The dissident movement in the USSR. Dissidents in the USSR - ideology, struggle, the meaning of the movement
Although the opposition has always existed in the USSR (as in principle in any state), dissidence, as a movement, is defined in terms from the 1960s (the so-called ''thaw'') to 1989, the year when the deprivation of citizenship was abolished and the expulsion of dissidents, they also got the opportunity to restore Soviet citizenship.
Who are dissidents?
AT mass consciousness there is a myth that Soviet dissidents were rabid Western liberals who dream of a ‘correct’ capitalism and devoutly hate socialism, ‘’scoop’’. Yes, such a group really existed and was influential in the dissident movement, but there were enough other groups, sometimes on opposite flanks of the political spectrum. Lyudmila Alekseeva, herself a dissident, identifies the following groups
1) ''True'' communists - people of leftist views, who believed that in the USSR there was a distortion of socialism and Marxism-Leninism and advocated the revolutionary transformation of the country for ''correct'' socialism.
2) The above-mentioned Western Democrats
3) Russian nationalists - were divided into "Imperials", National Bolsheviks, Eurasians. Supporters of a special way of Russia. Often advocated the synthesis of two anti-capitalist ideologies - Bolshevism and fascism (in their understanding). Some were supporters of the revival of the monarchy.
4) Nationalists of other peoples of the USSR. Views ranged from demands for a more complete development of national culture to demands for complete independence from the USSR. Under the USSR, they often proclaimed themselves liberals, but in fact, after coming to power, they built ethnocratic regimes close to fascist ones. Very often in their views they combined Russophobia and, of course, anti-Sovietism.
In the social composition, the dissidents were predominantly intelligentsia - scientists, poets, writers, doctors, engineers, technicians, etc.
Where are they now?
As mentioned above, the dissidents actually “won” (or rather “surrendered” to them) in power in 1989. At that time, the first elections were still held under the new electoral law to the Supreme Council, which introduced “alternative” elections, i.e. except for members of the CPSU, anyone could run, well, with the exception of the insane and criminals (however, strictly speaking, elections were always alternative in the USSR - non-party people were also always elected, their number was another matter, but still). As a result, the supreme body of state power of the Union was filled with all sorts of “democrats”, “human rights activists” and others who immediately began to dismantle the country. It got to the point that the CPSU had its own ''democratic'' faction, whose goal was actually to destroy socialism and build ''civilized'' capitalism on its ruins.
But, as often happens, the fruits of revolutions (and counter-revolutions) are often not used by those who carried them out. The dissidents, who hoped to participate in the sharing of the pie of public property, were pushed aside by the nomenklatura, the GBshniks, former Komsomol members, ''red directors'', criminals, etc. - those who now make up the Russian, God forgive me, ''elite''.
As a result, many Soviet dissidents live abroad.
Ludmila Alekseeva.
The first human rights activist in the USSR, one of the founders of the Moscow Helsinki Group in the USSR, who monitored the “violations” of human rights in the USSR and helped dissidents. In exile, she received US citizenship, worked at the Voice of America and Freedom radio stations, wrote a paper for the US Congress on the dissident movement in the USSR. She received Russian citizenship in 1994. Lives in the Russian Federation, is the permanent chairman of the Moscow Helsinki Group. Until 20123, this group was funded by various international organizations, mostly American. Some of them:
European Commission;
John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation (USA);
National Endowment for Democracy (USA);
Fund " Open Society"(Soros Foundation);
US Agency for International Development;
Oppositionist, participates in various anti-government protests against the ‘’dictatorship’’. She did not renounce US citizenship (however, the Constitution of the Russian Federation does not prohibit dual citizenship), her children and grandchildren are US citizens and permanently reside in the US.
“He said on the air: “I am a human rights activist. Guys, I, Sergey Kovalev, take responsibility. Come out, surrender, and you will now be taken out in cars to your units. But in fact, they came out, they were taken prisoner, then these boys were castrated, raped ... "
The notorious Valeria Ilyinichna directly that Kovalev supported Basayev
And that he supported Basayev in 1995, he was absolutely right, because Basayev in 1995 is not Basayev in 2005. Then Basayev could really be considered a Robin Hood, he did nothing wrong, he defended his country. And, indeed, the Chechens gave him an order, and they gave him for the cause, because he tried to stop the war.
The latter, however, at one time tried to save his reputation that the Chechen Robin Hoods still go too far with respect to the Russians
Speaking on Wednesday in Moscow at the award ceremony of Ichkeria "Knight of Honor", S. Kovalev, in particular, said that the most common forms of oppression are the eviction of Russians from apartments and confiscation of property, as well as kidnapping for ransom.
According to the human rights activist, "criminals and marauders, of course, have no nationality, but it is difficult to understand why the Chechens, who fought for honor and dignity, allow their neighbors, whom they helped and rescued during the war, to be oppressed."
As S. Kovalev noted, "especially incomprehensible" for him are the facts of the abduction of Orthodox clergymen. In his opinion, "this is an insult not only to Christianity, but also to Islam."
It must be said that the Chechens did not appreciate such a voyage of Kovalev.
“This is just a scam. The prosecutor's accusations against me were repeated all over the media, shocked the whole world, ruined my reputation - and now they tell me they never did it! […] even now they don't try to fix their ads, it's still posted on their site in exactly the same terms. I continue to be charged with “creating” these images, although it was found in court that I did not participate in their production.”
A fair British court, by the way, politely sent grandfather ya three letters, stating that he simply ''misunderstood'' the British prosecutor's office. This is not for you to denounce the Scoop!
Time of poets
The Cultural Revolution of the Thaw started on July 28, 1957, when the World Festival of Democratic Youth and Students began. Moscow was filled with young and socializing foreigners, art exhibitions were opened, through which the avant-garde broke into the USSR, at the fashion parade one could join the bright clothes of almost all countries of the world. Soviet culture had something to answer. Moscow amazed guests with a grandiose ballet show at the Luzhniki stadium, colorful processions through the streets of Moscow, an architectural and propaganda facade Soviet system. The momentum of the Festival led to irreversible consequences for the lyricists. The guests left, but the atmosphere remained - singing with a guitar, the "dude" fashion that got out of control, an artistic underground that violated the norms of "socialist realism", poetic evenings.
The new generation usually asserts itself in confrontation with the former. The “thaw” policy, which was based on criticism of the previous government, greatly contributed to this. New literary heroes - skeptics or truth-seekers, but in any case distrustful of the older generation, who knelt before Stalin - aroused delight among young readers and fears and misunderstanding of most of the "older comrades".
In September 1956, "Youth" published "Chronicle of the Times of Viktor Podgursky", which laid the foundation for frank "confessional" youth prose. If at first its authors studied the psychology of youth, then soon they moved on to the "truth-womb" in the style of critical realism. Vigilant censors were shocked, for example, by the description of Gorky Street in A. Gladilin's story "Smoke in the Eyes". The center of Moscow is "Broadway", "an exhibition of vanity", "a bunch of well-dressed dudes and dudes". The censor understood that there is some truth in this, but Gladilin does not denounce negative phenomena and, as it were, legalizes them. His hero, as is customary in confessional prose, frankly spits on communist ideals: “It’s a terrible thing when you are among millions… scary thing- our life. In order to somehow break through, to be a little noticeable, you need to work like hell for 20-30 years, with sweat and blood. And only then will you achieve fame. Now such an opinion about Soviet society sounds like a compliment. This society is fair. But young man he wants fast ways, and he begins to dislike a society where you have to work hard to achieve something. Despite all these revelations, Gladilin did not fall victim to persecution, and his story was published in Youth at the end of 1959 - just the places indicated by the censor had to be removed. But the "smell" remained.
One part of the youth, like Doctor Zhivago, demanded one thing from the authorities - "leave me alone." And the other, on the contrary, grabbed (like the hero of V. Rozov from "In Search of Joy") her father's checker in order to remind the secularized ancestors of the ideals of the revolution. And it is not known what was worse for the authorities.
On January 22, 1960, the head of the Glavlit, P. Romanov, wrote indignantly to the Central Committee about E. Yevtushenko's poem "Consider me a communist." Listing the shortcomings of Soviet society, the young poet claims that they pose a threat to the legacy of the October Revolution. Soviet officials remembered well how the Trotskyists spoke of the degeneration of the revolution.
But most of all, P. Romanov was outraged by something else. Yevtushenko's poem was published in No. 2 for 1960, and, unlike the case with Gladilin, "after the comments of the censorship, the editors, instead of suggesting that the author radically revise the poem, made only partial corrections that do not change its ideological orientation ". A new degree of "thaw" - it became possible to circumvent censorship.
