the region. Distribution of a new for the XVIII century. fashion went with difficulty: indicative in this respect was the case that was examined in 1748 by the Yekaterinburg office of judicial and zemstvo cases about “beating by the artisans of his wife so that she would not wear skirts and shirts with cuffs, but would wear Russian sundresses and shirts” 12. New-fashioned camisoles, skirts and jackets at that time were found primarily in the homes of representatives of the factory administration, servants and clerks. The inhabitants of factory settlements dressed, according to contemporaries, neatly. Bright colors prevailed in festive clothes. In the first half of the XIX century. clothing showed the influence of the city to a greater extent. Young women began to wear, in addition to traditional sundresses, skirts, sweaters, coats, dresses, tattoos, scarves. Festive men's clothing at that time consisted of a cloth, nanke or canine caftan, a sheepskin coat covered with cloth, a brightly colored black hat or a cloth cap. Quite in the city, like bureaucratic people, factory servants dressed. They wore frock coats, waistcoats and shirt-fronts, coats and overcoats. Ekaterinburg, Nevyansk and Nizhny Tagil factories, the largest in the Urals, became the trendsetters for the mining population, “where they know how to sew better than this kind of dress, also embroider with silk and gold, prepare a kokoshnik and so on.” Longer the old traditional costume was preserved in the peasant environment, as well as by the Old Believer workers. The decisions of the local Old Believer "cathedrals" expressly forbade the wearing of new-fangled dresses, but in the first half of the 19th century it was. was no longer a rarity among wealthy Old Believers.

Tatar population of the Middle Urals in the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries. wore the same clothes as in the Volga region. A wide frill with wedges was necessarily sewn to the women's shirt, and the chest was decorated with a sewn-in bib. A camisole was worn over this shirt. Men wore an ordinary shirt, only with wide side wedges and trousers. In winter, they wore fur coats and beshmeti. The obligatory headdress for men was a skullcap. In the 19th century hats also appeared, in rare cases, ancient towel-covered garments were preserved - bedspreads with which they wrapped their heads. Women wore ordinary headscarves, which, according to tradition, were tied at the forehead. The clothes of the Mari of the Kama region also did not differ from the Volga region. The women's costume consisted of a tunic-shaped linen shirt with embroidery on the shoulders, hem and chest. Such a shirt was complemented by many decorations: coins, belts, aprons, backs. Among the Ural Mariykas, the ancient pointed headdress “shurka” is known. Men wore linen shirts with a slit on the right, like the Komi-Permyaks. Outerwear for a long time remained an old tunic-shaped canvas caftan "shovyr", which is similar to the Udmurt and Komi-Permyak shabur. Udmurt folk clothes were also home-made. Men's costume already in the XVIII century. had much in common with Russian. The traditional women's costume consisted of a long-sleeved derem shirt with a frill and a colored apron. In summer, men and women wore a swinging robe with "Shorderem" embroidery, in winter - a caftan and fur coats. On the head they wore not only caps, scarves, but also the ancient headdress "ayshon", which was decorated with coins, ribbons and embroidery. The food of the inhabitants of the region consisted mainly of products produced here. A. N. Radishchev, who ended up in the Urals on his way to Siberian exile, noted that “in the Perm province everyone eats sieve bread gh with a poor harvest. Habit ancient from the former abundance "13. Ordinary food consisted of rye bread, cabbage soup, cereals, cabbage, beets, radishes. Mushrooms were collected and widely eaten (they were salted, dried), berries - cranberries, lingonberries. Meat dishes were rarely prepared, mainly on holidays. Festive table was richer and more varied: they prepared fish pies, roast veal, lamb or game, meat soup, cereals or vegetable porridge. Delicacies were shangi, pancakes, pancakes, peasant women (made from millet or cereals with milk and eggs), kissels, and rich loaves. Dumplings were a traditional dish for the Urals (from the Komi-Permian "pelnyan" - a bread ear). Dumplings were made from beef mixed with pork. The filling for them was also fish - pike, chebak, as well as milk mushrooms, cabbage.

In the first half of the XIX century. potatoes began to spread in the Urals. Due to the fact that potatoes were forced to be planted by force, by reducing the sowing of bread, due to its unfamiliarity as a food product, the local population was initially very wary, even hostile, about eating it. writings of the 30s and 40s of the 19th century it was reported that the potato is the legendary "devil's apple" with which Eve seduced Adam.However, pretty soon, the unpretentious fruitful potato began to be used to prepare a wide variety of dishes - from stuffing for shaneg to cabbage soup and jelly. A common drink was kvass, made from rye malt.Festive treats were braga, beer, honey, herbalists.In the Urals, as in Siberia, families consisting of two generations: fathers and children prevailed in the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries. There were about 70% of families, according to the census book of Bagaryakskaya Sloboda (for 1722: 1727 and 1734) 14. The average number of men in families mining population, according to public institutions who were in charge of mining in the country - four male souls. In cases where there were adult children in the family, the son and daughter-in-law remained with their parents. Cases of going to the son-in-law's house were rare.

