Literary trends and their representatives. Literary trends (theoretical material)

(Symbol - from the Greek. Symbolon - a conventional sign)

1. The central place is given to the symbol *
2. The striving for the highest ideal prevails
3. The poetic image is intended to express the essence of a phenomenon.
4. Characteristic reflection of the world in two plans: real and mystical
5. Elegance and musicality of the verse

The founder was D. S. Merezhkovsky, who in 1892 delivered a lecture “On the Causes of the Decline and New Trends in Modern Russian Literature” (article published in 1893). Symbolists are divided into senior ones ((V. Bryusov, K. Balmont, D. Merezhkovsky, 3. Gippius, F. Sologub debuted in the 1890s) and younger (A. Blok, A. Bely, Vyach. Ivanov and others debuted in the 1900s)

Acmeism

(From the Greek "acme" - a point, the highest point). The literary current of acmeism arose in the early 1910s and was genetically associated with symbolism. (N. Gumilyov, A. Akhmatova, S. Gorodetsky, O. Mandelstam, M. Zenkevich and V. Narbut.) M. Kuzmin's article "On Fine Clarity", published in 1910, had an influence on the formation. In the program article of 1913 "The Legacy of Acmeism and Symbolism" N. Gumilyov called symbolism " worthy father", but emphasized at the same time that the new generation had developed a "courageously firm and clear outlook on life"

1. Orientation towards classical poetry of the 19th century
2. Acceptance of the earthly world in its diversity, visible concreteness
3. Objectivity and clarity of images, sharpness of details
4. In rhythm, acmeists used dolnik (Dolnik is a violation of the traditional
regular alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables. The lines coincide in the number of stresses, but stressed and unstressed syllables are freely located in the line.), which brought the poem closer to live colloquial speech

Futurism

Futurism - from lat. futurum, the future. Genetically, literary futurism is closely connected with the avant-garde groups of artists of the 1910s - primarily with the groups Jack of Diamonds, Donkey's Tail, and the Union of Youth. In 1909, in Italy, the poet F. Marinetti published the article "Manifesto of Futurism." In 1912, the manifesto “Slapping the Face of Public Taste” was created by Russian futurists: V. Mayakovsky, A. Kruchenykh, V. Khlebnikov: “Pushkin is more incomprehensible than hieroglyphs.” Futurism began to disintegrate already in 1915-1916.

1. Rebelliousness, anarchic worldview
2. Rejection of cultural traditions
3. Experiments in the field of rhythm and rhyme, figured arrangement of stanzas and lines
4. Active word creation

Imagism

From lat. imago - image A literary trend in Russian poetry of the 20th century, whose representatives stated that the purpose of creativity was to create an image. Main means of expression Imagists - a metaphor, often metaphorical chains, comparing the various elements of two images - direct and figurative. Imagism arose in 1918, when the "Order of Imagists" was founded in Moscow. The creators of the "Order" were Anatoly Mariengof, Vadim Shershenevich and Sergei Yesenin, who was previously a member of the group of new peasant poets

Plan.

2. artistic method.

Literary trends and currents. literary schools.

4. Principles artistic image in literature.

The concept of the literary process. Periodization concepts literary process.

The literary process is the process of changing literature over time.

In Soviet literary criticism, the leading concept of literary development was the idea of ​​a change creative methods. The method was described as a way for the artist to reflect non-literary reality. The history of literature has been described as a gradual development of the realistic method. The main emphasis was placed on overcoming romanticism, on the formation of the highest form of realism - socialist realism.

A more consistent concept of the development of world literature was built by Academician N.F. Konrad, who also defended the progressive movement of literature. This movement was not based on a change literary methods, and the idea of ​​discovering a person as the highest value ( humanistic idea). In his work “West and East”, Conrad came to the conclusion that the concepts of “Middle Ages” and “Renaissance” are universal for all literatures. The period of antiquity is replaced by the Middle Ages, then the Renaissance, followed by the New Age. In each subsequent period, literature focuses more and more on the image of a person as such, more and more aware of the intrinsic value of the human person.

The concept of academician D.S. Likhachev is similar, according to which the literature of the Russian Middle Ages developed towards strengthening the personal principle. Large styles of the era (Romanesque, Gothick style) were to be gradually replaced by the author's individual styles (Pushkin's style).

The most objective concept of Academician S.S. Averintsev, it gives a wide coverage of literary life, including modernity. This concept is based on the notion of reflexivity and traditional culture. The scientist identifies three major periods in the history of literature:

1. Culture can be non-reflexive and traditional (the culture of antiquity, in Greece - before the 5th century BC). Non-reflexivity means that literary phenomena are not comprehended, there is no literary theory, the authors do not reflect (they do not analyze their work).

2. culture can be reflective, but traditional (from the 5th century BC to the new era). During this period, rhetoric, grammar, and poetics arise (reflection on language, style, creativity). Literature was traditional, there was a stable system of genres.

3. The last period, which is still going on. Reflection is preserved, tradition is broken. Writers reflect, but create new forms. The beginning was laid by the genre of the novel.

Changes in the history of literature can be progressive, evolutionary, regressive, involutionary.

artistic method

The artistic method is a way of mastering and displaying the world, a set of basic creative principles of figurative reflection of life. One can speak of the method as the structure of the writer's artistic thinking, which determines his approach to reality and its reconstruction in the light of a certain aesthetic ideal. The method is embodied in the content literary work. Through the method, we comprehend those creative principles, thanks to which the writer reproduces reality: selection, evaluation, typification (generalization), artistic embodiment of characters, phenomena of life in historical refraction. The method manifests itself in the structure of thoughts and feelings of the heroes of a literary work, in the motivations for their behavior, actions, in the correlation of characters and events, in accordance with the life path, the fate of the characters, and the socio-historical circumstances of the era.

The concept of "method" (from the Greek "path of research") denotes "the general principle of the artist's creative attitude to cognizable reality, that is, its re-creation." These are a kind of ways of knowing life, which have changed in different historical and literary eras. According to some scholars, the method lies at the basis of currents and directions, represents the way of aesthetic exploration of reality, which is inherent in the works of a certain direction. Method is an aesthetic and deeply meaningful category.

The problem of the method of depicting reality was first recognized in antiquity and was fully embodied in the work of Aristotle "Poetics" under the name of "theory of imitation". Imitation, according to Aristotle, is the basis of poetry and its goal is to recreate the world like the real one, or, more precisely, what it could be. The authority of this theory remained until the end of the 18th century, when the Romantics proposed a different approach (also having its roots in antiquity, more precisely in Hellenism) - the re-creation of reality in accordance with the will of the author, and not with the laws of the "universe". These two concepts, according to Soviet literary criticism of the mid-20th century, underlie two “types of creativity” - “realistic” and “romantic”, within which the “methods” of classicism, romanticism, different types of realism, modernism fit.

Concerning the problem of the relationship between method and direction, it must be taken into account that the method as a general principle of figurative reflection of life differs from the direction as a historically specific phenomenon. Consequently, if this or that direction is historically unique, then the same method, as a broad category of the literary process, can be repeated in the work of writers of different times and peoples, and therefore, different directions and trends.