The forefront of the fight against the new scourge was held by defensive criticism. E. Yevtushenko was awarded by critics with the title of the spiritual leader of dudes, V. Aksenov - cynics, and the authors of the film "Ilyich's Outpost" - parasites. All this youth trend, as the guards claimed, "drives a wedge" between fathers and children.
In 1959–1960 literary youth for some time became the main problem of censorship. The head of Glavlit writes with horror about the portrait of youth that Voznesensky paints in the poem "The Last Train". “Boys with finches, girls with fixies” ride in it, “guitars and thieves are buzzing around like in a camp.” This is an "insulting attack on all our youth." But Voznesensky does not just pay tribute to thieves' lyrics as one of the manifestations of Soviet critical realism, he offers a way out - his own poems, which will heal social ulcers that turned out to be too tough for the state. Here is the fallen girl who has fallen:
Worth - traits experienced.
On the blouse sees the look
All fingerprinting
Malakhov's guys.
The younger "nihilists" who formed the generation of the "sixties" received from time to time the support of older progressives. When Yevtushenko found himself under fire from criticism, Shostakovich, who had previously been disgraced, extended a hand of support to him, setting fragments of the "disgraced" poem "Babi Yar" to his music.
At the same time, it is known that there was some chill between Tvardovsky and young writers, caused at first by aesthetic reasons. Tvardovsky believed, for example, that Yevtushenko was talented, but careless and "self-indulgent". Later, political ones were added to Tvardovsky's aesthetic claims: “For kind people, such a phenomenon as Solzhenitsyn is a manifesto. But for people like our young people, it's like water off a duck's back…” They had their own manifestos.
Civic lyrics were more popular than ever since the 1920s, resurrecting romantic revolutionary myths. Poets E. Yevtushenko, A. Voznesensky and R. Rozhdestvensky were leaders of youthful thoughts. Childhood passion for writing poetry turned into a factor public life. Young unrecognized poets were looking for their audience and found it on the square.
On July 29, 1958, a monument to Mayakovsky was opened in Moscow on the square named after him. The poets recited poems at the ceremony. But when the official part ended, an unknown hero from the audience stepped up to the microphone and began to read Mayakovsky. The audience liked it, and a queue lined up at the microphone. As a result, we agreed to get together and read poetry - not only Mayakovsky. At this time poetry evenings were generally in vogue, but for the first time they took place outside the control of official structures in the open air. But the Soviet people did not see anything seditious in this. And not only the youth who gathered at the monument, but also the "senior comrades". "Moskovsky Komsomolets" on August 13 praised the undertaking. Meanwhile, the youth at the Mayak turned to reading their own poems, a controversy broke out - as if about poetry, but also about their social content.
In the fall, the initiative died out, 1959 passed quietly, but in 1960 readings at Mayakovka (or briefly, Mayak) resumed on weekends. The content of the poems of some poets has become much more radical - yet two more years of the "thaw" have passed. Up to 15 thousand people gathered. On the sidelines, they were already arguing about politics. Khrushchev commented on this situation: “They say there were some good ones. They were good, but the audience was on the side of those who oppose us.” Accordingly, the attitude of the authorities has changed.
Detentions of radical readers began. But the employees of the “organs” had a poor idea of which verses were permitted and which were not. Then it was decided to close the "hotbed". And it didn't close.
So that the fight against young poets does not look like new repressions, a police operation, Komsomol operational detachments, including young workers, were involved in it. They were told that they would have to fight against idlers and anti-Soviet people, and the factory guys acted tough. But the guards met with resistance.
Now the young organizers stood behind the poets, protecting the event from combatants. The backbone of the group consisted of members of underground political and literary associations, many of whom would later take part in the dissident movement (A. Ivanov ("Rakhmetov"), A. Ivanov ("New Year"), V. Osipov, E. Kuznetsov, V. Khaustov, Yu. Galanskov, V. Bukovsky, I. Bokshtein and others). “These people constantly came to the monument, invited and brought their acquaintances, protected poets and readers from drunk hard workers and Komsomol operative detachments. In a word, they "kept" the place.
Quite quickly, in this motley company, a division into two groups became noticeable - “politicians” and “poets”. The politicians wanted to organize the people from “Mayakovsky Square” into some kind of opposition movement, the “poets” preferred to engage in pure art.
The ideological base of the "politics" was chosen as "anarcho-syndicalism". In the same Historical Library, Ivanov and Osipov found freely available books by Asher Deleon "Workers' Councils in Yugoslavia", the French anarcho-syndicalist Georges Sorel "Reflections on Violence", Bakunin "Statehood and Anarchy", Kautsky "Against Soviet Russia". This ideological baggage Ivanov ("Novogodny") and Osipov propagandized on the "kvartirniks" of the Mayakovites. On June 28, 1961, Osipov presented to his comrades the platform of the underground organization (see Chapter VIII).
On the anniversary of Mayakovsky's death on April 14, 1961, a massacre took place. The square was crowded with people walking in honor of Gagarin's flight. There were many drunks. And the vigilantes tried to arrange another dispersal. The young defenders of Mayak began to fight back, and a fight broke out with the participation of bystanders.
The pressure on radical poets intensified. The area was cordoned off, searches were carried out at the apartments of the Mayak organizers, one of them, the bully V. Bukovsky, was guarded and beaten by the operative detachments.
At the same time, Bukovsky contacted the Komsomol structures, discussed the possibilities of its transformation (later Bukovsky's theses on this issue were presented as an anti-Soviet document), organized an alternative art exhibition with the help of Komsomol channels. This activity was reminiscent of the work of political informals in the mid-80s, but in the 60s. the authorities eventually stopped this movement. As the party congress approached, they acted more and more harshly. If at first they were awarded a "day", then in October several participants were arrested who carried on anti-Soviet conversations (including those who were considered terrorist - see Chapter VIII).
“On October 9, Mayak gave the last battle - in the evening we held readings throughout Moscow,” recalls V. Bukovsky.
Three active organizers of the readings - I. Bokshtein, who "campaigned against the Soviet authorities of anyone who agreed to listen to him - even the fighters of the Komsomol operational detachments", the future "airplane pilot" E. Kuznetsov and the future publisher of the national-Christian magazine "Veche", and now an anarchist syndicalist V. Osipov, accused of anti-Soviet propaganda, learned 5-7 years in the camps.
Later, several more Mayak organizers were arrested, including Bukovsky, they preferred to qualify him as paranoid and send him to a special hospital.
At first, Bukovsky and other dissidents were even pleased that instead of a camp they would face a “fool”, but it turned out that a psychiatric hospital is a cruel test no better than a prison. Despite this, as we shall see, some opponents of the regime continued to prefer to be there rather than in the camp.
Mayakovka also gave a new impetus to samizdat. Political texts and literary works were reprinted and distributed separately, and the organizers of "Mayakovka" began to make collections - modeled on thick literary magazines that were popular at that time. A young journalist A. Ginzburg, a participant in the readings at the monument, collected poems by unrecognized poets and published them in the Syntax almanac. The collection was illustrated by a prominent alternative artist from the "Lianozovo group" E. Krapivnitsky. In 1959–1960 three issues were published with poems by B. Okudzhava, I. Brodsky, N. Gorbanevskaya. The circulation reached 300 copies, which is a lot for a typewritten edition, which is distributed from a single center (in the mid-60s, a network of samizdat reprints was formed, which would pick up and multiply texts for years).
In July 1960, Ginzburg was arrested, but they decided not to make a political case for him, he was imprisoned for forging documents for two years in labor camps - “the maximum term, despite the insignificance of the crime (forgery of a certificate for passing an exam for a comrade) and the complete absence of mercenary motives in his actions.
The Mayak members also released the collections Cocktail and Boomerang. Yu. Galanskov published in 1961 a thick (200 pages) almanac "Phoenix". After the Mayak dispersal, its participants published two issues of the Sirena magazine in 1962.