The marriageable age for a guy was usually considered 18 years old. Brides could be older by 4-5 years. The daughter-in-law was to become, first of all, a worker, to help in household chores. Marriage could be concluded "good", that is, with the consent of the parents of the bride and groom, in compliance with all the complex wedding rituals or
gom." In this case, the young people got married either without parental consent, or with the secret consent of their parents, who wanted to avoid the high costs of the wedding. The state considered legal only "wedding" marriages concluded in the church. However, in the conditions of the Urals of the XVIII - the first half of the XIX century. This rule worked with a large number of exceptions. In the Urals, especially in the first half of the 18th century, the number of churches was small, which is why actual marriages arose before their church consecration. Church ceremonies were also expensive: the ascribed peasants complained in their order to the Legislative Commission in 1767 about the extortion of the local clergy, who demanded "from the wedding ... two and three rubles apiece." In addition, the wedding in the church according to the rites of official Orthodoxy was sharply condemned by the local schism, which was widespread in the region. New family was recognized by public opinion if the bride was “untwisted”, that is, one of the most important non-church wedding ceremonies was performed [FROM, p. 58-59]. In families where the young lived with their parents, all the power in the house belonged to the "highway" - the father. “Children, even adults, do not have a penny with their father, everything is at the will of the old man,” noted in the 50s of the XIX century. Head physician of the Nizhny Tagil plant Ilyinsky15. He also noted that the young sought to separate from the old as soon as possible. In the family, the power of the husband over his wife was complete. Divorce was practically impossible, and attempts by women who were unhappy in marriage to achieve a divorce were unsuccessful. A characteristic example of this is the fate of Varvara Shabunina, who was married in 1747 to the son of a dressmaker at the Nevyansk factory. To get away from unloved husband , from his family, she turned for help to her brother, her father - the hammer master of the Byngov factory, to the factory office, to the Nevyansk priest, burned her body with coals, "to be free from him (husband)." Finally, out of desperation, she shouted out “word and deed”, was arrested, for a false declaration of “word and deed” she was punished with a whip and given back - “to her husband’s house” 16. Children from an early age were taught to work, which was necessary for families. Already at the age of 5-6, the boys rode horses, drove horses to a watering place. For eight years they were "bornovoloks" - they controlled horses during plowing and harrowing. By the age of 14, they were proficient with an ax, a scythe, a sickle, threshed bread, and began to plow. Girls from the age of 6 spun yarn, grazed chickens, from the age of 10 they sewed clothes and harvested bread, housework, nursed their little brothers and sisters during the suffering, from the age of 14 they wove for crosses. If there were no boys in the family, then from the age of 14 the girls were “boron-volokers”. In factory settlements, boys aged 11-12 were sent to mine ores, and then they were expected to work in the “mountain” or at the factory. Recreation and entertainment for young people were evenings, supryadki, cabbages. Evenings were usually held in winter, from Christmas to Shrovetide. The girls gathered in the house, brought yarn, sewing, embroideries with them, later the guys came to the house, songs, games began, a simple treat was arranged. A great influence on the life of the mining population of the Urals in the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries. rendered by the Old Believers. By the beginning of the XIX century. the number of adherents of the "old faith" in the region reached 150 thousand people. The largest centers of the local split were the villages of the assigned peasants of the Trans-Urals, who inherited the traditions of the Ural-Siberian split of the 17th century, cells on the Merry Mountains (not far from the Chernoistochinsky plant), closely connected with the Nevyansk, Nizhny Tagil and other plants of this region, Shartashskaya Sloboda near Yekaterinburg with numerous merchants, Old Believer sketes along the river. Kolva, Vishera, upper reaches of the Kama. Various sects of the Old Believers coexisted in the Urals. The most common consent of the split in the Urals was the Begloiop movement of the “Sofontievites”, closely associated with the Volga centers of the Old Believers. In addition, in the Urals there were also supporters of bespopov's consents (Pomortsy, Fedoseyevtsy, wanderers). During the XVIII century. there was a certain convergence of these currents, as a result of which, by the beginning of the 19th century. a “chapel agreement” arose, which became the main course of the Ural split. The Old Believers contributed to the preservation of elements of the old Russian culture of the 16th-17th centuries in the everyday life of the population. The Old Believers were closely connected with popular ideas about the "true church", about the peasant ideal of justice. The schism justified disobedience to the authorities of the “antichrist kingdom” Russian Empire XVIII - first half of the XIX century. It was intertwined with the anti-feudal protest of the ascribed peasants, artisans and working people of the Urals. To combat the spread of the split in the region, “investigations” of the Old Believers were repeatedly organized, in the 30-50s of the 18th century. and especially in the 30s and 40s XIX years in. special institutions were formed (missions, secret advisory committees). At the same time, it should be noted that the Old Believers of the Urals have never been socially united. Most of the Old Believer communities consisted of peasants, craftsmen and workers. But among the Old Believers there were also factory clerks, the administrative apparatus of private factories. Rich Shartash merchants of Yekaterinburg at the beginning of the 19th century. took steps to create an independent church organization of the Ural schism, independent of the official church and common faith, but these projects were not implemented due to changes in the internal policy of Nicholas I, who launched an offensive against the Old Believers in the country, and also because of the opposition to these projects from the rank and file members of the Old Believer communities - peasants, workers of mining factories. The contradictions between the commercial and industrial elite of the Ural split and the working Old Believers were revealed especially clearly during the unrest at the Revda plant in 1800, 1824-1826, 1841. and in 1822-1823. at the Kyshtym plant. During the XVIII - the first half of the XIX century. the development of a large-scale mining industry had a strong impact on the culture of the inhabitants of the Urals. The system of education, features of architecture, science and technology, the life of the inhabitants of the region took shape under the influence of mining in the Urals. At the same time, it should be noted that the remaining feudal-serf relations in the conditions of the first half of the 19th century. became a brake that hindered the further development of culture, restricting access to knowledge and creativity for wide sections of the working people.