Literary trends and currents. Literary schools

X.A. Polevoi was the first in Russian criticism to use the word "direction" to refer to certain stages in the development of literature. In his article “On Directions and Parties in Literature”, he called the direction “that inner striving of literature, often invisible to contemporaries, which gives character to all, or at least very many, works of literature in a certain given time... the foundation of it, in general sense, there is an idea of ​​the modern era. For " real criticism» - N.G. Chernyshevsky, N.A. Dobrolyubov - the direction was correlated with the ideological position of the writer or a group of writers. In general, the direction was understood as a variety of literary communities. But the main feature that unites them is that the direction fixes the unity of the most general principles for the embodiment of artistic content, the commonality of the deep foundations of the artistic worldview. There is no set list of literary trends, since the development of literature is associated with the specifics of the historical, cultural, social life of society, national and regional characteristics of a particular literature. However, traditionally there are such areas as classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, symbolism, each of which is characterized by its own set of formal and meaningful features.

Gradually, along with “direction”, the term “flow” comes into circulation, often used synonymously with “direction”. So, D.S. Merezhkovsky in an extensive article “On the Causes of the Decline and New Trends in Modern Russian Literature” (1893) writes that “between writers with different, sometimes opposite temperaments, special mental currents, a special air, are established, as between opposite poles, brimming with creativity." Often "direction" is recognized as a generic concept in relation to "flow".

The term "literary trend" usually denotes a group of writers, connected by a common ideological position and artistic principles, within the same direction or artistic movement. Thus, modernism is the common name for various groups in the art and literature of the 20th century, which distinguishes a departure from classical traditions, the search for new aesthetic principles, new approach to the image of being - includes such movements as impressionism, expressionism, surrealism, existentialism, acmeism, futurism, imagism, etc.

The belonging of artists to one direction or trend does not exclude deep differences their creative identities. In turn, in the individual work of writers, features of various literary trends and trends can manifest themselves.

A current is a smaller unit of the literary process, often within a direction, characterized by existence in a certain historical period and, as a rule, localization in certain literature. Quite often, the commonality of artistic principles in a current forms an “artistic system”. So, within the framework of French classicism, two currents are distinguished. One is based on the tradition of rationalistic philosophy of R. Descartes (“Cartesian rationalism”), which includes the work of P. Corneille, J. Racine, N. Boileau. Another trend, based mainly on the sensationalist philosophy of P. Gassendi, expressed itself in ideological principles such writers as J. La Fontaine, J. B. Molière. In addition, both currents differ in the system used artistic means. In romanticism, two main currents are often distinguished - "progressive" and "conservative", but there are other classifications.

Directions and currents should be distinguished from literary schools (and literary groupings). A literary school is a small association of writers based on unified artistic principles formulated theoretically - in articles, manifestos, scientific and journalistic statements, designed as "charters" and "rules". Often such an association of writers has a leader, the "head of the school" ("the Shchedrin school", the poets of the "Nekrasov school").

As a rule, writers who have created a number of literary phenomena with a high degree of commonality, up to a common theme, style, and language, are generally recognized as belonging to the same school.

Unlike the current, which is far from always formalized by manifestos, declarations and other documents that reflect its main principles, the school is almost necessarily characterized by such performances. It is important not only the presence of common artistic principles shared by the writers, but also their theoretical awareness of their belonging to the school.

Many associations of writers, called schools, are named after the place of their existence, although the similarity of the artistic principles of the writers of such associations may not be so obvious. For example, the "lake school", named after the place where it developed (the north-west of England, the Lake District), consisted of romantic poets, who did not agree with each other in everything.

The concept of "literary school" is predominantly historical, not typological. In addition to the criteria for the unity of time and place of existence of the school, the presence of manifestos, declarations and similar artistic practice, literary circles often represent literary groups, united by a "leader" who has followers who successively develop or copy him artistic principles. A group of English religious poets of the early 17th century formed the Spenser School.

It should be noted that the literary process is not limited to the coexistence and struggle of literary groups, schools, trends and trends. To view it in this way is to schematize literary life era, impoverish the history of literature. Directions, currents, schools are, in the words of V.M. Zhirmunsky, “not shelves or boxes”, “on which we“ lay out ”poets”. “If a poet, for example, is a representative of the era of romanticism, this does not mean that there cannot be realistic tendencies in his work.”

The literary process is a complex and diverse phenomenon, therefore one should be extremely careful when using such categories as “flow” and “direction”. In addition to them, scientists use other terms when studying the literary process, such as style.

Style is traditionally included in the Literary Theories section. The term "style" as applied to literature has a number of meanings: the style of the work; writer's style, or individual style(say, the style of poetry by N.A. Nekrasov); the style of the literary direction, current, method (for example, the style of symbolism); style as a set of stable elements art form determined common features worldview, content, national traditions inherent in literature and art in a certain historical era(style of Russian realism second half of XIX century).

In a narrow sense, style is understood as the manner of writing, the features of the poetic structure of the language (lexicon, phraseology, figurative and expressive means, syntactic constructions, etc.). In a broad sense, style is a concept used in many sciences: literary criticism, art criticism, linguistics, cultural studies, and aesthetics. They talk about work style, behavior style, thinking style, leadership style, etc.

Style-forming factors in literature are ideological content, form components that specifically express the content; this also includes the vision of the world, which is connected with the worldview of the writer, with his understanding of the essence of phenomena and man. Stylistic unity also includes the structure of the work (composition), analysis of conflicts, their development in the plot, the system of images and ways of revealing characters, the pathos of the work. Style, as a unifying and artistically organizing principle of the whole work, even absorbs the way landscape sketches. All this is style in the broadest sense of the word. In the originality of the method and style, the features of the literary direction and trend are expressed.

According to the peculiarities of stylistic expression, a literary hero is judged (attributes of his external appearance and form of behavior are taken into account), about the belonging of the building to a particular era in the development of architecture (Empire style, Gothic style, Art Nouveau style, etc.), about the specifics of the image of reality in the literature of a specific historical formation (in ancient Russian literature - the style of monumental medieval historicism, the epic style of the 11th-13th centuries, the expressive-emotional style of the 14th-15th centuries, the baroque style of the second half of the 17th century, etc.). No one today will be surprised by the expressions “game style”, “life style”, “leadership style”, “work style”, “building style”, “furniture style”, etc., and every time, along with a generalizing cultural meaning, a specific evaluative meaning is embedded in these stable formulas (for example, “I prefer this style of clothing” - unlike others, etc.).

Style in literature is a functionally applied set of means of expression arising from the knowledge of the general laws of reality, realized by the ratio of all elements of the poetics of a work in order to create a unique artistic impression.

literary trendsandcurrents

XVII-Х1Х CENTURY

Classicism - a direction in the literature of the 17th - early 19th centuries, guided by the aesthetic standards of ancient art. The main idea is the assertion of the priority of reason. Aesthetics is based on the principle of rationalism: a work of art must be reasonably constructed, logically verified, must capture the enduring, essential properties of things. The works of classicism are characterized by high civic themes, strict observance of certain creative norms and rules, reflection of life in ideal images gravitating towards a universal model. (G. Derzhavin, I. Krylov, M. Lomonosov, V. Trediakovsky,D. Fonvizin).

Sentimentalism - the literary movement of the second half of the 18th century, which approved feeling, and not reason, as the dominant of the human personality. The hero of sentimentalism is a “feeling person”, his emotional world is diverse and mobile, and the wealth of the inner world is recognized for every person, regardless of his class affiliation. (I. M. Karamzin."Letters from a Russian Traveler", "Poor Lisa" ) .