When the "Mayak" was destroyed, public poetry readings continued, but already under the roof. Their symbol was the evenings at the Polytechnic Museum, which were organized by the Gorky Film Studio for the filming of M. Khutsiev's film "Ilyich's Outpost". Officially organized readings with discussion were a sensation, tickets were distributed by the Komsomol, but lovers of new poetry tried to sneak in from the street. Yevtushenko told from the high party platform what an embarrassment came out: the hall was half empty, and on the street there was a crowd of thousands eager to enter the Polytechnic. The bureaucracy again did everything "as always." They were waiting for the arrival of some more young workers who had not arrived. To proposals to fill the hall with the public, Komsomol officials replied: "It is not known what kind of people they are." Mayak taught officials to be vigilant. So the readings went on in a half-empty hall, but in the film everything turned out as it should. From the same podium, V. Aksyonov told what a stunning impression the scene of the film about poetry readings made abroad, showing the intense spiritual life of the country. Appeal to foreign opinions is a dangerous argument, and Aksyonov continues with pathos: “Any attempts to present our literature as leveled, dogmatic literature must be shattered by facts. Any attempts to present our literature as revisionist literature must also be shattered by facts... Our unity lies in our Marxist philosophy, in our historical optimism, in our loyalty to the ideas of the 20th and 22nd Congresses. In vain are the attempts of some unscrupulous critics to present us as nihilists and dudes... I am grateful to the party and to Nikita Sergeevich Khrushchev that I can talk to him, that I can consult with him. We want to talk to the fathers, and argue with them, and agree on various issues, but we also want to say that the fathers do not think that we have stones in our pockets, but know that our hands are clean. (Applause.)".
Cinema left, venerable young poets, too, but the Polytechnic site remained and for some time there were readings and discussions.
Young poets, whose talent was officially recognized, tried to stand up for street readers.
Defending "Mayak" in the face of party leaders, Yevtushenko claimed that the audience itself fought back if someone started reading "libelous verses" (this is an exaggeration, but perhaps Yevtushenko deliberately used the fact that the progressives and the outdoor KGB estimated differently " libelousness"). Accordingly, the dispersal of Mayak was presented by the poet as absurd and harmful for the regime arbitrariness: “So what did the comrades from the district committee, the comrades with red armbands on their sleeves, do? They came for several evenings in a row and cleared the audience, pulled out those who read poetry. One girl was pulled out, who was reading "I Love" Mayakovsky. They decided that she wrote it herself and that we do not need such poems. And in general, evenings stopped on Mayakovsky Square.
Let's be indignant together with the poet - the regime is afraid of a gathering where the poems of Mayakovsky and other, less canonical poets are read. Years passed, the communist regime collapsed. The fetters have fallen, and freedom ... But I do not advise poets to gather at the monument to Mayakovsky to read poetry without the sanction of the city authorities. OMON can crush the bones. And now they will not understand whether we need such verses or not.
Yevtushenko assesses the dispersal of Mayak as a capitulation to the "scum", who could have been given an ideological rebuff. But the officials understand that both Yevtushenko and the "scum" need the same thing - so that the reading of poetry is also accompanied by a discussion. And in this discussion, progressives and radicals, biting each other for the sake of order, will cling to the bureaucracy.
The arbitrariness of power gave rise to legitimate indignation of the public. But it was not absurd, since Mayak was indeed a center of consolidation and practical training for young oppositionists, future dissidents.
From the book Sexual Life in Ancient Greece author Licht Hans From the book Return to Panjrud author Volos Andrey GermanovichWall of Poets. Yusuf. Mullah Bahani. Success That boy, who, at the first meeting, was mockingly interested in sheep, turned out to be not a boy at all. Yusuf was only two months younger. Just a thin bone, short stature and some kind of childish enlightenment, every now and then
From the book Enemy Pet author Batyushkov Konstantin NikolaevichSkald's harp Poems by Russian poets about the North Konstantin Balmont Iceland Boulders and plains flooded with lava, Hosts of glaciers, splashes of hot springs... Rocks full of their majestic sadness, Whitened by the cold of pale rays. Shadows of stunted trees and the sea ... Oh, the sea! Waves, foam and
From the book Sexual Life in Ancient Greece author Licht Hans8. Literary trinkets from other Greek poets In one of her poems, Praxilla, a cheerful and practical poetess, spoke of the abduction of Chrysippus by Laius, and in another about Apollo's love for Carnus. As Athenaeus, Stesichorus,
From the book Iron Shurik author Mlechin Leonid MikhailovichAMONG POETS AND UNRECOGNIZED GENIUS Voronezh had a large university, a medical institute, a pedagogical and agricultural institute... But Shelepin firmly chose the Moscow Institute of History, Philosophy and Literature (IFLI), famous before the war, established in 1931.
From the book Scandals of the Soviet Era the author Razzakov FedorThe Case of the Four Poets (Sergey Yesenin) Another victim of the cosmopolitan Bolsheviks in the 1920s was another a famous person- poet Sergei Yesenin. Opponents declared him an apologist for "tsarist peasant Russia", a "singer of the kulaks" and a "fellow traveler of socialism". Because the
author Platonov Sergey FyodorovichPART TWO Time of Ivan the Terrible. - Muscovy before the Troubles. - Troubles in the Muscovite state. - The time of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich. - The time of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. – Key moments in the history of South and Western Russia in the XVI and XVII centuries. - The time of Tsar Fedor
From the book A Complete Course of Lectures on Russian History author Platonov Sergey FyodorovichPART THREE Views of science and Russian society on Peter the Great. - The situation of Moscow politics and life at the end of the XVII century. - The time of Peter the Great. - The time from the death of Peter the Great to the accession to the throne of Elizabeth. - The time of Elizabeth Petrovna. – Peter III and the coup of 1762
From the book of Richelieu author Levandovsky Anatoly PetrovichA COLLECTION OF POETS We are entering that short-lived period when our poetry was most diverse and rich ... We can assume that in this era everyone in France was a poet. Kléber Guedans For three hundred years the French Academy, an exceptional destiny and constancy
From the book Everyday Life of Montmartre at the Time of Picasso (1900-1910) author Crespel Jean-PaulMeeting place for poets Shortly before leaving the "Bato Lavoir" and "bourgeois" to settle at the foot of the Hill on the Boulevard Clichy, Picasso wrote with chalk on the door of the workshop: "The meeting place of poets." You can’t say more precisely. Most of his French friends, who played a role
From the book Greek Civilization. T.2. From Antigone to Socrates author Bonnard AndreCHAPTER V PINDAR, LORD OF POETS AND POET OF LORDS I am afraid that in the near future Pindar will be available only to a few Hellenistic specialists. This "singer of coachmen and fisticuffs" - as Voltaire called him insultingly and very unfairly, choosing the worst words,
From the book History of Russian Philosophy author Lossky Nikolai OnufrievichChapter XXIII. PHILOSOPHICAL IDEAS OF THE SYMBOLIST POETS I. ANDREY BELY Of the symbolist poets, the following four poets wrote the most on philosophical issues: Andrey Bely, Vyacheslav Ivanov, N. M. Minsky, and D. S. Merezhkovsky. Andrey Bely (1880–1934) is known by this literary
From the book Russian Istanbul author Komandorova Natalya IvanovnaWorkshop of friends-poets V. Dukelsky and B. Poplavsky They were only seventeen years old when they ended up in Constantinople in 1920. Probably, then acquaintances and unfamiliar people simply turned to them, simply calling them “Volodya” and “Borey”. One of them, Vladimir
From the book Secrets of the Deaths of Russian Poets author Kuropatkina Marina VladimirovnaMarina Kuropatkina Secrets of the deaths of Russian poets
From the book History of Sins. Release 1 author Egorova Elena Nikolaevna From the book Lubyanka - the old square the author Bredikhin VNHUNDREDS OF WRITERS AND POETS, "MISSING" IN PRISONS AND CAMPS! From this fact alone, even me, an old convict, takes horror, especially since there are many of my friends among the dead. And how many came out physically and morally crippled, how many of those who are no longer
Especially for the OU, Alexei Makarov recalled the most important events in the history of the dissident movement in the Soviet Union.
July 1958
The opening of the monument to Mayakovsky in Moscow and the beginning of informal meetings of young people on the square near the monument. Many participants in poetry readings would later become well-known dissidents.
1959–1960
Alexander Ginzburg publishes three issues of the samizdat poetry magazine "Syntax" in which most of the famous Russian poets of the middle of the 20th century are published - from Akhmadulina to Brodsky.
June 1–2, 1962
Demonstration of workers protesting against price increases in Novocherkassk. Troops were sent to disperse the protesters. Several dozen people were killed.
February-March 1964
The arrest in Leningrad of the poet Joseph Brodsky on charges of "parasitism"; sentence - 5 years of exile. He was released in September 1965 due to numerous, but non-public actions of the intelligentsia, as well as pressure from the world community. An unofficial recording of the process, made by journalist Frida Vigdorova, will mark the beginning of a new genre of samizdat.
December 5, 1965
"Rally of Glasnost" on Pushkin Square in connection with the arrest in September 1965 of writers Andrei Sinyavsky and Yuli Daniel, who published under pseudonyms abroad. It is considered the starting point of the dissident movement.