The peoples of the Urals and their traditions The Urals is a multinational region. In addition to the main indigenous peoples (Komi, Udmurts, Nenets, Bashkirs, Tatars), it is also inhabited by Russians, Chuvashs, Ukrainians, Mordovians. And this is still an incomplete list. Of course, I will begin my research with a certain common culture of the peoples of the Urals, without subdividing it into national fragments. For the inhabitants of Europe, this region in the old days was inaccessible. The sea route to the Urals could only run along the northern, extremely harsh and dangerous seas. Yes, and by land it was not easy to get there - dense forests and the fragmentation of the territories of the Urals between different peoples, which often were not in very good neighborly relations, prevented it. Therefore, the cultural traditions of the Ural population developed for quite a long time in an atmosphere of originality. Imagine: until the Urals became part of the Russian state, most of the local peoples did not have their own written language. But later, with the interweaving of national languages ​​with Russian, many representatives of the indigenous population turned into polyglots who know two or three languages. Oral traditions of the peoples of the Urals, passed down from generation to generation, are full of flowery and mysterious stories. They are mainly associated with the cult of mountains and caves. After all, the Urals are, first of all, mountains. And the mountains are not ordinary, but representing - alas, in the past! - a treasury of various minerals and gems. As a Ural miner once said: There is everything in the Urals, and if something is missing, it means that they haven’t dug in yet. Among the peoples of the Urals, there was a belief that required special care and respect in relation to these innumerable treasures. People believed that caves and underground storerooms guard magical powers who can bestow, and can destroy. Ural gems Peter the Great, having founded the cutting and stone-cutting industry in the Urals, laid the foundation for an unprecedented boom in the Ural minerals. Architectural structures decorated with natural stone, decorations in the best traditions of jewelry art have won not only Russian, but also international fame and love. However, one should not think that the crafts of the Urals gained fame only thanks to such a rare luck with natural resources. The peoples of the Urals and their traditions are, first of all, a story about great craftsmanship and imagination. craftsmen. This region is famous for the tradition of wood and bone carving. Wooden roofs look interesting, laid without the use of nails and decorated with carved “horses” and “hens”. And the Komi people also installed such wooden sculptures of birds on separate poles near the house. I used to read and write about the Scythian "animal style". It turns out that there is such a thing as “Permian animal style”. It is convincingly demonstrated by ancient bronze figurines of mythical winged creatures found by archaeologists in the Urals. But it is especially interesting for me to tell you about such a traditional Ural craft as Kasli casting. And do you know why? Because not only did I already know about this tradition before, I even have my own craft specimens! Kasli craftsmen cast amazingly elegant creations from such a seemingly ungrateful material as cast iron. They made not only candelabra and figurines, but even Jewelry, which were previously made only from precious metals. The following fact testifies to the authority of these products on the world market: in Paris, a cast-iron Kasli cigarette case had the same price as a silver one of equal weight. I cannot help mentioning the well-known cultural figures of the Urals: Pavel Bazhov. I don’t know if Bazhov’s fairy tales are read to children today, but my generation in childhood trembled from these fascinating, breathtaking tales that seemed to shimmer with all the colors of the Ural gems. Vladimir Ivanovich Dal. He is a native of Orenburg, and I think there is no need to explain anything about his contribution to Russian literature, literature, history, traditions of the Urals. But about the next surname, I would like more details. The Stroganovs are a family of Russian merchants and industrialists, and from the 18th century, barons and counts of the Russian Empire. Back in the 16th century, Tsar Ivan the Terrible granted Grigory Stroganov vast land holdings in the Urals. Since then, several generations of this kind have developed not only the industry of the region, but also its cultural traditions. Many Stroganovs were interested in literature and art, collected priceless collections of paintings and libraries. And even - attention! - in the culinary tradition, the surname left its noticeable mark. For the well-known dish "beef stroganoff" is the invention of Count Alexander Grigoryevich Stroganov. Various traditions of the peoples of the Southern Urals The Ural Mountains are located almost along the meridian for many hundreds of kilometers. Therefore, this region in the north goes to the shores of the Arctic Ocean, and in the south it borders on the semi-desert territories of Kazakhstan. And is it not natural that northern Ural and the southern Urals can be considered as two very different areas. Not only geography is different, but also the way of life of the population. Therefore, saying “the peoples of the Urals and their traditions”, I will nevertheless single out the most numerous people southern Urals. It will be about the Bashkirs. In the first part of the post, I somehow became more interested in describing the traditions of an applied nature. But now I want to focus on the spiritual component, it seemed to me that some traditions of the people of Bashkortostan are especially relevant in our time. Here at least such: Hospitality. Elevated among the Bashkirs to the rank of a national cult. The guest, whether invited or unexpected, is always met with extraordinary cordiality, the best treats are put on the table, and the following tradition is observed when parting: giving a small gift. For the guest, there was only one essential rule of propriety: staying no more than three days :). Love for children, the desire to have a family is also a strong tradition of the Bashkir people. Honoring the elders. Grandparents are considered the main members of the Bashkir family. Each representative of this nation must know the names of relatives of seven generations! What I was especially happy to learn was the origin of the word "sabantuy". Isn't it a common word? And somewhat frivolous, I thought it was slang. But it turned out - this is the name of the traditional national holiday about the end of spring field work. The Tatars also celebrate it, but the first written mention of Sabantuy was recorded by the Russian traveler I.I. Lepekhin precisely among the Bashkir people. Holiday Bashkir Sabantuy Surprisingly, the Bashkir holiday has become truly international. It is celebrated everywhere where there are Tatar and Bashkir diasporas: in the Volga region, Siberia, Ukraine, Poland, Canada and even in Finland! And it must be a happy holiday. In its traditions, there is a plentiful feast (moreover, alcohol is prohibited among Muslim peoples), and all sorts of humorous and sports competitions. By the way, the young man who decided to get married will also have to endure the competition. The beloved girl can only become his wife if he overtakes her in a horse race! These are just some of the features of the national traditions of the peoples of the Urals. But they were also able to show that each people is original. There are no uninteresting cultural studies, only a reluctance to do them.

Federal State Educational Institution

higher professional education

"Ural State University of Physical Culture"

Department of Tourism

Control work on the discipline:

Historical and cultural heritage

Topic: "Culture of life of Russians in the Urals"

Completed:

Student (ka) of the correspondence department

group Poteryaeva.O.S.

Checked by: Dobrovskaya.M.G

Chelyabinsk 2014

Introduction

1.1 Living conditions

1.2 Clothing

1.3 Labor training

2.1 Life and religion

2.2 Culture

Chapter III. Life and leisure of the townspeople of the South Urals of the XX century.

3.1 Housing conditions

3.2 Life in the modern Urals

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

FROM long time ago peoples settled on the Ural land, different in language and level of cultural and everyday development. Some of them had long-term ties with near and far peoples.

In our time, the history, culture and life of the peoples of the Urals attracts more and more attention, since many people want to know about the origin of their people, about the significance of their material and spiritual values ​​for the region, fatherland, and the world.

You can get an idea of ​​folk culture if you turn to the descriptions of contemporaries at different stages of the life of peoples, documents that capture knowledge and understanding of the surrounding reality, if you visit museums that contain material and pictorial monuments cultural activities of people.