Romanticism - literary movement that emerged at the beginning of the 19th century. The fundamental principle for romanticism was the principle of romantic duality, which implies a sharp opposition of the hero, his ideal, to the world around him. The incompatibility of the ideal and reality was expressed in the departure of romantics from modern topics to the world of history, traditions and legends, dreams, dreams, fantasies, exotic countries. Romanticism has a particular interest in the individual. The romantic hero is characterized by proud loneliness, disappointment, a tragic attitude and at the same time rebelliousness and rebellious spirit. (A. S. Pushkin."KavKazakh prisoner, « Gypsies»; M. Yu. Lermontov.« Mtsyri»; M. Gorky.« Song about the Falcon”, “Old Woman Izergil”).

Realism - a literary trend that established itself in Russian literature at the beginning of the 19th century and passed through the entire 20th century. Realism affirms the priority of the cognitive possibilities of literature, its ability to explore reality. The most important subject of artistic research is the relationship between character and circumstances, the formation of characters under the influence of the environment. Human behavior, according to realist writers, depends on external circumstances, which, however, does not negate his ability to oppose them with his will. This determined the central conflict - the conflict of personality and circumstances. Realist writers depict reality in development, in dynamics, presenting stable, typical phenomena in their uniquely individual incarnation. (A. S. Pushkin."Eugene Onegin"; novels I. S. Turgeneva, L. N. Tolstogo, F. M. Dostoevsky, A. M. Gorky,stories I. A. Bunina,A. I. Kuprin; N. A. Nekrasovand etc.).

Critical Realism - the literary direction, which is a child of the previous one, existed from the beginning of the 19th century to its end. It bears the main signs of realism, but differs in a deeper, critical, sometimes sarcastic author's look ( N. V. Gogol"Dead Souls"; Saltykov-Shchedrin)

XXCENTURY

Modernism - a literary trend in the first half of the 20th century that opposed realism and united many movements and schools with a very diverse aesthetic orientation. Instead of a rigid connection between characters and circumstances, modernism affirms the self-worth and self-sufficiency of the human personality, its irreducibility to a tiresome series of causes and effects.

avant-garde - a trend in literature and art of the 20th century, uniting various trends, united in their aesthetic radicalism (surrealism, drama of the absurd, "new novel", in Russian literature -futurism). Genetically connected with modernism, but absolutizes and brings to the extreme its desire for artistic renewal.

Decadence (decadence) - a certain state of mind, a crisis type of consciousness, expressed in a feeling of despair, impotence, mental fatigue with the obligatory elements of narcissism and aestheticization of self-destruction of the individual. Decadent-in-the-mood works aestheticize fading away, a break with traditional morality, and the will to die. The decadent attitude was reflected in the works of writers of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. F. Sologuba, 3. Gippius, L. Andreeva, and etc.

Symbolism - pan-European, and in Russian literature - the first and most significant modernist trend. The roots of symbolism are connected with romanticism, with the idea of ​​two worlds. The traditional idea of ​​knowing the world in art was opposed by the Symbolists to the idea of ​​constructing the world in the process of creativity. The meaning of creativity is subconscious-intuitive contemplation secret meanings available only to the artist-creator. The main means of transmitting rationally unknowable secret meanings is the symbol (signs) ("senior symbolists": V. Bryusov, K. Balmont, D. Merezhkovsky, 3. Gippius, F. Sologub;"young symbolists": A. Block,A. Bely, V. Ivanov, dramas by L. Andreev).

Acmeism - a current of Russian modernism that arose as a reaction to the extremes of symbolism with its persistent tendency to perceive reality as a distorted likeness of higher entities. The main significance in the work of acmeists is the artistic development of the diverse and vibrant earthly world, the transfer of the inner world of man, the assertion of culture as the highest value. Acmeistic poetry is characterized by stylistic balance, pictorial clarity of images, precisely adjusted composition, and sharpness of details. (N. Gumilyov, S. Gorodetscue, A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam, M. Zenkevich, V. Narbut).

Futurism - an avant-garde movement that arose almost simultaneously in Italy and Russia. The main feature is the preaching of the overthrow of past traditions, the crushing of the old aesthetics, the desire to create a new art, the art of the future, capable of transforming the world. The main technical principle is the “shift” principle, which manifested itself in the lexical renewal of the poetic language through the introduction of vulgarisms, technical terms, neologisms into it, in violation of the laws of lexical word compatibility, in bold experiments in the field of syntax and word formation. (V. Khlebnikov, V. Mayakovsky, I. Severyanin and etc.).

Expressionism - modernist trend that was formed in 1910 - 1920s in Germany. The expressionists sought not so much to depict the world as to express their idea of ​​the troubles of the world and the suppression of the human personality. The style of expressionism is determined by the rationalism of constructions, the tendency to abstraction, the sharp emotionality of the statements of the author and characters, the abundant use of fantasy and the grotesque. In Russian literature, the influence of expressionism manifested itself in the work of L. Andreeva, E. Zamyatina, A. Platone and etc.

Postmodernism - a complex set of worldview attitudes and cultural reactions in the era of ideological and aesthetic pluralism (the end of the 20th century). Postmodern thinking is fundamentally anti-hierarchical, opposes the idea of ​​worldview integrity, rejects the possibility of mastering reality with the help of a single method or language of description. Writers - postmodernists consider literature, first of all, a fact of language, and therefore do not hide, but emphasize the "literary" nature of their works, combine in one text the style of different genres and different literary epochs (A. Bitov, Sasha Sokolov, D. A. Prigov, V. PeLevine, Wen. Erofeev and etc.).

1. Literary direction - often identified with the artistic method. Denotes a set of fundamental spiritual and aesthetic principles of many writers, as well as a number of groups and schools, their programmatic and aesthetic principles, and the means used. In the struggle and change of direction, the laws of the literary process are most clearly expressed. It is customary to single out the following literary directions:

   a) Classicism
   b) sentimentalism,
   c) naturalism,
   d) romanticism,
   e) Symbolism,
   e) realism.

2. Literary movement - often identified with a literary group and school. Denotes a collection creative people, which are characterized by ideological and artistic affinity and programmatic and aesthetic unity. Otherwise, a literary trend is a variety (as it were, a subclass) of a literary trend. For example, in relation to Russian romanticism, one speaks of a "philosophical", "psychological" and "civil" trend. In Russian realism, some distinguish between "psychological" and "sociological" trends.

Classicism

Artistic style and direction in European literature and art of the XVII-beginning. XIX centuries. The name is derived from the Latin "classicus" - exemplary.

Features of classicism:

1. Appeal to images and forms antique literature and art as an ideal aesthetic standard, advancing on this basis the principle of “imitation of nature”, which implies strict adherence to unshakable rules drawn from ancient aesthetics (for example, in the person of Aristotle, Horace).
2. Aesthetics is based on the principles of rationalism (from the Latin "ratio" - reason), which affirms the view of a work of art as an artificial creation - consciously created, reasonably organized, logically constructed.
3. The images in classicism are devoid of individual features, as they are called upon, first of all, to capture stable, generic, enduring features over time, acting as the embodiment of any social or spiritual forces.
4. Social and educational function of art. Education of a harmonious personality.
5. A strict hierarchy of genres has been established, which are divided into “high” ones (tragedy, epic, ode; their sphere is public life, historical events, mythology, their heroes - monarchs, generals, mythological characters, religious ascetics) and "low" (comedy, satire, fable, which depicted a private everyday life middle class people). Each genre has strict boundaries and clear formal features; no mixing of the sublime and the base, the tragic and the comic, the heroic and the mundane was allowed. The leading genre is tragedy.
6. Classical dramaturgy approved the so-called principle of "unity of place, time and action", which meant: the action of the play should take place in one place, the duration of the action should be limited by the duration of the performance (possibly more, but the maximum time that the play should have narrated was one day), the unity of action meant that the play should reflect one central intrigue, not interrupted by side actions.