January 22, 1967
Vladimir Bukovsky organizes a demonstration on Pushkinskaya Square to protest against the adopted new political articles of the Criminal Code, including Article 190-3 “Organization or active participation in group actions that violate public order”, as well as in connection with the arrest of like-minded people (Alexander Ginzburg , Yuri Galanskov and others). Bukovsky and his comrades will be convicted under those articles of the Criminal Code against which they protested.
January 11, 1968
In connection with the trial of Alexander Ginzburg, Yuri Galanskov, Alexei Dobrovolsky and Vera Lashkova, Larisa Bogoraz and Pavel Litvinov issue an appeal "", asserting in society the idea that human rights are not an internal matter of the state.
April 30, 1968
The first issue of the human rights bulletin Chronicle of Current Events is published (last dated December 31, 1982). His candid tone and factual accuracy made him the lynchpin of the dissident movement. All issues can be found at the link: http://www.memo.ru/history/diss/chr/index.htm .
August 25, 1968
"Demonstration of the Seven" on Red Square to protest against the invasion of Warsaw Pact troops into Czechoslovakia. A participant in the demonstration (and the first editor of the Chronicle of Current Events), the poet Natalya Gorbanevskaya, will compile a documentary collection, Noon, about the demonstration and the trial of its participants.
May 20, 1969
The first human rights association in the USSR, the Initiative Group for the Protection of Human Rights, was created. The addressee of her messages will be the Commission on Human Rights of the United Nations.
November 4, 1970
Andrei Sakharov, Valery Chalidze and Andrei Tverdokhlebov founded a human rights expert organization - the Human Rights Committee.
1971
Academician Andrei Sakharov (already known as the author of "Reflections on Progress, Peaceful Coexistence and Intellectual Freedom") sends a "Memorandum" to Leonid Brezhnev, General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU, proposing democratic reforms.
1972–1973
Increasing pressure on human rights defenders in Russia and Ukraine. Arrested Pyotr Yakir and Viktor Krasin give confessions during the investigation and at the trial, which leads to the suspension of the publication of the Chronicle of Current Events and a temporary crisis in the dissident movement.
February 12–13, 1974
The arrest, indictment of "treason against the Motherland" and exile to Germany of the writer, Nobel Prize winner (1970) Alexander Solzhenitsyn, whose "experience of artistic research" "The Gulag Archipelago" was published in December 1973 in Paris.
October 30, 1974
For the first time, the Day of the Political Prisoner of the USSR is celebrated. A press conference for foreign journalists is being held in Moscow, hunger strikes are taking place in political camps.
October 1975
Academician Andrei Sakharov was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.
May 12, 1976
Creation of the Moscow Public Group for Assistance in the Implementation of the Helsinki Accords in the USSR. Subsequently, Helsinki Groups arise in Lithuania, Georgia, Ukraine and Armenia, as well as in Western countries. The Helsinki Act drew attention to the relationship between human rights and international security.
1976–1978
Creation of specialized human rights associations: the Christian Committee for the Protection of the Rights of Believers in the USSR, the Working Commission to Investigate the Use of Psychiatry for Political Purposes, the Initiative Group for the Protection of the Rights of the Disabled.
January 22, 1980
Andrei Sakharov was detained in Moscow on his way to work, by a special decree of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR he was deprived of all state awards and sent to Gorky (a city closed to foreigners) without trial.
September 6, 1982
The last three members of the Moscow Helsinki Group (Elena Bonner, Sofya Kallistratova, Naum Meiman) say it is ceasing its activities due to repression.
December 8, 1986
Anatoly Marchenko, a human rights activist and author of the book My Testimony, dies after a days-long hunger strike demanding the release of all political prisoners in the Chistopol prison.
December 16, 1986
Mikhail Gorbachev, General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU, calls Academician Sakharov's apartment in Gorky (on the eve a special telephone was placed there) and informs him of permission to return to Moscow. Sakharov demands the release of all political prisoners in the USSR.
January-February 1987
The process of releasing political prisoners begins. Many of them are forced to sign pledges "not to violate Soviet laws."
Today we are publishing excerpts from the biographical dictionary "Dissident Writers", which has already been published in the journal "New Literary Review" for several issues. This text is the fruit of collaboration and has been prepared as part of an extensive research project“Dictionary of dissidents: Representatives of opposition movements in the communist countries of Central and Eastern Europe in the period 1956-1989” and supplemented in preparation for publication in “UFO”. Since 1996, the work on the project has been led by an international team of scientists, in which Russia was represented by the Memorial Research and Information and Education Center.
The compilers of the dictionary classified dissidents as “persons whose cultural, civic, religious, national or political activity was contrary to the officially proclaimed or implied attitudes of the totalitarian system and at the same time did not allow violence and calls for violence, or at least did not come down to them. ".
One biographical date from the given fragment of the dictionary, alas, needs to be supplemented: Mark Alexandrovich Popovsky died on April 7, 2004 in New York.
MALTSEV YURI VLADIMIROVICH
(07/19/1932, Rostov-on-Don)
Graduated in 1955 Faculty of Philology Leningrad University. Translated Italian writers, published critical articles on Italian literature and theater (1955-1965). In 1956-1962 he was an interpreter for Italian delegations in the USSR, he taught Italian at the Faculty of History of Moscow University.
Since 1960, M. unsuccessfully sought permission to travel to Italy. In December 1964, he applied to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR with the renunciation of Soviet citizenship due to the rejection of official ideology. M. also pointed out that the Soviet editions refuse to publish his novels, short stories and articles. The result of this demarche was the dismissal from Moscow State University.
In March 1966 and July 1967, M. sent new letters to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR with a request to let him out of the country.
In February 1968, M. signed an appeal in defense of A. Ginzburg and Y. Galanskov. At the same time, M. turned to the UN Secretary-General with a request to help him emigrate from the USSR. In December 1968, M. signed an appeal to the people's deputies of the USSR and the RSFSR protesting against the condemnation of the participants in the "demonstration of the seven" on Red Square; in April 1969 - against the arrest of I. Yakhimovich.
From the late 1960s, M. handed over manuscripts of works not published in the USSR and information about human rights violations in the USSR to the West, helping V. Krasin in this. M. - a founding member of the Initiative Group for the Protection of Human Rights in the USSR, in this capacity signed the first letter of the IG to the UN (05/20/1969) and other documents of the group, issued in 1969-1970.
In 1969 he worked as a telegram peddler.
In mid-October 1969, M. was forcibly placed in a psychiatric hospital, where he remained until November. About his stay there and the conditions of detention, M. wrote an essay "Reporting from a lunatic asylum" (December 1969). In 1974, this document (one of the first and documented accurate stories about Soviet psychiatric prisons) was published in the West in Novy Zhurnal.
In 1972-1973, M. was repeatedly interrogated by the KGB in the case of Yakir-Krasin; at a confrontation, V. Krasin unsuccessfully persuaded M. to tell about his meetings with Italian correspondents and the transfer of various information and manuscripts to the West.
In April 1974, after a series of interrogations at the KGB, M. got the opportunity to emigrate from the USSR, secretly took some of his manuscripts out of the country.
Settled in Italy. He teaches Russian language and literature at the Universities of Parma and Milan. Stories and literary-critical articles M. published in the newspapers "New Russian Word", "Russian Thought", in the journals "Frontiers" and "Continent".
In 1976, M.'s monograph Free Russian Literature was published. This work, which acquaints readers with many unknown works of uncensored Russian literature of the 1950s-1970s, has not lost its significance to this day.
Printed at home.
A.G. Papovyan
Publications: Reporting from a lunatic asylum // Novy zhurn. 1974. No. 116. S. 3-71; Russian literature in search of forms // Facets. 1975. No. 98. S. 159-210; Free Russian Literature, 1955-1975. Frankfurt am Main: Posev, 1976. 472 p.; "Matrenin Dvor" in Italy // Continent. 1977. No. 13. S. 339-345; Intermediate Literature and Authenticity Criteria // Continent. 1980. No. 25. S. 285-321; Mental illnesses of a mad world: [Rec. to: Aleshkovsky Yu. A little blue modest handkerchief. New York, 1982]// Continent. 1982. No. 33. S. 390-393; Forgotten publications of Bunin // Continent. 1983. No. 37. S. 337-360; Ivan Bunin, 1870-1953. M.: Posev, 1994. 432 p.
Compilation and editing: Initiative group for the protection of human rights in the USSR: Sat. doc. New York: Chronicle, 1976. 73 p. From the contents: Texts signed by M. S. 5-20; Biogr. reference. S. 72.
About him: Bloch S., Reddaway P. Psychiatric terror: How Soviet psychiatry is used to suppress dissent. New York, 1977 (op.cit.).