The purpose of this work is to reveal the theme of the culture of life among Russians in the Urals

1. Consider the formation of the life of the Urals in the XIX century

2. Describe the life of the Urals in modern times

3. Summing up the culture of Russian life in the Urals

Object of work: Life in the Urals

Chapter I. The Urals in the first half of the 19th century

The history of the Urals is rooted in hoary antiquity. Its first inhabitants about 300 thousand years ago left their mark on the stone tablets of the harsh land. The most ancient cave art, close in its plots to Western European sanctuaries, has gained world fame, which suggests the commonality of cultural processes from the Atlantic to the Urals in the Paleolithic era.

Starting from the II millennium BC. The Urals is becoming one of the leading centers of metallurgical production in North Asia. Along the waterways of its southern taiga zone, there was a prestigious trade in bronze products from Baikal to the Crete-Mycenaean world. The formation of the proto-urban civilization of the ancient Indo-Aryans in the South of the Urals was associated with the development of metallurgy.

Historians of antiquity wrote about the Riphean (Ural) Juras, along which the border of two worlds ran: the civilized European and the distant, mysterious Asian. Here, on the border of two continents, the destinies of different world civilizations crossed, which left an indelible imprint on the history and culture of our region, which is necessary to know as a great politician or scientist, as well as a school teacher and his students.

1.1 Living conditions

In the first half of the XIX century. the appearance of the Ural settlements is noticeably changing. Not only in cities and industrial towns, but also in many large villages and villages, the breakdown into streets and quarters began to prevail. New houses were built in accordance with the plan, on plots allocated by the local authorities. The displacement of archaic forms of building - disorderly (free) and ordinary (along rivers and roads) - occurred faster in the most economically developed regions. Houses were still built as part of estates with outbuildings and garden plots. In the southern counties, the estates had open courtyards, in the northern and central counties, for the most part, with covered ones. The ratio as a whole changed in the direction of increasing the share of open yards.

There was a further displacement of black huts by white ones. In Cherdynsky district, even by the 80s. For centuries, chicken huts accounted for 15% of the total housing stock. A vivid description of the chicken hut was given by V. G. Korolenko, who found himself in exile in the village. Berezovsky Pochinki in one of the northernmost districts of the Vyatka province. All local peasants lived in such huts. “Do you know what a chicken hut means? - writes Korolenko. - This is a hut without a pipe; smoke, as soon as it is flooded, “puffs” right into the hut and fills it from ceiling to floor. In order to be able to breathe, they open the portage window, but this is not enough. The door still opens, and then the frosty air knocks out the smoke to the level of the head, and he stands at the top in a sharply limited veil. If you rise to your full height, your head is in smoke. Thus, a kind of balance is established: the head is hot, but the legs get cold from a 30-40-degree frost. This goes on for about 3/4 hours, after which the doors close...”. By the middle of the XIX century. black huts were preserved mainly in remote places, mainly in the northwest. They were rare in other areas.

Changes in the interior of the dwelling were not too noticeable. In the hut, almost a quarter of the living space was traditionally occupied by a huge Russian stove, made of adobe or brick, towering in the corner, to the right or left of the entrance. The furniture has become more diverse. Even in peasant houses, chairs, stools, wardrobes, and beds were now familiar. Many rural and urban residents specialized in the manufacture of furniture. Special Development furniture manufacturing receives in the Vyatka province.

The noted new features in the interior and construction of the dwelling were also observed among those Ural peoples (or separate groups of these peoples) whose material life had many similarities with the life of Russians. True, they appeared with less intensity and some delay. At the same time, Russian house-building equipment continued to spread among the Mansi, Khanty, Mari, Udmurts, Tatars and Bashkirs. The well-known folklorist N. E. Onchukov, who visited the Mansi living on Vishera, spoke of their dwelling like this: “An ordinary hut, with icons, a table in the front corner, with benches on the walls and all other completely Russian peasant furnishings.”

Among the Maris of the Middle Urals, as a rule, only two details were preserved from the old ones in their houses: a window in the “kitchen” (in the kutny sector) in the wall under the ceiling and a cauldron “smeared” near the mouth of the stove. Those of the Mari and Udmurts who lived on the lands of the Bashkirs experienced a strong influence of the latter in everyday life. They borrowed much from the interior of the Bashkir dwelling. A significant part of the dwelling was occupied by bunks, which were made at a height of 10-11 inches from the floor along the entire length of the room. Nars were an obligatory and universal property of the dwellings of the Turkic peoples. They rested, worked, kept chests with bedding.

At the same time, in the houses of the wealthy Bashkirs and Tatars who lived in the Middle Urals, the Russian version of the internal layout became predominant: there appeared, as in Russian huts, floors above the entrance, traps for entering the cage, benches and shelves along the walls. They also had beds, chairs, tables, wardrobes. Nars lasted longer in remote villages and families of the poor.

Russian house-building equipment continued to spread among the indigenous peoples of the Urals.

1.2 Clothing

The clothes of the peoples of the Urals preserved their ethnic identity to a greater extent than the dwelling. From the Russians, trousers with a wide step, kosovorotka shirts, fur coats with a detachable waist, and dark caftans without trim came into use for Mari men. The process of rapprochement with the Russian costume of Komi men, Khanty, Mansi, Udmurts continued. In general, men's clothing included more borrowings than women's, and the process of borrowing retained a multilateral character. At the same time, the transition to the predominant wearing of “foreign” clothes was characteristic only for assimilated groups of the population - for the Russified Khanty and Mansi, the obshkirirovannye Udmurts and Mari. The clothes of the Bashkirs and Tatars remained less subject to change than others; there was still no interchange of clothing among these peoples with the Russians.