Classicism originated and developed in France with the establishment of absolutism (classicism, with its concepts of "exemplary", a strict hierarchy of genres, etc., is generally often associated with absolutism and the flourishing of statehood - P. Corneille, J. Racine, J. La Fontaine, J. B. Molière, etc. Having entered a period of decline at the end of the 17th century, classicism was revived in the Enlightenment - Voltaire, M. Chenier and others. After the French Revolution, with the collapse of rationalist ideas, classicism falls into decay, the dominant style of European art becomes romanticism.

Classicism in Russia:

Russian classicism originated in the second quarter of the 18th century in the work of the founders of new Russian literature - A. D. Kantemir, V. K. Trediakovsky and M. V. Lomonosov. In the era of classicism, Russian literature mastered the genre and style forms that had developed in the West, merged into the pan-European literary development while retaining their national identity. Characteristics Russian classicism:

a) Satirical orientation - an important place is occupied by such genres as satire, fable, comedy, directly addressed to specific phenomena of Russian life;
b) The predominance of national-historical themes over ancient ones (the tragedies of A. P. Sumarokov, Ya. B. Kniazhnin, and others);
in) The high level of development of the ode genre (by M. V. Lomonosov and G. R. Derzhavin);
G) General patriotic pathos of Russian classicism.

AT late XVIII- early XIX century, Russian classicism is influenced by sentimentalist and pre-romantic ideas, which is reflected in the poetry of G. R. Derzhavin, the tragedies of V. A. Ozerov and civil lyrics Decembrist poets.

Sentimentalism

Sentimentalism (from English sentimental - “sensitive”) - a trend in European literature and art XVIII century. It was prepared by the crisis of enlightenment rationalism, was the final stage of the Enlightenment. Chronologically, it basically preceded romanticism, passing on a number of its features to it.

The main signs of sentimentalism:

1. Sentimentalism remained true to the ideal of the normative personality.
2. In contrast to classicism with its enlightening pathos, the dominant of “human nature” was declared by feeling, and not by reason.
3. He considered the condition for the formation of an ideal personality not "a reasonable reorganization of the world", but the release and improvement of "natural feelings".
4. The hero of the literature of sentimentalism is more individualized: by origin (or convictions), he is a democrat, the rich spiritual world of a commoner is one of the conquests of sentimentalism.
5. However, unlike romanticism (pre-romanticism), “irrational” is alien to sentimentalism: he perceived the inconsistency of moods, the impulsiveness of spiritual impulses as accessible to rationalistic interpretation.

Sentimentalism took its most complete expression in England, where the ideology of the third estate was formed the earliest - the works of J. Thomson, O. Goldsmith, J. Crabb, S. Richardson, JI. Stern.

Sentimentalism in Russia:

In Russia, representatives of sentimentalism were: M. N. Muravyov, N. M. Karamzin (naib, famous work - “Poor Liza”), I. I. Dmitriev, V. V. Kapnist, N. A. Lvov, young V A. Zhukovsky.

Characteristic features of Russian sentimentalism:

a) Rationalist tendencies are quite clearly expressed;
b) The didactic (moralizing) attitude is strong;
c) Enlightenment trends;
d) Improving literary language, Russian sentimentalists turned to colloquial norms, introduced vernacular.

The favorite genres of sentimentalists are elegy, epistle, epistolary novel (novel in letters), travel notes, diaries and other types of prose, in which confessional motifs predominate.

Romanticism

One of the largest trends in European and American literature of the late 18th-first half of the 19th century, which gained worldwide significance and distribution. In the 18th century, everything fantastic, unusual, strange, found only in books, and not in reality, was called romantic. At the turn of the XVIII and XIX centuries. "romanticism" begins to be called a new literary movement.

The main signs of romanticism:

1. Anti-Enlightenment orientation (i.e., against the ideology of the Enlightenment), which manifested itself in sentimentalism and pre-romanticism, and reached its highest point in romanticism. Socio-ideological prerequisites - disappointment in the results of the Great French Revolution and the fruits of civilization in general, a protest against the vulgarity, routine and prosaic nature of bourgeois life. The reality of history turned out to be beyond the control of "reason", irrational, full of secrets and unforeseen, and the modern world order - hostile to human nature and his personal freedom.
2. The general pessimistic orientation is the ideas of "cosmic pessimism", "world sorrow" (heroes of the works of F. Chateaubriand, A. Musset, J. Byron, A. Vigny, etc.). The theme of "lying in evil" scary world” was especially clearly reflected in the “drama of rock” or “the tragedy of rock” (G. Kleist, J. Byron, E. T. A. Hoffman, E. Poe).
3. Belief in the omnipotence of the human spirit, in its ability to renew itself. Romantics discovered the extraordinary complexity, the inner depth of human individuality. Man for them is a microcosm, a small universe. Hence - the absolutization of the personal principle, the philosophy of individualism. In the center of a romantic work there is always a strong, exceptional personality who opposes society, its laws or moral standards.
4. "Two worlds", that is, the division of the world into real and ideal, which are opposed to each other. Spiritual insight, inspiration, which are subject to a romantic hero, is nothing but penetration into this perfect world(for example, the works of Hoffmann, especially brightly in: "The Golden Pot", "The Nutcracker", "Little Tsakhes, nicknamed Zinnober"). Romantics contrasted the classicist "imitation of nature" with the creative activity of the artist with his right to transform the real world: the artist creates his own, special world, more beautiful and true.
5. "Local color". A person who opposes society feels spiritual closeness to nature, its elements. That is why romantics so often have exotic countries and their nature (the East) as the scene of action. The exotic wild nature was quite in line with the spirit of a romantic personality striving beyond the ordinary. Romantics were the first to pay close attention to the creative heritage of the people, and to its national, cultural and historical features. National and cultural diversity, according to the philosophy of the Romantics, was part of one big single whole - the "universe". This was clearly realized in the development of the historical novel genre (such authors as W. Scott, F. Cooper, V. Hugo).

Romantics, absolutizing creative freedom artist, denied rationalistic regulation in art, which, however, did not prevent them from proclaiming their own, romantic canons.

Genres evolved: fantasy story, historical novel, a lyrical-epic poem, the lyric reaches an extraordinary flowering.

Classical countries of romanticism - Germany, England, France.

Beginning in the 1840s, romanticism in the main European countries cedes a leading position critical realism and fades into the background.

Romanticism in Russia:

The birth of romanticism in Russia is associated with the socio-ideological atmosphere of Russian life - a nationwide upsurge after the war of 1812. All this led not only to the formation, but also special character romanticism of the Decembrist poets (for example, K. F. Ryleev, V. K. Kyuchelbeker, A. I. Odoevsky), whose work was animated by the idea of ​​​​civic service, imbued with the pathos of freedom and struggle.