NARITSA (pseudonym Narymov) MIKHAIL ALEKSANDROVICH
(7.11.1909, village Lopatino, Pskov province - 7.02.1993, Riga, Latvia)
Born into a peasant family. He graduated from the Leningrad Art College, studied at the Leningrad Academy of Arts. Repin. In 1935 he was convicted under Art. 58-8 (“organization of terrorist acts for counter-revolutionary purposes ...”), 58-11 of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR to five years in camps, served time in the Komi ASSR. After his release, he lived with his family on a collective farm in the Arkhangelsk region. Arrested again in 1949 and sentenced to eternal exile, served it in Karaganda. In 1957 he was rehabilitated, returned to Leningrad, was restored at the Academy of Arts. Graduated in 1959 autobiographical story"Unsung Song", the main character of which, an artist, dies in a Stalinist camp. Nine typewritten copies of N. and his eldest son Fyodor handed over to foreign tourists for publication in the West.
In the summer of 1960, he was detained in the Hermitage building after handing over a copy of the manuscript to a foreign citizen. In September 1960 he wrote a letter to N. Khrushchev (with the text of the story attached). Having received no answer, he began to seek permission to leave the USSR. The copy, exported to the West by the Austrian scientist K. Mehnert, was transferred to the editors of the journal "Frontiers" and published there in October-December 1960 (under the pseudonym Narymov).
10/13/1961 N. was arrested on charges of "anti-Soviet agitation and propaganda" (Art. 70 of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR). He was declared insane and by the decision of the Leningrad City Court dated March 1, 1962, he was placed in the Leningrad Special Psychiatric Hospital.
Released 09/30/1964. In the same year, the story "The Unsung Song" was published in Munich in a separate edition under the name of the author (it was translated into German and Dutch). In 1965, N. wrote a letter to the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR demanding that he and his wife be allowed to emigrate. In 1967 he moved with his family to the Latvian SSR. An essay about N.'s stay in a prison-type psychiatric clinic - "Crime and Punishment" - was distributed in samizdat and was published abroad in the collection "Executed by Madness".
In 1970, he distributed his autobiography A Little About Myself in samizdat. In 1970-1975 he wrote several articles for samizdat (mostly autobiographical), wrote works on the theory of art. Forwarded the study “Drawing. Perspective” at Uppsala University (Sweden). Unsuccessfully tried to get permission to travel there to give lectures.
On November 20, 1975, in Jelgava, N. was again arrested and charged under Art. 198 of the Criminal Code of the Latvian SSR (similar to Art. 1901 of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR). He was kept in psychiatric hospitals in Jelgava and Riga. At the Institute. Serbsky was declared sane, returned to Riga and released in early May 1976 "as having ceased to be socially dangerous." 05/10/1976 wrote an application asking for permission to emigrate, again received a refusal. In 1981, N.'s memoirs "After rehabilitation" (about his two arrests - in 1961 and 1975) were published abroad.
In 1992 he was rehabilitated, in the same year his memoirs were published in the Riga newspaper SM-today. Buried in Rezekne (Latvia).
In 1996, the first book of N. in his homeland was published in St. Petersburg.
DI. Zubarev, G.V. Kuzovkin
Publications: Unsung Song: A Tale // Facets. 1960. No. 48. S. 5-113. Signed: M. Narymov. Dep. ed.: Unsung Song: A Tale. Frankfurt am Main: Posev, 1964. 127 p.; Crime and punishment // Sowing. 1971. No. 8. S. 35-42; The same: [Excerpt] Ward No. 25... // Executed by madness. Frankfurt am Main: Posev, 1971, pp. 371-380; Per. in English. lang.: Crime and punishment // US, Congress (92th - 2nd session). Senate. Committee on the judiciary. Abuse of psychiatry for political repression in the Soviet Union, September 26, 1972. Washington: , 1972. P. 180-190; After rehabilitation: Memoirs. Frankfurt am Main: Posev, 1981. 108 p. (Free word; Issue 43). Ed. in Russia: Star. 1997. No. 11. S. 174-185; End or beginning?: (Notes of the artist). Stories. Where should art go? St. Petersburg: DEAN; ADIA-M., 1996. 152 p.
About him: The case of M.A. Naritsa // US, Congress (92th - 2nd session). Senate. Committee on the judiciary. Abuse of psychiatry for political repression in the Soviet Union. September 26, 1972. Washington: , 1972. P. 178-180: photo; Maltsev Yu. Free Russian Literature, 1955-1975. Frankfurt am Main: Sowing, 1976 (op.cit.); Evdokimov R. Mikhail Aleksandrovich Naritsa: [Obituary] // Facets. 1993. No. 167. C. 316-317; In memory of the writer Mikhail Naritsa // Rus. thought. 1993. March 5; Dolin V. Mikhail Naritsa and his "Unsung Song" // Sowing. 1999. No. 12. S. 34-36.
NEKIPELOV VIKTOR ALEKSANDROVICH
(09/29/1928, Harbin - 07/1/1989, Paris)
Born in China, in a family of Soviet citizens, employees of the Chinese Eastern Railway. In 1937, together with his mother, he came to the USSR (in 1939, his mother was arrested and died in custody), he was brought up in his father's family. He graduated from high school in Omsk, in 1947-1950 he studied at the Omsk military medical school. After graduation, he served as an officer in the Soviet army, worked in a military newspaper (1950-1951), published his poems there. After being denied admission to the CPSU, he was fired from the newspaper, served as a paramedic in military units of the Tomsk and Arkhangelsk regions. In 1955-1960 he studied at the military-pharmaceutical (after its closure at the pharmaceutical) faculty of the Kharkov Medical Institute, graduated with honors. In 1960-1965 he worked in Uzhgorod in the regional pharmacy department. He published a collection of poems "Between Mars and Venus". In 1965-1970 he lived in Uman (Ukrainian SSR), worked at a vitamin plant as an engineer, studied in absentia at the Moscow Literary Institute. Gorky (graduated in 1969), translated Ukrainian poetry into Russian.
From the mid-1960s, largely under the influence of the participants in the political resistance of the 1920s and 1930s who lived in Uman, former prisoners of the Stalinist camps E. Olitskaya and N. Surovtsova, N. began her path to dissidence.
In August 1968, N. and his wife Nina Komarova produced and scattered in Uman 20 leaflets protesting against the invasion of Warsaw Pact troops into Czechoslovakia (all the leaflets ended up in the KGB, but their authors were not found). He met and began to communicate with Moscow and Ukrainian human rights activists (S. Myuge, G. Podyapolsky, L. Plyshch). In 1969 he came to the attention of the KGB, in 1970 he was fired from his job to reduce staff.
In 1970-1971 he was in charge of a pharmacy in Solnechnogorsk, Moscow Region. He visited the apartments of Moscow dissidents, where they exchanged samizdat. "We argued with those who believed in socialism with" human face”, who believed in the idea of socialism in general, who called themselves neo-Marxists, who sought to resolve their issues with the help of Lenin's quotes. We really “got sick” with the rejection of the system in which we had the misfortune to be born” (from the memoirs of N.’s wife). After the refusal to register, he was forced to leave the Moscow region, settled in the village of Kameshkovo, Vladimir region, where in 1972-1974 he was in charge of a pharmacy.
During the campaign against the distributors of samizdat, which began with searches at the Moscow friends of N., KGB officers 6 times during the year (from July 1972 to July 1973) came to him with searches. Wrote an article "They want to judge us - for what?" about the case against his friends and about his possible arrest: “When I am arrested,<...>I ask my family and friends to know for sure that I will not give evidence to the investigation and the court. <...>I believe that Russia will cleanse itself, begin to see clearly, survive fear and forever take away from its rulers the age-old habit of rummaging through books and minds!”
07/11/1973 N. was arrested. During the investigation, he was kept in the Vladimir and Butyrka prisons, underwent a psychiatric examination at the Institute. Serbsky (later he wrote the book “Institute of Fools” about this institution, published in English in 1980). In his defense, a statement was issued by the Initiative Group for the Protection of Human Rights in the USSR (January 1974).
Convicted by the Vladimir Regional Court (16-21.05.1974) under Art. 190-1 of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR to 2 years in a correctional labor colony of general regime. He was accused of copying and distributing the Chronicle of Current Events, his own poems and articles. At the trial, I read the poem “Instead of the last word”, written in prison, ending with the words: “I will meet the verdict calmly, because I am sure of my complete innocence. I believe that sooner or later - in the name of Russia, the conscience of Russia (free Russia) - I will be rehabilitated.