The Russian population in clothes, for the most part, also turned out to be true to tradition. Among peasant women, a set with a sundress prevailed. With the unconditional dominance of the sarafan complex in the everyday life of the factory female population, a considerable part of it begins to give preference to new forms of clothing: a couple (a skirt with a jacket) and a dress, from outerwear - a coat, from headdresses - a cap, shawl, scarf; from shoes - shoes. The wives and daughters of factory servants, as well as the city elite, looked, according to eyewitnesses, "real ladies." Their husbands wore frock coats, waistcoats, shirt-fronts, overcoats and other "general European clothes". Male workers wore cloth caftans, red "Alexandrian" shirts, boots with pleats and morocco trim. Instead of peasant felted caps on their heads, they had round hats and caps.

1.3 Labor training

Children were taught to work from an early age. Already at the age of 5-6, the boys rode horses, driving horses to a watering place, at 8 they controlled horses during plowing and harrowing. By the age of 14, they already had a good command of an ax, a scythe, a sickle, threshed bread, and could plow. Girls from the age of 6 spun yarn, grazed chickens, from the age of 10 they sewed clothes and harvested bread, housework and nursed their children. younger brothers and sisters.

In factory settlements, boys aged 10-12 were sent to disassemble ores, and then they were expected to work at the plant.

Chapter II. Ural in the second half of the 19th century

In the second half of the century, the population of the Urals increased by 1.5 times. The Vyatka and Perm provinces accounted for about 2/3 of the total population. The fastest growth was observed in the Ufa and Orenburg provinces. This was caused by the development of new lands, the influx of people from the center, Ukraine, the Urals and the northern districts of the Urals. As before, the Urals were poorly populated: there were 14 people per 1 square verst, in European Russia 22 people. The northern and northeastern counties were less populated.

Peasants were the most numerous group of the population. Its growth occurred mainly due to migration from other regions and the transfer of the Bashkir population from the military to the rural class. The most important feature of the Urals was the predominance of state peasants, who accounted for about 75% of all peasants. With the abolition of serfdom, legal differences between state, landowner and appanage peasants were gradually eliminated. However, economic differences were not overcome until 1917. Personal emancipation and ownership of land turned the peasants into small producers, who, with the development of capitalism, became the rural bourgeoisie or proletariat.

Statistical data show a significant differentiation of the peasantry of the Urals to late XIX c.: poor households accounted for 52%; middle peasants - 30%; wealthy - 18%.

2.1 Life and religion

The development of the economy led to serious changes in living conditions. Factory workers mostly lived in their own houses - in one- and two-frame huts. With the expansion of factories, the housing problem worsened. "Alien" workers rented "corners" from the locals. The barracks built by the administration spread widely. Often they did not meet elementary hygiene standards. In the mines and mines they lived in barracks and dugouts, cramped, dirty, cold.

With the development of industry, the life of workers was more and more subject to the factory, production rhythm. The life of the peasants, as before, was determined by the natural cycle of agricultural work and the traditional way of life.

The rural population of the Urals was formed mainly on the basis of immigrants from northern Russia, the factory population - from central Russia. This also caused differences in everyday life, heterogeneity of dialects, etc. In the second half of the century, serious differences in the worldview of "village" and "factory" people were added to them. The culture of the former was more patriarchal, in their opinion, “only robbers” live in the factories, there is nothing good there, only “soot and smoke”. The workers treated the village "sacks" with the greatest contempt. For them, for example, this type of entertainment, like round dances, was unacceptable - "peasant business." Peasant labor seemed to them easier and less important, and their labor, the workers, was of great social importance.

At the same time, traditions that united peasants and workers were preserved. This is, first of all, the connection of the latter with the earth. Some of them after 1861 passed "to the peasantry", having established in the countryside the handicraft production of agricultural implements. The peasants, in turn, "departed" to the factories to earn money. Mutual influence affected and did not completely disappear in the type of dwelling, its decorations. The spiritual world of the Russian peasants and workers of the Urals remained predominantly patriarchal until the end of the century.

Most of the population of the Urals professed Orthodoxy. There were 6 dioceses here: Vyatka, Tobolsk, Orenburg and Ural (meaning the region of the Ural Cossack army), Ufa and Menzelinsky, Perm and Solikamsk, Yekaterinburg and Irbit. Dioceses were divided into deanery districts, parishes were subordinate to them. The center of the parish was a village with a church.

The tasks of the church were very diverse: performing ideological, spiritual, moral, educational functions, registering the birth and death of parishioners, consecrating wedding ceremonies, building new churches, training clergy, organizing charitable assistance, managing parochial schools, missionary activities, fighting against split. By the end of the century, the increasing attention of the church was attracted by the growth of drunkenness and godlessness of the population.

Temple construction was quite active. Thus, in Yekaterinburg, Ufa and Shadrinsk, out of 87 Orthodox churches and chapels that were in operation by the end of the century, 30 were built in the second half of the century, as a rule, on private, primarily merchant donations. Many of them, especially in the countryside, were not rich, cut from wood, with simple iconostases.

Religious persecution against the Old Believers did not bring the desired results. By the end of the century, there were more than 312 prayer houses in the Urals.

In the 80s. the activities of the Orthodox clergy to expand the network of parochial schools increased significantly. The positions of diocesan and district observers for their activities were established.

The forms of charitable activity were diverse: parish guardianships, almshouses, shelters, doss houses, free hospitals and schools.

In history Orthodox Church Ural also has dramatic pages. In 1850, an employee of the Baranchinsk plant, N. S. Ilyin, founded the secret “Desnoye Brotherhood” (i.e., the “Brotherhood of the Right,” or “True Faithful”) and began preaching universal equality, the unity of the peoples of the world, portraying modern society as the kingdom of Satan. Speech against the church was recognized as "harmful in public relations." Society was forbidden by the authorities, Ilyin was exiled. His followers, subjected to persecution, adopted the name Jehovah's Witnesses.

In the midst of the famine of 1892, the authorities of the Vyatka province fabricated a “sacrifice case”: 11 Orthodox Udmurt peasants from the village of Stary Multan were accused of killing a Russian beggar in order to take his blood to sacrifice to pagan gods. The prosecutor knew that the government was interested in fomenting hostility between Russian and Udmurt peasants. The court sentenced seven Udmurts to hard labor.