Characteristic features of romanticism in Russia:

a) The accelerated development of literature in Russia at the beginning of the 19th century led to the “running in” and the combination of various stages that were experienced in stages in other countries. In Russian romanticism, pre-romantic tendencies intertwined with the tendencies of classicism and the Enlightenment: doubts about the omnipotent role of reason, the cult of sensitivity, nature, elegiac melancholy combined with the classic orderliness of styles and genres, moderate didacticism (edification) and the fight against excessive metaphor for the sake of "harmonic accuracy" (expression A. S. Pushkin).

b) A more pronounced social orientation of Russian romanticism. For example, the poetry of the Decembrists, the works of M. Yu. Lermontov.

In Russian romanticism, such genres as elegy and idyll are especially developed. Very important for the self-determination of Russian romanticism was the development of the ballad (for example, in the work of V. A. Zhukovsky). The contours of Russian romanticism were most sharply defined with the emergence of the genre of the lyric-epic poem (the southern poems of A. S. Pushkin, the works of I. I. Kozlov, K. F. Ryleev, M. Yu. Lermontov, etc.). The historical novel is developing as a great epic form (M. N. Zagoskin, I. I. Lazhechnikov). A special way of creating a large epic form is cyclization, that is, the unification of apparently independent (and partially published separately) works (“Double or My Evenings in Little Russia” by A. Pogorelsky, “Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka” by N. V. Gogol, “A Hero of Our time" by M. Yu. Lermontov, "Russian Nights" by V. F. Odoevsky).

Naturalism

Naturalism (from the Latin natura - “nature”) is a literary trend that has developed in the last third of XIX century in Europe and the USA.

Characteristic features of naturalism:

1. The desire for an objective, accurate and dispassionate depiction of reality and human character, due to the physiological nature and environment, understood primarily as a direct domestic and material environment, but not excluding socio-historical factors. The main task of naturalists was to study society with the same completeness with which a naturalist studies nature, artistic knowledge was likened to scientific.
2. A work of art was considered as a “human document”, and the main aesthetic criterion was the completeness of the cognitive act carried out in it.
3. Naturalists refused to moralize, believing that reality depicted with scientific impartiality was in itself expressive enough. They believed that literature, like science, has no right in choosing material, that there are no unsuitable plots or unworthy topics for a writer. Hence, plotlessness and public indifference often arose in the works of naturalists.

Naturalism received particular development in France - for example, naturalism includes the work of such writers as G. Flaubert, the brothers E. and J. Goncourt, E. Zola (who developed the theory of naturalism).

In Russia, naturalism was not widespread, it played only a certain role in initial stage development of Russian realism. Naturalistic tendencies can be traced among the writers of the so-called "natural school" (see below) - V. I. Dal, I. I. Panaev and others.

Realism

Realism (from late Latin realis - real, real) - literary and artistic direction XIX-XX centuries It originates in the Renaissance (the so-called "Renaissance realism") or in the Enlightenment (" enlightenment realism"). Features of realism are noted in ancient and medieval folklore, ancient literature.

The main features of realism:

1. The artist depicts life in images that correspond to the essence of the phenomena of life itself.
2. Literature in realism is a means of man's knowledge of himself and the world around him.
3. Cognition of reality comes with the help of images created by typing the facts of reality ("typical characters in a typical setting"). The typification of characters in realism is carried out through the "truthfulness of details" in the "concreteness" of the conditions of the characters' existence.
4. Realistic art is life-affirming art, even in the tragic resolution of the conflict. Philosophical foundation This is gnosticism, the belief in knowability and an adequate reflection of the surrounding world, in contrast, for example, to romanticism.
5. Realistic art is inherent in the desire to consider reality in development, the ability to detect and capture the emergence and development of new forms of life and social relations, new psychological and social types.

Realism as a literary trend was formed in the 30s of the XIX century. The immediate forerunner of realism in European literature was romanticism. Having made the unusual the subject of the image, creating an imaginary world of special circumstances and exceptional passions, he (romanticism) at the same time showed a personality richer in spiritual, emotional terms, more complex and contradictory than was available to classicism, sentimentalism and other trends of previous eras. Therefore, realism developed not as an antagonist of romanticism, but as its ally in the struggle against idealization. public relations, for the national-historical originality of artistic images (the color of the place and time). It is not always easy to draw clear boundaries between romanticism and realism in the first half of the 19th century; in the work of many writers, romantic and realistic features have merged together - for example, the works of O. Balzac, Stendhal, V. Hugo, partly C. Dickens. In Russian literature, this was especially clearly reflected in the works of A. S. Pushkin and M. Yu. Lermontov (Pushkin’s southern poems and Lermontov’s Hero of Our Time).

In Russia, where the foundations of realism were still in the 1820s and 30s. laid down by the work of A. S. Pushkin (“Eugene Onegin”, “Boris Godunov”, “ Captain's daughter”, late lyrics), as well as some other writers (“Woe from Wit” by A. S. Griboyedov, fables by I. A. Krylov), this stage is associated with the names of I. A. Goncharov, I. S. Turgenev, N. A. Nekrasov, A. N. Ostrovsky and others. The realism of the 19th century is usually called "critical", since the defining principle in it was precisely the social-critical. The aggravated socially critical pathos is one of the main distinguishing features of Russian realism - for example, “The Government Inspector”, “ Dead Souls» N. V. Gogol, the activities of the writers of the "natural school". The realism of the second half of the 19th century reached its peak precisely in Russian literature, especially in the works of L. N. Tolstoy and F. M. Dostoevsky, who became late XIX century, the central figures of the world literary process. They enriched world literature new principles for constructing a socio-psychological novel, philosophical and moral issues, new ways of revealing the human psyche in its deepest layers.

2) Sentimentalism
Sentimentalism is a literary movement that recognized feeling as the main criterion for the human personality. Sentimentalism originated in Europe and Russia at about the same time, in the second half of the 18th century, as a counterbalance to the harsh classical theory that prevailed at that time.
Sentimentalism was closely associated with the ideas of the Enlightenment. He gave priority to manifestations spiritual qualities man, psychological analysis, sought to awaken in the hearts of readers an understanding of human nature and love for it, along with a humane attitude towards all the weak, suffering and persecuted. The feelings and experiences of a person are worthy of attention, regardless of his class affiliation - the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe universal equality of people.
The main genres of sentimentalism:
story
elegy
novel
letters
travels
memoirs
England can be considered the birthplace of sentimentalism. Poets J. Thomson, T. Gray, E. Jung tried to awaken in readers a love for the environment, drawing in their works simple and peaceful rural landscapes, sympathy for the needs of poor people. S. Richardson was a prominent representative of English sentimentalism. In the first place, he put forward psychological analysis and drew the attention of readers to the fate of his heroes. Writer Lawrence Stern preached humanism as supreme value person.
In French literature, sentimentalism is represented by the novels of Abbé Prevost, P.K. de Chamblain de Marivaux, J.-J. Rousseau, A. B. de Saint-Pierre.
In German literature - the works of F. G. Klopstock, F. M. Klinger, J. W. Goethe, J. F. Schiller, S. Laroche.
Sentimentalism came to Russian literature with translations of the works of Western European sentimentalists. The first sentimental works of Russian literature can be called "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" by A.N. Radishchev, "Letters from a Russian Traveler" and " Poor Lisa» N.I. Karamzin.