He served time in a correctional labor colony in the city of Yuryevets, Vladimir Region, and under investigation and in the colony continued to write poetry (most of them were included in the collection Anesthesia, Samizdat, 1976). Released 07/11/1975, returned to the village of Kameshkovo. For more than six months he could not find a job, then he got a job as a laboratory doctor in a district hospital.
In 1975-1979 he was an active participant in the human rights movement, he signed many petitions. Personally, N. repeatedly spoke out in defense of the workers M. Kukobaki (15 and 20.10.1977, January-February, 26.08, 14 and 27.09, 28.10.1979), E. Buzinnikov (6.10.1978), E. Kuleshov (12.01, 18 and 07/30/1979), I. Radikov (1978), wrote a letter "To the arrest of Tatyana Velikanova" (11/10/1979).
In October 1977 he joined the Moscow Helsinki Group, participated in the compilation and editing of its documents for more than two years. He paid special attention to the problem of protecting the rights of people with disabilities, helped to create and work the Initiative Group for the Protection of the Rights of People with Disabilities in the USSR. Dedicated to this problem, as well as the activities of the Group, the article "Erased from the facade" (March 1979). Regularly participated in traditional demonstrations on Pushkin Square in Moscow on Human Rights Day (December 10).
In those years, N. was a prolific author of samizdat. In the article "Why I didn't sign the Stockholm Appeal [the World Peace Council's appeal against nuclear war]" (June 1976) protested "against the campaign of state coercion masquerading as a surge of popular initiative." Wrote a series of articles "Oprichnina-77" (co-authored with T. Khodorovich) and "Oprichnina-78" (co-authored with T. Osipova), which denounced the state's methods of reprisals against dissidents.
Together with A. Podrabinek, he wrote the book “From the Yellow Silence” about punitive psychiatry in the USSR (1975). Together with T. Khodorovich, he wrote the articles “State lynching” (October 1976) and “Not guilty of treason” (1976-1977), dedicated to the fate of political prisoners M. Naritsa and I. Ogurtsov; as well as “Do not give in to the rhinoceros. Jimmy Carter - Politics, Morality" (08/8/1977). Together with his wife, he wrote a documentary essay "On Our Searches" (June-July 1977), which described seven searches that they underwent in 1972-1977 (later supplemented by chapter 11 - "Eighth, Sunday" (August 1979)). In the samizdat magazine "Search" (No. 4, 1978) he published an article "Thoughts about citizenship" and a cycle of his poems. Together with K. Velikanova, he wrote the article “Myt and public servants (Soviet customs guarding the conquests of October)” (1979). Together with F. Serebrov - "Faculty of Democracy" (November 1979), about foreign radio programs in Russian with advice and wishes.
Articles N., written in October 1978, "Stalin on the windshield" (about the moral crisis of Soviet society) and "Cemetery of the vanquished" (about desolation in the cemeteries of German prisoners of war in the Vladimir region) were published in the émigré magazine "Continent".
In 1978, N. was admitted to the French PEN club, and in 1979 - American.
Back in March 1977, N. filed an application to leave the USSR, without receiving a response from the authorities, wrote a letter to the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR with a renunciation of Soviet citizenship (08/03/1977): “My departure is not an escape, not a departure to the chimera of a better life . It is simply the impossibility of doing otherwise, the impossibility of living a day or an hour in this country without a spiritual convulsion<...>at the present time I have come to a complete rejection of the communist ideology and all Soviet doctrines, that is, to an anti-Soviet way of thinking ... Yes, I am an anti-Soviet and anti-socialist by my convictions. Life in this status within the USSR, of course, is impossible. I ask you to consider this statement as an explicit renunciation of Soviet citizenship. Having received a refusal to leave, on September 22, 1977 he sent a new application to the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and sent his passport along with it. For more than two years he continued to fight for leaving the USSR, appealed to Soviet and international authorities on this matter (he described this in the article “For Regime Considerations” (08/15/1978)): “Your “regime considerations” are not at all access to state secrets, which, you know, never existed.<...>And the real “regime considerations” are my dissidence.”
On December 7, 1979, he was arrested by the KGB in Kameshkovo and placed in the Vladimir prison. N. was charged with writing 17 works (human rights documents, journalism, poetry). In his defense, the MHG issued document No. 113 (12/10/1979). Convicted by the visiting session of the Vladimir Regional Court (Kameshkovo, 11-13.06.1980) under Art. 70 part 1 of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR to 7 years in a strict regime corrective labor colony and 5 years in exile. Refused the appointed lawyer and defended himself. pleaded not guilty, last word said: "I do not ask the court for leniency, because that would be contrary to what I wrote." Statements in defense of N. were issued by A. Sakharov (06/14/1980, forwarded from Gorky) and the MHG (document No. 139 of 08/27/1980). He served time in political camps in Perm (1981-1982, 1985-1986) and in the Chistopol prison (1982-1985). Participated in the struggle of political prisoners for their rights (hunger strikes, strikes), was constantly punished (imprisonment in a punishment cell, cell-type premises, deprivation of visits).
He forwarded letters of protest to the will (to Patriarch Pimen (04/29/1981)), signed collective open letters of political prisoners. In custody, he fell seriously ill, but rejected insistent offers of immediate release after a public "repentance". After the camp term, despite his illness, he was sent into exile in the city of Aban, Krasnoyarsk Territory. He was released on March 20, 1987 as part of Gorbachev's campaign to pardon political prisoners.
Immediately after his release, he applied for an exit from the USSR. He emigrated with his wife (09/27/1987), lived in France. He was buried at the Valenton Cemetery near Paris.
DI. Zubarev, G.V. Kuzovkin
Publications: Institute of fools // Time and we. 1977. No. 23. S. 177-205; No. 24. S. 175-206. Per. in English. lang.: Institute of fools: Notes from the Serbian. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1980. $292; Oprichnina-1977: (Political reprisals by criminal means) // Vestnik RHD. 1977. No. 121. S. 367-378. Joint with T. Khodorovich; Poems // Continent. 1977. No. 12. S. 156-163; Poems // Facets. 1978. No. 107. S. 97-101; Stalin on the windshield; Cemetery of the vanquished // Continent. 1979. No. 19. S. 238-247; Bread and refugees // Continent. 1980. No. 25. S. 163-172; Thoughts on citizenship // Searches. 1982. No. 4. S. 23-26; Poems // Searches. 1982. No. 4. S. 205-212; Mayerling: Poems // Facets. 1985. No. 137. S. 99-100; Alabushevo. How to live this strange winter?: Poems // Ogonyok. 1989. No. 51. P. 25; Poetry. Paris: La presse libre, 1991. 222 p.; Poetry. Boston: Memorial, 1992. 108 p.; Poems: Blizzard. Renunciation. Ballad of the first search. Expectation. Broadcast. March // Friendship of peoples. 1993. No. 3. S. 144-146; Betrothal to Russia: Journalism. Paris, 1999. 219 p.
About him: Documents of the Moscow Helsinki Group, 1976-1982. M., 2001 (spec.); The Poet V.A. Nekipelov... // US. Congress (94) Session (1). Senate. Hearing Testimony of Dr. Norman B. Hirt submitted to the Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and other Internal Security Laws of the Committee on the judiciary United States Senate. Abuse of psychiatry for political repression in the Soviet Union. Vol. 2, March 12, 1974. Washington: , 1975, pp. 95-96; Komarova N. The book of love and anger. Paris, 1994. 454 p.; [ Landa M.] “We will let you go abroad, but first we will destroy you as a person”: Malva Landa about Viktor Nekipelov // Human rights activist. 1996. No. 3. S. 82-94.
NIM NAUM ( real name Efremov Naum Aronovich)
(b. 02/16/1951, Bogushevsk, Vitebsk region, Belarus).
Father - a war invalid - died when Naum was eight years old. Mother is a teacher, now lives in Israel.
In 1968 N. entered the Faculty of Mechanics and Mathematics of Moscow State University. Later he studied at the mathematical faculty of Rostov University. After the birth of his son, he returned to his native city, then moved to Vitebsk, where he graduated from the evening department of the mathematical faculty of the Pedagogical Institute.
After graduating from the institute, N. worked for several years as an educator and teacher in a boarding school for mentally handicapped children in Novocherkassk, then as a programmer, a mathematics teacher at school.
From the early 1970s until his arrest (1985), he was engaged in replicating and distributing samizdat literature, mainly works of art and journalism by authors who were not published in the USSR. After repeated searches and seizures of books and manuscripts, he was arrested in January 1985 in the city of Rostov-on-Don. Convicted by the Rostov Regional Court (06/28/1985) under Art. 1901 of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR for two and a half years in a general regime colony. He spent most of his term in a criminal camp in Tyumen. Released in March 1987, as part of Gorbachev's campaign to pardon political prisoners. For some time he worked in a boiler room, then he took up social and literary activities.