Thanks to the intervention of V. G. Korolenko, the case received wide publicity. The writer achieved a retrial and acted as a defender of the Udmurts at the trial. Official newspapers accused him of tendentiousness, of idealizing "votyaks". The process ended in 1896 with an acquittal. However, in the person of the "learned" priest N. N. Blinov, the official church came to the defense of the inquisitorial methods of accusation. Korolenko again appeared in the press, exposing the fanatics in cassocks, who helped the fanatics in uniforms. The "Multan affair" lowered the authority of the church.

The religious life of Muslims was directed by the Orenburg Mohammedan Spiritual Assembly with its seat in Ufa. It was headed by the mufti. Built in 1830, the First Cathedral Mosque of Ufa occupied a dominant position among the mosques of Russia throughout the century. There were more than 4,250 Muslim parishes, of which 2,603 ​​were mosques. The vast majority of them - 86% - were in the Ufa and Orenburg provinces. The training of mullahs, and at the end of the century, of teachers, was carried out in the Usma-niya madrasah in Ufa.

In connection with the expansion of the national and religious composition of the population of the Ural cities, Catholic churches, Protestant churches, and synagogues arose in them.

2.2 Culture

Reforms were carried out in the field of public education. The number of primary schools in the Urals by the end of the XIX century. increased by 4 times, teacher training improved. However, almost 65% of school-age children did not attend school. Gymnasiums and real schools were opened in large cities, providing secondary education. The network of professional educational institutions expanded: there were mining schools in Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Tagil, Turinsk, technical schools in Perm, Kungur, Krasnoufimsk, land surveying in Ufa, craft and veterinary paramedical schools in Tobolsk.

The general literacy of the population has increased markedly. The number of libraries and reading rooms has increased significantly. Zemstvos have done a great deal of work in their organization. Museums appeared - local history in Yekaterinburg and Ufa, scientific and industrial in Perm, historical and ethnographic in Tobolsk. Casting, mineralogical and soil collections were exhibited in the Kyshtym Museum. There was not a single higher educational institution or any state scientific institution in the Urals. Therefore, the study of the productive forces of the region was unsystematic. Under these conditions, in 1870, on the initiative of the well-known scientists of that time N. K. Chupin, O. E. Kler, A. A. Mislavsky and others, the Ural Society of Natural Science Lovers (UOLE) arose. It organized a comprehensive study of the natural resources of the region and the promotion of scientific knowledge. Prominent Russian and foreign scientists K. A. Timiryazev, D. I. Mendeleev, N. M. Przhevalsky, F. Nansen (Norway) and others became its honorary members. Other scientific societies and organizations were created: the Ural Medical Society in Yekaterinburg , the Orenburg Physico-Medical Society, the Ufa Provincial Museum, etc. Scientists and practitioners grouped around these organizations contributed to the study of the Urals, some of them acquired Russian and world fame. Let us name some of them: mathematician I. M. Pervushin (he served as a village priest), electrical engineer N. G. Slavyanov, climatologist F. N. Panaev, geologists A. P. Karpinsky, F. N. Chernyshev, historians A. A. Dmitriev , N. K. Chupin, V. N. Shishonko and others.

Literature

In the context of the social upsurge of the 60s. in the Urals, a kind of literature of a pronounced democratic orientation arose. Very significant was the talent of F. M. Reshetnikov, nicknamed in criticism "the Columbus of the people" - "a real living peasant." A strong impression was made by him "Podlipovtsy" - a story about the morals and the life full of disasters of the workers of the Ural wilderness. Among the first he began to write about workers. His novels “Glumovs”, “Miners”, “Where is it better”, in the words of I. S. Turgenev, told the “sober truth” about the people, about awakening in them a sense of dignity and protest.

D. N. Mamin-Sibiryak depicted the life and customs of people in the Urals. His novels "Privalovsky Millions", "Mountain Nest", "Gold" and others, as well as essays and short stories, have become an important part of Russian literature. He gained the widest popularity as a writer for children - many publications (the first in 1897) withstood his Alyonushka Tales.

Theatre

In the second half of the century, theaters arose in all major cities of the region. Performances in them were played by touring troupes.

The 1870s became an important milestone in the development of theatrical art in the Urals. In 1870, M. I. Glinka’s opera A Life for the Tsar (Ivan Susanin) was staged in Perm by the troupe of A. D. Cheruvimov. In 1879, the opera was staged in Yekaterinburg by the troupe of P. M. Medvedev. This began the independent life of the Perm and Yekaterinburg Opera Houses. Since the mid-1970s, P. M. Medvedev has directed productions and dramatic performances. The repertoire of his troupe included plays by A. N. Ostrovsky, A. F. Pisemsky and others.

In the 70s. factory amateur theatres.

Fine Arts and Crafts

Development visual arts associated with the activities of professional artists. The most talented of them were A. I. Korzukhin, P. P. Vereshchagin, V. P. Khudoyarov, A. K. Denisov-Uralsky and others. Not all of them permanently lived in the Urals, but they always kept in touch with it.

At the end of 1880, at the Uole Museum in Yekaterinburg, a art department, which became the basis of the art gallery. Of great importance in the artistic life of the Urals was the Society of Fine Arts Lovers, founded in 1897. It set as its task the development of "love and interest in the fine arts", and the promotion of artistic crafts. The society had departments: literary, performing arts, music, painting, sculpture and architecture, art industry, photography, handicraft industry. The society organized exhibitions, gained fame in Russia and abroad.

A deep mark in the history of Russian and world culture was left by the Ural masters of arts and crafts. Products of Ekaterinburg cutters, Kasli iron casting, Zlatoust engraving on metal, Orenburg downy shawls in their best samples have no equal in the world.

Architecture

The second half of the century was a time of significant innovations in architecture. In industrial construction, engineering rationalism occupied a dominant place. A type of master plan for a metallurgical plant was formed, the main features of which have been preserved to this day. The development of civil architecture followed more complex paths.