3) Romanticism
Romanticism originated in Europe in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. as a counterweight to the previously dominant classicism with its pragmatism and adherence to established laws. Romanticism, in contrast to classicism, advocated a departure from the rules. The prerequisites for romanticism lie in the Great French Revolution of 1789-1794, which overthrew the power of the bourgeoisie, and with it the bourgeois laws and ideals.
Romanticism, like sentimentalism, paid great attention to the personality of a person, his feelings and experiences. Main conflict romanticism was the opposition of the individual and society. Against the backdrop of scientific and technological progress, the increasingly complex social and political structure, the spiritual devastation of the individual was going on. Romantics sought to draw the attention of readers to this circumstance, to provoke a protest in society against lack of spirituality and selfishness.
Romantics were disappointed in the world around them, and this disappointment is clearly seen in their works. Some of them, such as F. R. Chateaubriand and V. A. Zhukovsky, believed that a person cannot resist mysterious forces, must obey them and not try to change his fate. Other romantics, such as J. Byron, P. B. Shelley, S. Petofi, A. Mickiewicz, the early A. S. Pushkin, believed that it was necessary to fight the so-called "world evil", and opposed it with the strength of the human spirit.
The inner world of the romantic hero was full of experiences and passions, throughout the entire work the author forced him to fight the world around him, duty and conscience. Romantics portrayed feelings in their extreme manifestations: high and passionate love, cruel betrayal, despicable envy, base ambition. But the romantics were interested not only in the inner world of a person, but also in the secrets of being, the essence of all living things, perhaps that is why there is so much mystical and mysterious in their works.
In German literature, romanticism was most clearly expressed in the works of Novalis, W. Tieck, F. Hölderlin, G. Kleist, and E. T. A. Hoffmann. English romanticism is represented by the work of W. Wordsworth, S. T. Coleridge, R. Southey, W. Scott, J. Keats, J. G. Byron, P. B. Shelley. In France, romanticism appeared only by the beginning of the 1820s. The main representatives were F. R. Chateaubriand, J. Stahl, E. P. Senancourt, P. Merimet, V. Hugo, J. Sand, A. Vigny, A. Dumas (father).
The development of Russian romanticism was greatly influenced by the Great French revolution and the Patriotic War of 1812. Romanticism in Russia is usually divided into two periods - before and after the Decembrist uprising in 1825. Representatives of the first period (V.A. Zhukovsky, K.N. Batyushkov, A.S. Pushkin of the period of southern exile), believed in the victory of spiritual freedom over everyday life, but after the defeat of the Decembrists, executions and exiles romantic hero turns into a person rejected and misunderstood by society, and the conflict between the individual and society becomes insoluble. Prominent representatives of the second period were M. Yu. Lermontov, E. A. Baratynsky, D. V. Venevitinov, A. S. Khomyakov, F. I. Tyutchev.
The main genres of romanticism:
Elegy
Idyll
Ballad
Novella
Novel
fantasy story
Aesthetic and theoretical canons of romanticism
The idea of ​​duality is a struggle between objective reality and subjective worldview. Realism lacks this concept. The idea of ​​duality has two modifications:
escape to the world of fantasy;
travel, road concept.
Hero concept:
the romantic hero is always an exceptional personality;
the hero is always in conflict with the surrounding reality;
the dissatisfaction of the hero, which manifests itself in a lyrical tone;
aesthetic purposefulness towards an unattainable ideal.
Psychological parallelism - the identity of the internal state of the hero to the surrounding nature.
The speech style of a romantic work:
ultimate expression;
the principle of contrast at the level of composition;
abundance of characters.
Aesthetic categories of romanticism:
rejection of bourgeois reality, its ideology and pragmatism; romantics denied the value system, which was based on stability, hierarchy, a strict system of values ​​(home, comfort, Christian morality);
cultivation of individuality and artistic worldview; reality, rejected by romanticism, was subject to subjective worlds based on creative fantasy artist.

4) Realism
Realism is a literary trend that objectively reflects the surrounding reality with the artistic means available to it. The main technique of realism is the typification of the facts of reality, images and characters. Realist writers put their characters in certain conditions and show how these conditions affected the personality.
While romantic writers were worried about the inconsistency of the world around them with their inner worldview, the realist writer is interested in how the world affects personality. The actions of the heroes of realistic works are determined by life circumstances, in other words, if a person lived in a different time, in a different place, in a different socio-cultural environment, then he himself would be different.
The foundations of realism were laid by Aristotle in the 4th century. BC e. Instead of the concept of "realism", he used the concept of "imitation", which is close to him in meaning. Realism then saw a resurgence during the Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment. In the 40s. 19th century in Europe, Russia and America, realism replaced romanticism.
Depending on the content motives recreated in the work, there are:
critical (social) realism;
realism of characters;
psychological realism;
grotesque realism.
Critical realism focused on the real circumstances that affect a person. Examples of critical realism are the works of Stendhal, O. Balzac, C. Dickens, W. Thackeray, A. S. Pushkin, N. V. Gogol, I. S. Turgenev, F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy, A. P. Chekhov.
Characteristic realism, on the contrary, showed a strong personality who could fight with circumstances. Psychological realism paid more attention to the inner world, the psychology of the characters. The main representatives of these varieties of realism are F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy.

In grotesque realism, deviations from reality are allowed; in some works, deviations border on fantasy, while the more grotesque, the more the author criticizes reality. Grotesque realism is developed in the works of Aristophanes, F. Rabelais, J. Swift, E. Hoffmann, in the satirical stories of N. V. Gogol, the works of M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, M. A. Bulgakov.

5) Modernism
Modernism is a collection of artistic movements that promoted freedom of expression. Modernism originated in Western Europe in the second half of the 19th century. as a new form of creativity, opposed to traditional art. Modernism manifested itself in all kinds of art - painting, architecture, literature.
Home hallmark modernism is its ability to change the world around. The author does not seek to depict reality realistically or allegorically, as it was in realism, or inner world hero, as it was in sentimentalism and romanticism, but depicts his own inner world and his own attitude to the surrounding reality, expresses personal impressions and even fantasies.
Features of modernism:
denial of the classical artistic heritage;
the declared divergence from the theory and practice of realism;
orientation to an individual, not a social person;
increased attention to the spiritual, and not the social sphere of human life;
focus on form over content.
The major currents of modernism were Impressionism, Symbolism and Art Nouveau. Impressionism sought to capture the moment in the form in which the author saw or felt it. In this author's perception, the past, present and future can be intertwined, the impression that some object or phenomenon has on the author is important, and not this object itself.
Symbolists tried to find a secret meaning in everything that happened, endowed familiar images and words with mystical meaning. Art Nouveau promoted the rejection of regular geometric shapes and straight lines in favor of smooth and curved lines. Art Nouveau manifested itself especially brightly in architecture and applied art.
In the 80s. 19th century a new trend of modernism was born - decadence. In the art of decadence, a person is placed in unbearable circumstances, he is broken, doomed, has lost his taste for life.
The main features of decadence:
cynicism (nihilistic attitude towards universal values);
eroticism;
tonatos (according to Z. Freud - the desire for death, decline, decomposition of the personality).
In literature, modernism is represented by the following trends:
acmeism;
symbolism;
futurism;
imaginism.
The most prominent representatives of modernism in literature are the French poets Ch. Baudelaire, P. Verlaine, Russian poets N. Gumilyov, A. A. Blok, V. V. Mayakovsky, A. Akhmatova, I. Severyanin, English writer O. Wilde, American writer E. Poe, Scandinavian playwright G. Ibsen.