First short stories N. wrote in the early 1980s. Their only critics were investigators from the prosecutor's office, on whose orders searches were carried out in his apartment and in the apartments of friends and acquaintances in Vitebsk and Moscow. In his own words, “I began to write seriously rather late,” already after leaving the camp (he first appeared in print in the journal Continent). In 1990-1992 he published the novels "The Bright and Morning Star" and "Before the Crow of the Cock".
N.'s work is dominated by "camp" themes. Against the background of the "camp literature" of the 1980s-1990s, his prose stands out for its scrupulous and ruthless analysis of the process of destruction of the human personality under the influence of circumstances and environment. In the world he describes, there are no right and wrong, there is no someone else's grief and someone else's luck, but you can save yourself only in a tough (up to physical death) opposition to the system, knowing and understanding the laws of bondage deeply.
Currently, N. is the editor-in-chief of the quarterly magazine «Index. Dossier on censorship”, a member of the Russian branch of PEN. He took an active part in protest campaigns against the Chechen war.
Lives in Moscow.
E. Linkova
Publications: The star is bright and morning // Continent. 1990. No. 65. S. 23-113; No. 66, pp. 111-207; To the cock's cry // Znamya. 1992. No. 10. S. 59-95; Leave hope... or soul: [Tales]. Moscow: Sovershenno sekretno LLP, 1997. 253 p.
NUDELMAN RAFAIL ELIEVICH
(born March 16, 1931, Sverdlovsk)
Mother N. was repressed as an activist of the Zionist movement and executed in 1937. He was brought up by his aunt and her husband (both were economists). Childhood passed in Odessa. He graduated from the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of the Odessa State University and the Pedagogical Faculty of the Leningrad Pedagogical Institute (1960). Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences (1968).
Lived in Vladimir. In 1960-1967 he taught theoretical physics at the universities of Murom and Vladimir. Published science fiction prose, critical articles on science fiction, incl. about the work of the Strugatsky brothers, as well as translations.
In 1974-1975 he was one of the editors (with No. 4) and a regular contributor to the collection (magazine) "Jews in the USSR" (for a long time he published articles and translations under various pseudonyms).
On May 22, 1975, N.'s apartment in Vladimir, as well as the apartments of the Moscow publishers of the magazine, were searched by KGB officers. Copies of the journal "Jews in the USSR", editorial materials (articles and essays on Jewish cultural and religious life), and typewriters were confiscated. 06/5/1975 N. together with I. Rubin signed an open letter to the international PEN club and five famous foreign writers in defense of the publishers of the collection "Jews in the USSR". In No. 10 of the collection, N.'s name was placed on the title page in the list of compilers (continued to appear there even after his emigration, in 1976-1977). In the same issue, an interview with A. Sakharov, taken by N. and I. Rubin, was published. Signed several documents of the Jewish emigration movement. In December 1975 he emigrated to Israel.
In 1976-1978 he was the editor-in-chief of the Russian-language magazine Zion. Founder and in 1978-1994 chief editor of the Russian-language literary magazine"Twenty-Two" (Israel), which received the Prize. R.N. Ettinger in 1984. Together with Rubin, he founded the Moscow-Jerusalem book publishing house in 1976. He continued to research and translate science fiction (now his work is published in Russia).
Since 1985 he has been a member of the editorial board of the journal Science fiction studies (USA-Canada).
Lives in Jerusalem, a correspondent for Radio Liberty.
S.A. Charny
Publications: Return from the Stars: Thoughts on Science Fiction // Technique for Youth. 1964. No. 5. S. 24-25; ...And eternal battle! // Strugatsky A., Strugatsky B. Far rainbow. M., 1964; A conversation in a compartment [about science fiction] // Fiction. 1964 M., 1964; Fiction, born of the revolution // Fiction. 1966. Issue. 3M., . pp. 330-369; Three times the thirtieth of June // World of Adventures. M., 1969. S. 97-149; Universe around the corner // World of Adventures. M., 1971. S. 87-194. Together with A.G. Thunderous; The Time Institute is investigating: A fantasy novel. M.: Det. lit., 1973. 367 p. Together with A.G. Thunderous; Hlasko M. Converted to Jaffa / Per. from Polish. R. Nudelman // Time and us. 1976. No. 11. S. 3-49; No. 12. S. 3-60; "To the International PEN Club...": An Open Letter // Jewish Samizdat. Jerusalem, 1977. V. 12. S. 2. Together with I. Rubin; It seems to me that it is possible to tell... // Rubin I. Look back in tears. Jerusalem, 1977. S. 5-8; The case of Ladyzhensky, or Reflections on life and death // Twenty-two. 1981. No. 18. S. 192-201; Vulture // Twenty-two. 1981. No. 20. S. 166-170; The new bet of American politics? (Together with E. Kuznetsov) // Twenty-two. 1982. No. 23. S. 174-192; Paradigm of Moses // Twenty-two. 1983. No. 29. C. 134-141.
Compiler: Space Hospital: Sat. sci.-fi. stories about extraterrestrial life forms / Comp. R. Nudelman. M.: Mir., 1972. 414 p.; Jews in the USSR. 1975. No. 10, 11 / Comp. R. Nudelman and others // Jewish samizdat. Jerusalem, 1977. T. 12. S. 1-267; Riddles of Jewish history / Comp. and trans. R. Nudelman. Jerusalem: Tarbut, 1990. 208 p.
About him: Free voices in Russian Literature, 1950s - 1980s: A Bio-Bibliographical Guide / Ed. by A. Sumerkin. New York, 1987. P. 304-305; Russian Jewish Encyclopedia. M., 1995. T. 2. S. 339.
OKSMAN YULIAN GRIGORYEVICH
(01/11/1895 (old style 12/30/1894),
Voznesensk, Kherson province - 09/15/1970, Moscow)
The son of a pharmacist. In 1912-1913 he studied in Germany, at the Universities of Bonn and Heidelberg. In 1913-1917 he was a student of the Faculty of History and Philology of St. Petersburg (Petrograd) University. While still a student, he began to print. In 1917-1918 - assistant to the head of the archives of the Ministry (People's Commissariat) of Education, a participant in the preparation and implementation of the reform of archives after the February Revolution (1917). In 1918-1919 - head of the censorship and press sector of the Central Archive of the RSFSR (at the same time - a member of the Petrograd Council of Workers', Peasants' and Soldiers' Deputies). In 1920-1923 he worked in Odessa (head of the provincial archival administration, rector of the Archaeological Institute, member of the provincial committee). In 1923-1936 he lived in Petrograd-Leningrad (professor, head of the archive of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of pre-revolutionary Russia, academic secretary, and then deputy director of the Institute of Russian Literature of the USSR Academy of Sciences). Chairman of the Pushkin Commission, participated in the preparation of the Complete Academic Works of A.S. Pushkin. In 1933-1936 he was a member of the Presidium of the Leningrad Soviet.
On the night of November 5-6, 1936, O. was arrested (he was charged with "attempts to disrupt Pushkin's anniversary by slowing down work on the anniversary collection of works"). Sentenced by a resolution of the Special Meeting of the NKVD of the USSR dated 06/15/1937 to 5 years in labor camp. He served time in Kolyma (Sevvostlag), worked as a bath attendant, cooper, shoemaker, watchman. In 1941 he received a new term (5 years) for "slandering the Soviet court." In conclusion, he continued his scientific work, collecting documents and oral evidence about Russian culture at the beginning of the 20th century. Released in Magadan (11/6/1946).
In 1947-1957 - at the Department of the History of Russian Literature at Saratov University (professor, from 1950 - senior lecturer, from 1952 - assistant, from 1954 - professor). In 1958, O. returned to Moscow, until 1964 he worked as a senior researcher in the Department of Russian Literature at the Institute of World Literature. Gorky of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (IMLI), headed the Herzenov group, prepared for publication the book “Works and Days of V.G. Belinsky” (awarded with a gold medal of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR). In 1934-1936 and in 1956-1964 he was a member of the Writers' Union of the USSR (both times expelled).