The construction of administrative buildings of the Mining Department was noticeably reduced. New types of public buildings appeared - railway stations, stock exchanges, banks, the construction of trade establishments grew especially rapidly. They, first of all, showed a departure from classicism and the search for a new rational style, due to the emergence of new building materials and structures. The search led to eclecticism - a combination and mixture of different styles from different eras. This "style" did not have much future. Nevertheless, outstanding buildings remained from him - the houses of Sevastyanov and Davydov in Yekaterinburg, the house of Mashkov in Perm, the house of the merchant Kornilov in Tobolsk, the building of the city government in Ufa, etc.

At the same time, construction expanded using the external forms of ancient Russian architecture. These are the buildings of the old railway stations in Perm and Yekaterinburg, the Zheleznov estate in Yekaterinburg (now the Institute of History and Archeology of the Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences) and others. On the turn of XIX-XX centuries the style of the "new century" begins to take shape, rational and modern - modern.

By the end of the century, the appearance of the Ural cities had changed. Their planning schemes began to define shopping areas and centers. Inside them were also city and zemstvo councils, banks, offices, tenement houses. They had a catchy individual appearance. The outskirts of the cities were undeveloped. Their buildings were dominated by barracks, barracks, small private houses.

Chapter III. Life and leisure of the townspeople of the Southern Urals at the beginning of the 20th century.

Political and economic development of the South Ural city at the beginning of the 20th century. led to serious shifts in the social structure of the population. The proportion of groups most susceptible to new demands and trends of life has increased. They were the most active part of the population, their life attitudes became a certain standard for the rest of the townspeople. These processes reflected the transition to a modern, dynamic, open society combining elements of the traditional and the new.

Changes in value attitudes, ideological and aesthetic views were reflected in Everyday life people in the household. The concept of everyday life is associated with the satisfaction of the material and spiritual needs of people, with those things that surround a person every day. This material-spatial environment of the city consists of two intersecting spheres that are in interaction: personal space and public space. It is formed under the influence of the activities of citizens and acquires the ability, in turn, to influence people's lives. The sphere of personal space is represented by a household, including at the beginning of the twentieth century. - home, various services, land plot, interior decoration of the house, external design person. The sphere of public space consisted of buildings and structures for various purposes, a system of technical and transport communications, monuments, gardens and boulevards.

3.1 Housing conditions

The growth and development of the South Ural cities at the beginning of the 20th century, the changing needs of the townspeople required not only a qualitative improvement in the sphere of existence, but also its spatial expansion. During the period under study, the construction of cities with private houses was carried out spontaneously and planned ways. On the outskirts of the city, the poorest population, mostly migrants, arbitrarily seizing land, built small huts or dugouts. This unregulated and irregular development violated sanitary standards, fire safety standards, and deprived the city treasury of income. Self-government bodies tried to fight this phenomenon. At the same time, the councils made decisions on cutting new quarters, taking into account rational planning.

Citizens could rent or buy construction sites from the city. The public administration bodies of large cities preferred leasing relations, since urban land was constantly rising in price, small ones - sale, which made it possible to ensure the inflow of significant funds to the treasury. Leasing out took place in accordance with the conditions adopted by the City Council, where the lease term was stipulated, usually 10-12 years, the right to renew the lease, and the price of the place was set. The plots were handed over at auction to persons who offered the highest lump-sum contribution, which was a special fund intended for the improvement of the quarter. The rent was set depending on the location of the site. In the South Ural cities at the beginning of the twentieth century. there was a selection of prestigious areas - the central streets with developed infrastructure and cozy comfortable outskirts, remote from the bustle.

The construction of buildings on the leased plot was carried out by the townspeople themselves in accordance with the Construction Charter and with the permission of the council. For the construction of private houses, wood, a hygienic and warm material, and stone, prestigious and practical, were used. Along with wooden and stone houses, semi-stone houses were built, on a high stone foundation, or with a first stone floor. Gradually, brick became widespread in the cities of the Southern Urals as a material for construction. Analysis of source materials showed that during the study period in all cities of the region there was an increase in the number of private buildings, and the growth rate of stone buildings significantly exceeded that of mixed and wooden houses, with the exception of only Ufa and Zlatoust. An increase in the share of stone buildings in the total number of residential buildings indicates an increase in the financial solvency of homeowners and a change in attitude to the house: it should be expensive, prestigious and durable.

However, for the most part, the South Ural city remained wooden, the appearance of the city outskirts differed little from rural settlements. The type of continuous building of streets with multi-storey buildings has become widespread only in the central part of large cities. The main part of the city was built up with private household complexes, including a house, an adjacent covered courtyard, a bathhouse where its construction was allowed, a vegetable garden, and a garden. The stability of the existence of covered courtyards was due to the severity of the Ural winter with heavy snowfalls. The yard was a closed rectangle, one of the sides of which was the side of a residential building, and other outbuildings were located on the other: a barn, a barn, a stable, a hayloft, a cellar. Their number and quality varied depending on the wealth and professional occupation of the owner.

During the period under study, qualitative changes take place in the layout of the dwelling, and not only stone buildings, but also much more conservative log buildings are subjected to this process. The evolution of the latter followed the path of complicating and increasing the size of the dwelling, by dividing the internal space into separate rooms with the removal of the stove to the middle, or by adding additional log cabins. In both cases, this made it possible to use the area more rationally. The removal of the stove to the middle of the hut made it possible to single out several rooms: a room, a bedroom, an entrance hall and a kitchen.

3.2 Life in the modern Urals

Under the influence of scientific and technological achievements and education in the cities of the Southern Urals, rational ideas about a person and his appearance have spread. To capture these trends of the times allows advertising, which offers a product designed for consumption by the "new man of the twentieth century." She promotes the ideas of beauty, youth, health. Only a person with these qualities is able to succeed in life.

To maintain beauty, youth and health, hygiene products began to be widely advertised: soaps, fragrant waters, remedies for acne, acne, corns, smells, tooth powders, cosmetics for facial beauty. Special institutions have appeared that offer professional assistance in “beauty-making”: hairdressing salons with the latest improvements, hairstyles that change simultaneously with the fashion of the capital, hair coloring, hydropathics with phototherapy and electro-massage departments, equipped with last word science. For home sports, simulators began to be offered - “machine-bicycles”. Topics that have always been considered intimate began to be openly discussed in the local press: venereal diseases, sexual disorders, pregnancy, and so on.