6) Naturalism
Naturalism is the name of a trend in European literature and art that arose in the 70s. 19th century and especially widely deployed in the 80-90s, when naturalism became the most influential trend. The theoretical justification of the new trend was given by Emile Zola in the book "Experimental Novel".
End of the 19th century (especially the 80s) marks the flourishing and strengthening of industrial capital, which develops into financial capital. This corresponds, on the one hand, high level technology and increased exploitation, on the other hand, the growth of self-consciousness and the class struggle of the proletariat. The bourgeoisie is turning into a reactionary class fighting a new revolutionary force - the proletariat. The petty bourgeoisie fluctuates between these main classes, and these fluctuations are reflected in the positions of petty-bourgeois writers who have joined naturalism.
The main requirements presented by naturalists to literature: scientific character, objectivity, apoliticality in the name of "universal truth". Literature must stand at the level of modern science, must be imbued with scientific character. It is clear that naturalists base their works only on that science which does not negate the existing social system. Naturalists make the basis of their theory the mechanistic natural-scientific materialism of the type of E. Haeckel, H. Spencer and C. Lombroso, adapting the doctrine of heredity to the interests of the ruling class (heredity is declared the cause of social stratification, which gives advantages to one over the other), the philosophy of positivism of Auguste Comte and petty-bourgeois utopians (Saint-Simon).
By objectively and scientifically showing the shortcomings of modern reality, French naturalists hope to influence the minds of people and thereby cause a series of reforms to be carried out in order to save the existing system from the impending revolution.
The theorist and leader of French naturalism, E. Zola ranked G. Flaubert, the Goncourt brothers, A. Daudet and a number of other lesser-known writers as naturalists. Zola attributed the French realists to the immediate predecessors of naturalism: O. Balzac and Stendhal. But in fact, none of these writers, not excluding Zola himself, was a naturalist in the sense in which Zola the theoretician understood this direction. Naturalism as the style of the leading class was joined for a time by writers who were very heterogeneous both in their artistic method and in belonging to various class groups. Characteristically, the unifying moment was not artistic method, namely the reformist tendencies of naturalism.
The followers of naturalism are characterized by only a partial recognition of the set of requirements put forward by the theorists of naturalism. Following one of the principles of this style, they are repelled from others, differing sharply from each other, representing both different social trends and different artistic methods. A number of followers of naturalism accepted its reformist essence, rejecting without hesitation even such a requirement typical of naturalism as the requirement of objectivity and accuracy. So did the German "early naturalists" (M. Kretzer, B. Bille, W. Belshe and others).
Under the sign of decay, rapprochement with impressionism, the further development of naturalism began. Arose in Germany somewhat later than in France, German naturalism was a predominantly petty-bourgeois style. Here, the disintegration of the patriarchal petty bourgeoisie and the intensification of the processes of capitalization creates more and more cadres of intelligentsia, who by no means always find a use for themselves. More and more disillusionment with the power of science penetrates their midst. Gradually, hopes for resolving social contradictions within the framework of the capitalist system are shattered.
German naturalism, as well as naturalism in Scandinavian literature, is entirely a transitional step from naturalism to impressionism. Thus, the famous German historian Lamprecht in his "History of the German people" proposed to call this style "physiological impressionism". This term is further used by a number of historians of German literature. Indeed, all that remains of the naturalistic style known in France is a reverence for physiology. Many German naturalist writers do not even try to hide their tendentiousness. At the center of it is usually some problem, social or physiological, around which facts illustrating it are grouped (alcoholism in Hauptmann's Before Sunrise, heredity in Ibsen's Ghosts).
The founders of German naturalism were A. Goltz and F. Shlyaf. Their main principles are outlined in Goltz's pamphlet Art, where Goltz states that "art tends to become nature again, and it becomes nature according to the existing conditions of reproduction and practical application." The complexity of the plot is also denied. The place of the eventful novel of the French (Zola) is occupied by a story or short story, extremely poor in plot. The main place here is given to the painstaking transfer of moods, visual and auditory sensations. The novel is also replaced by a drama and a poem, which French naturalists treated extremely negatively as a "kind of entertainment art." Particular attention is paid to the drama (G. Ibsen, G. Hauptman, A. Goltz, F. Shlyaf, G. Zuderman), which also denies an intensively developed action, only catastrophe and fixation of the characters' experiences are given ("Nora", "Ghosts", "Before Sunrise", "Master Elze" and others). In the future, the naturalistic drama is reborn into an impressionistic, symbolic drama.
In Russia, naturalism has not received any development. The early works of F.I. Panferov and M.A. Sholokhov were called naturalistic.

7) natural school
Under the natural school, literary criticism understands the direction that originated in Russian literature in the 40s. 19th century This was an epoch of ever more acute contradictions between the feudal system and the growth of capitalist elements. The followers of the natural school tried to reflect the contradictions and moods of that time in their works. The very term "natural school" appeared in criticism thanks to F. Bulgarin.
The natural school, in the extended use of the term as it was used in the 1940s, does not denote a single direction, but is a concept to a large extent conditional. The natural school included such heterogeneous writers in terms of their class basis and artistic appearance as I. S. Turgenev and F. M. Dostoevsky, D. V. Grigorovich and I. A. Goncharov, N. A. Nekrasov and I. I. Panaev.
Most common features, on the basis of which the writer was considered to belong to the natural school, were the following: socially significant topics that captured a wider circle than even the circle of social observations (often in the "low" strata of society), a critical attitude to social reality, realism of artistic expression, which fought against embellishment of reality, aesthetics, romantic rhetoric.
V. G. Belinsky singled out the realism of the natural school, asserting the most important feature of the "truth", and not the "falsehood" of the image. The natural school addresses itself not to ideal, invented heroes, but to the "crowd", to the "mass", to ordinary people and most often to people of "low rank". Common in the 40s. all sorts of "physiological" essays satisfied this need for a reflection of a different, non-noble life, even if only in a reflection of the external, everyday, superficial.
N. G. Chernyshevsky especially sharply emphasizes as the most essential and basic feature of the "literature of the Gogol period" its critical, "negative" attitude to reality - "literature of the Gogol period" is here another name for the same natural school: it is to N. V. Gogol - auto RU " dead souls", "Inspector", "Overcoat" - as the ancestor, the natural school was erected by V. G. Belinsky and a number of other critics. Gogol, the writers of the natural school were influenced by such representatives of the Western European petty-bourgeois and bourgeois literature like C. Dickens, O. Balzac, George Sand.
One of the currents of the natural school, represented by the liberal, capitalizing nobility and the social strata adjoining it, was distinguished by a superficial and cautious nature of criticism of reality: this is either a harmless irony in relation to certain aspects of the nobility's reality or a noble-limited protest against serfdom. The circle of social observations of this group was limited to the manor estate. Representatives of this current of the natural school: I. S. Turgenev, D. V. Grigorovich, I. I. Panaev.
Another current of the natural school relied mainly on the urban philistinism of the 1940s, infringed, on the one hand, by the still tenacious serfdom, and, on the other, by growing industrial capitalism. A certain role here belonged to F. M. Dostoevsky, the author of a number of psychological novels and stories ("Poor people", "Double" and others).
The third trend in the natural school, represented by the so-called "raznochintsy", the ideologists of revolutionary peasant democracy, gives in its work the clearest expression of the tendencies that contemporaries (V. G. Belinsky) associated with the name of the natural school and opposed noble aesthetics. These tendencies manifested themselves most fully and sharply in N. A. Nekrasov. A. I. Herzen (“Who is to blame?”), M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (“A Tangled Case”) should be attributed to the same group.