Particularly receptive to the socio-cultural transformations of the early twentieth century. turned out to be urban clothes. It reflected the tendencies of democratization, social activity, openness of the modernizing society, the development of science, engineering and technology. As a result of this, simple, comfortable, hygienic, democratic, mass-produced clothing for everyday activities, walks, travel, and sports appeared. At the beginning of the twentieth century. a modern urban costume appeared, "becoming the first universal clothing, which consisted of a skirt and blouse for women, a jacket and trousers for men." It could be found in the wardrobe of both wealthy and low-income citizens.

The population of the South Ural cities learned about fashionable novelties, styles and forms of modern clothing from fashion magazines, applications with patterns, an assortment of fashion and haberdashery stores by P. I. Kislinsky, A. O. Lesk, N. F. Sutorikhin and many others.

The stores sold ready-made clothes of factory production: women's, men's, children's dresses in the latest European fashion, hats, furs, shoes, underwear, decadent-style trimmings, appliqués. Wealthy citizens were offered "rare" foreign fabrics and tailoring to order.

Thanks to the massization of production, the low-income strata of the urban population were able to imitate the clothes of the elite. The cut, details, color of their outfits reflected the interaction of new and traditional, urban and rural cultures. Keeping the shape of a modern urban costume, they used "diamond-shaped inserts on the sleeves, a variety of trimmings, bright colors characteristic of peasant clothing." The general availability of fashionable novelties, the imitation of the middle and poor sections of the townspeople of the appearance of the elite, social activity, the change in the role behavior of women became features of the urban society of the Southern Urals at the beginning of the 20th century.

The formation of a specific urban environment in the period under study was associated with the emergence of new forms of spending non-working time. The main requirements for leisure became usefulness, pleasantness, publicity and variety. The importance of leisure in the structure of the time of citizens reflects the emergence of the service industry, communication and entertainment.

Family leisure largely retained the traditional forms of holding. The most common way to spend free time was visiting. Receptions were held on family, calendar, temple, state holidays, on the arrival of important people, on the occasion of a successful deal, receiving a rank, an honorary title. They were guided by a certain circle of people, so they could appear without an invitation. For representatives of the local "high" society, these techniques expressed mutual respect and were an obligatory form of social activity. Playing cards, checkers, chess, lotto, dancing, singing, the gramophone were the components of formal receptions.

Leisure of the low-income strata of the townspeople in the early twentieth century. kept in touch with rural traditions. A large amount of economic work and the originality of neighborly and kinship relations contributed to the vitality of the "help". Help was common when building a house, during haymaking. Helps were popular in the spring when digging ridges and autumn "skits". “Their participants worked together, cheerfully, the hostess at that time was preparing a good dinner. After dinner, the Pomochans sang songs and danced.

Family readings have become new elements of home leisure. Many citizens in the early twentieth century. wrote out central newspapers and magazines, local publications that appeared in Ufa, Orenburg, Chelyabinsk, Troitsk. The variety of printed publications presented in the Southern Urals was able to satisfy the interests of various gender, age, national, confessional, and professional audiences. The need for up-to-date information and useful reading led to the appearance on the streets of cities of merchants and kiosks offering books and newspapers at retail. A lively interest in the events taking place in the city and outside it testified to the growth of the cultural level and self-awareness of the townspeople.

Technical innovations and the development of the market for leisure goods and services expanded the possibilities for useful family pastime. For wealthy citizens, croquet games, gymnastics, cycling, family trips, summer rest outside the city in summer cottages, picnics, hunting, fishing. The Southern Urals provided a wide range of resort and tourist routes: koumiss sanatoriums in the Ufa province, bitter-salty lakes in the Chelyabinsk district, the Zlatoust mountain ranges and much more.

At the beginning of the twentieth century. home forms of leisure activities were more and more actively supplanted by social forms. In the South Ural cities, church and state holidays retained their significance. Their arrangement was carried out by the bodies of city public administration. The celebration program usually included an official part (liturgy, memorial service, prayer service), which united all the townspeople, and an unofficial part (literary readings, musical evenings, festivities, receptions), aimed at certain social groups. Festive events solved the problem of moral education of the population.

Festivals, picnics on Sundays and holidays on city outskirts, in parks. The latter appeared in all urban settlements, but even in large centers, not all of them were sufficiently comfortable. So, Ushakovsky park in Ufa had no decorations and entertainment, "cows, goats, pigs roamed freely" around it.

A completely different impression was made by the park on the island of the Miass River in Chelyabinsk: “the shore is landscaped, the paths are sprinkled with sand, lined with bushes, a bowling alley, “gigantic steps” and other attractions are arranged. A lot of people, children, joy and revival.

Diversity in the public life of cities was brought about by fairs, at which roundabouts, swings, booths were started.

Conclusion

The Urals have crossed the threshold of the 21st century. It still remains one of the leading industrial, scientific, technical and cultural centers of the country. The economic and ethno-cultural unity of the region continues to be preserved. Together with the whole country, the Urals went through various stages in its development. In the vicissitudes of the formation of his artistic culture, as in a mirror, many collisions of national history and his own fate were reflected.

The events of the recent past are already becoming part of history. The development of the artistic culture of the Urals in the XX century. appears as a complex, sometimes contradictory process, not devoid of internal drama, but with its own logic. 20th century found the Urals in a "transitional state". The region faced a large-scale task - to find its place in the cultural space of Russia. Art culture was called upon to play an important role in this process, inevitably turning into one of the forms of regional self-consciousness.

End of XX century became a time of reassessment of values, revision of the meaning of many events and phenomena in the history of national culture. The guiding thread is the desire to restore the broken "connection of times". This, under new conditions, at a new stage, brings us back to resolving the issues that confronted the Urals at the beginning of the century. Gaining Perspective further development largely depends on how we can comprehend the experience of the past.

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