8) Constructivism
Constructivism is an art movement that originated in Western Europe after the First World War. The origins of constructivism lie in the thesis of the German architect G. Semper, who argued that aesthetic value of any work of art is determined by the correspondence of its three elements: the work, the material from which it is made, and the technical processing of this material.
This thesis, which was later adopted by the functionalists and functionalist-constructivists (L. Wright in America, J. J. P. Oud in Holland, W. Gropius in Germany), highlights the material-technical and material-utilitarian side of art. and, in essence, the ideological side of it is emasculated.
In the West, constructivist tendencies during the First World War and in the post-war period were expressed in various directions, more or less "orthodox" interpreting the basic thesis of constructivism. So, in France and Holland, constructivism expressed itself in "purism", in "aesthetics of machines", in "neoplasticism" (art), Corbusier's aestheticizing formalism (in architecture). In Germany - in the naked cult of the thing (pseudo-constructivism), the one-sided rationalism of the Gropius school (architecture), abstract formalism (in non-objective cinema).
A group of constructivists appeared in Russia in 1922. It included A. N. Chicherin, K. L. Zelinsky, and I. L. Selvinsky. Constructivism was originally a narrowly formal trend, highlighting the understanding of a literary work as a construction. Subsequently, the constructivists freed themselves from this narrowly aesthetic and formal bias and put forward much broader justifications for their creative platform.
A. N. Chicherin departed from constructivism, a number of authors grouped around I. L. Selvinsky and K. L. Zelinsky (V. Inber, B. Agapov, A. Gabrilovich, N. Panov), and in 1924 a literary center was organized constructivists (LCC). In its declaration, the LCC primarily proceeds from the statement about the need for art to participate as closely as possible in the "organizational onslaught of the working class", in the construction of socialist culture. From here arises the constructivist attitude to saturate art (in particular, poetry) with modern themes.
The main theme, which has always attracted the attention of constructivists, can be described as follows: "The intelligentsia in the revolution and construction." With special attention to the image of an intellectual in the civil war (I. L. Selvinsky, "Commander 2") and in construction (I. L. Selvinsky "Pushtorg"), the constructivists, first of all, put forward in a painfully exaggerated form its specific weight and significance work in progress. This is especially clear in Pushtorg, where the exceptional specialist Poluyarov is opposed by the incompetent communist Krol, who interferes with his work and drives him to suicide. Here the pathos of work technique as such obscures the main social conflicts of modern reality.
This exaggeration of the role of the intelligentsia finds its theoretical development in the article by the main theoretician of constructivism Kornely Zelinsky "Constructivism and socialism", where he considers constructivism as an integral worldview of the era in transition to socialism, as a condensed expression in the literature of the period being lived through. At the same time, again, the main social contradictions of this period are replaced by Zelinsky by the struggle of man and nature, the pathos of naked technology, interpreted outside social conditions, outside the class struggle. These erroneous propositions of Zelinsky, which provoked a sharp rebuff from Marxist criticism, were far from accidental and with great clarity revealed the social nature of constructivism, which is easy to outline in the creative practice of the entire group.
The social source that nourishes constructivism is undoubtedly that stratum of the urban petty bourgeoisie, which can be designated as a technically qualified intelligentsia. It is no coincidence that in the work of Selvinsky (who is the greatest poet of constructivism) of the first period, the image of a strong individuality, a powerful builder and conqueror of life, individualistic in its very essence, characteristic of the Russian bourgeois pre-war style, is undoubtedly found.
In 1930, the LCC disintegrated, and instead of it, the “Literary Brigade M. 1” was formed, declaring itself an organization transitional to the RAPP (Russian Association of Proletarian Writers), whose task is the gradual transition of writers-fellow travelers to the rails of communist ideology, to the style of proletarian literature and condemning former mistakes of constructivism, although retaining its creative method.
However, the contradictory and zigzag progress of constructivism towards the working class makes itself felt here too. Selvinsky's poem "Declaration of the Poet's Rights" testifies to this. This is also confirmed by the fact that the M. 1 brigade, having existed for less than a year, also disbanded in December 1930, admitting that it had not resolved its tasks.

9)Postmodernism
Postmodernism literally means "that which follows modernism" in German. This literary trend appeared in the second half of the 20th century. It reflects the complexity of the surrounding reality, its dependence on the culture of previous centuries and the information richness of modernity.
Postmodernists did not like the fact that literature was divided into elite and mass. Postmodernism opposed any modernity in literature and denied mass culture. The first works of postmodernists appeared in the form of a detective story, a thriller, a fantasy, behind which a serious content was hidden.
Postmodernists believed that higher art ended. To move on, you need to learn how to properly use the lower genres of pop culture: thriller, western, fantasy, science fiction, erotica. Postmodernism finds in these genres the source of a new mythology. The works become oriented both to the elite reader and to the undemanding public.
Signs of postmodernism:
the use of previous texts as a potential for their own works (a large number of quotations, you cannot understand the work if you do not know the literature of previous eras);
rethinking the elements of the culture of the past;
multilevel text organization;
special organization of the text (game element).
Postmodernism questioned the existence of meaning as such. On the other hand, the meaning of postmodern works is determined by its inherent pathos - criticism mass culture. Postmodernism tries to blur the line between art and life. Everything that exists and has ever existed is a text. Postmodernists said that everything had already been written before them, that nothing new could be invented, and they only had to play with words, take ready-made (sometimes already invented, written by someone) ideas, phrases, texts and collect works from them. This makes no sense, because the author himself is not in the work.
Literary works are like a collage, composed of disparate images and united into a whole by the uniformity of technique. This technique is called pastiche. This Italian word translates as medley opera, and in literature it means a juxtaposition of several styles in one work. At the first stages of postmodernism, pastiche is a specific form of parody or self-parody, but then it is a way of adapting to reality, a way of showing the illusory nature of mass culture.
The concept of intertextuality is associated with postmodernism. This term was introduced by Y. Kristeva in 1967. She believed that history and society can be considered as a text, then culture is a single intertext that serves as an avant-text (all texts that precede this one) for any newly emerging text, while individuality is lost here text that dissolves into quotations. Modernism is characterized by quotation thinking.
Intertextuality- the presence in the text of two or more texts.
Paratext- the relation of the text to the title, epigraph, afterword, preface.
Metatextuality- these can be comments or a link to the pretext.
hypertextuality- ridicule or parody of one text by another.
Architextuality- genre connection of texts.
A person in postmodernism is depicted in a state of complete destruction (in this case, destruction can be understood as a violation of consciousness). There is no character development in the work, the image of the hero appears in a blurry form. This technique is called defocalization. It has two goals:
avoid excessive heroic pathos;
take the hero into the shadow: the hero is not brought to the fore, he is not needed at all in the work.
The prominent representatives of postmodernism in literature are J. Fowles, J. Barthes, A. Robbe-Grillet, F. Sollers, J. Cortazar, M. Pavic, J. Joyce and others.