O. considered one of his main life tasks after his release to be “the struggle (albeit hopeless) for the expulsion from science and literature of at least the most vile of hench executioners Yezhov, Beria, Zakovsky, Ryumin, and others”, publicly exposed scammers at scientific and literary meetings . From 1958, O. began to establish contacts with Western Slavists (including emigrants, primarily with Professor Gleb Struve), conducted extensive correspondence with them (including secret correspondence through interns who worked in the USSR). He transmitted to the West the texts of the poets of the "Silver Age" - Nikolai Gumilyov, Osip Mandelstam, Anna Akhmatova - and his memoirs about them, which were not published in the USSR, helping Struva in publishing the collected works of these authors. In the summer of 1963 O. anonymously published in the West the article "Informers and traitors among Soviet writers and scientists." In August 1963, after one of the letters abroad was confiscated by the border guards, the KGB searched O. (diaries, part of the correspondence and samizdat were confiscated). An investigation was launched that lasted until the end of the year (the version was checked that O. was published abroad under the pseudonym Abram Terts). The case against O. was dismissed, and materials about O.'s contacts with emigrants were transferred to the Union of Writers and IMLI for the adoption of "measures of public influence." O. was expelled from the Writers' Union (October 1964), forced to retire from IMLI, removed from the editorial board of the Concise Literary Encyclopedia, one of the initiators of the publication of which he was.
In 1965-1968 O. worked as a professor-adviser of the departments of the history of the USSR and the history of Russian literature at Gorky University, was fired from there at the request of the KGB and the regional committee of the CPSU. Works O. or not published, or published under pseudonyms. The message about his death was not placed in the Soviet press (O.'s only domestic obituary was published by the Chronicle of Current Events, No. 16).
He was buried at the Vostryakovsky cemetery in Moscow.
DI. Zubarev
Publications: Chronicle of the life and work of V.G. Belinsky. M.: Goslitizdat, 1958. 643 p.; From " captain's daughter"to" Notes of a hunter ": Pushkin-Ryleev-Koltsov-Belinsky-Turgenev: Research and materials. Saratov: Book. ed., 1959. 316 p.; Scammers and traitors among Soviet writers and scientists // Socialist Bulletin. 1963. No. 5/6. pp. 74-76. Signed: NN. The same: “Stalinists” among Soviet writers and scientists // Rus. thought. 1963. 3 Aug. Signature: NN.; From the archives of the Hoover Institution. Letters from Yu.G. Oksman to G.P. Struve / Publ. L. Fleishman // Stanford slavic studies. Stanford, 1987. Vol. 1. P. 15-70; From the correspondence of Yu.G. Oksman / Intro. article and note. M.O. Chudakova and E.A. Toddes // Fourth Tynyanov Readings: Report Abstracts and Materials for Discussion. Riga, 1988, pp. 96-168; "From a diary that I do not keep" // Memories of Anna Akhmatova. M., 1991. S. 640-647; Letters from Yu.G. Oksman to L.L. Domgeru // Themes and Variations: Sat. Art. and materials for the 50th anniversary of Lazar Fleishman. Stanford, 1994, pp. 470-544; Azadovsky M.K., Oksman Yu.G. Correspondence. 1944-1954. M.: New lit. review, 1998. 410 p.; Oksman Yu.G., Chukovsky K.I. Correspondence. 1949-1969 / Foreword. and comment. A.L. Grishunin. M.: Languages of Slavic culture, 2001. 187 p.; "Exchange of feelings and thoughts": From the correspondence of S.Ya. Borovoy with Yu.G. Oksman / Publ. V.N. Abrosimova; comment by V.N. Abrosimova and M.G. Sokolyansky // Egupets. Kyiv, 2003. Issue. 11. S. 335-381.
About him: Obituary // Chronicle of current events. Issue. 16. 10/31/1970 // Chronicle of current events. Issue. 16-27. Amsterdam, 1979, pp. 30-32. Anonymously; Edgerton W. Yulian Grigorievich Oksman // Russian literature. 1973. No. 5. P. 5-34; Dryzhakova E. The Fifties in transition: A.S. Dolinin and Yu.G. Oksman, our remarkable teachers // Oxford slavonic papers. Oxford, 1985. Vol. 18. P. 120-149; Cavern V. Literator: Diaries and Letters. M., 1988. S. 133-144; B Ogaevskaya K.P. Return: About Julian Grigorievich Oksman // Lit. review. 1990. No. 4. S. 100-112; Once again about Oksman's "case" // Tynyanov collection: Fifth Tynyanov readings. Riga; M., 1994. S. 347-374. Contents: Feuer L. About the scientific and cultural exchange in the Soviet Union in 1963 and how the KGB tried to terrorize American scientists. pp. 347-357; Feuer Miller R. Instead of an obituary for Katherine Feuer. pp. 357-366; Chudakova M.O. Regarding the memoirs of L. Feuer and R. Feuer-Miller. pp. 366-374; Pugachev V.V., Dines V.A. Historians who chose the path of Galileo: St., essays. Saratov, 1995. 230 p. Bibliography SOUTH. Oksman: p. 220-229; Bogaevskaya K.P. From memories // New lit. review. 1996. No. 21. S. 112-129. Contents: Yu.G. Oksman and Anna Akhmatova. pp. 124-126; SOUTH. Oksman. Moscow. New disaster. pp. 127-128. Oksman Yu. About "volunteer slaves". S. 129; 1998. No. 29. S. 125-141. Contents: [Excerpts from O.'s letters to K.P. Bogaevskaya]. C. 125-128; Zubarev D.I. From the life of literary critics // Novoe lit. review. 1996. No. 20. S. 145-176. From the contents: 1. "A man of the old school." pp. 145-148; Korobova E. SOUTH. Oksman in Saratov. 1947-1957 // Grass roots: Sat. Art. young historians. M., 1996. S. 145-154; Gribanov A.B. SOUTH. Oksman in correspondence with G.P. Struve // Seventh Tynyanov Readings. Materials for discussion. Riga; M., 1995-1996. pp. 495-505; Abrosimova V. Akhmatov's motive in A. Belinkov's letters to Yu.G. Oksman // Banner. 1998. No. 10. S. 139-147; Egorov B.F. SOUTH. Oksman and Tartu // New literature. review. 1998. No. 34. S. 175-193; Abrosimova V.N. From the Saratov mail Yu.G. Oksman // New lit. review. 1998. No. 34. S. 205-230; Yulian Grigorievich Oksman in Saratov. Saratov: College, 1999.
PINSKY LEONID EFIMOVICH
(6.11. (24.10. according to the old style) 1906, g.
Bragin, Mogilev province - 02/26/1981, Moscow)
In 1924-1926 P. worked as a teacher in a rural school. In 1930 he graduated from the literary and linguistic department of Kyiv University. In 1933-1936 - post-graduate student of the Moscow Pedagogical Institute. Bubnov, defended his thesis on the work of Francois Rabelais. Since 1938 - Associate Professor of the Department of the History of Foreign Literature of the Faculty of Philology of the Moscow Institute of Philosophy, Literature and Art (MIFLI, since 1942 - the Faculty of Philology of Moscow State University), was considered one of the best lecturers of the faculty (from the memoirs of his students: "He was not a speaker, he was a preacher" - poet D. Samoilov, "Pinsky thought at the department, his real element was the living word" - G. Pomerants). In October 1941, he volunteered for the front as part of a division of the Moscow People's Militia, demobilized in 1942, and returned to teaching. Since 1948, he was worked out by the party organization of the philological faculty of Moscow State University for "kowtowing before the West" and "cosmopolitanism". In defense of P. were students, whose favorite lecturer he was. In 1951 he was arrested by state security agencies, in 1952 he was convicted by the Moscow City Court under Art. 58-10 h. 1 of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR for 10 years in camps, followed by a reference. He served his term in the Unzhensky labor camps. In September 1956 he was rehabilitated by the Supreme Court of the USSR. Since 1956 he lived in Moscow, published two books of studies on Western European literature. In 1963 he was admitted to the Writers' Union of the USSR.
In the 1960s and 1970s P. became known as "a disinterested patron of young poets and artists, a selfless collector, manufacturer and distributor of all kinds of samizdat" (L. Kopelev). Since the late 1950s, he took a friendly part in the activities of A. Ginzburg in editing the first samizdat journal Syntax. He helped young Lianoz artists, was friendly with O. Rabin. Weekly meetings at P.'s apartment ("Fridays") turned into seminars and lectures, where topical issues of philosophy, literature, art and social life were discussed. These meetings played an important role in the formation of a dissident environment (it was P. who proposed the word "dissidents" for the self-name of Soviet dissidents).
In March 1966, he signed a letter from writers to the Presidium of the XXIII Congress of the CPSU with a request to release A. Sinyavsky and Y. Daniel on bail. From the diary of R. Orlova, who brought this letter to him for signature: “He hugged me:“ Thank you for coming. I was expecting something like this.” In 1967 he signed a petition of prominent cultural figures to the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR with a draft law on the dissemination, search and receipt of information. Signed a letter of 80 writers (May 1967) with a demand to discuss at the IV Congress of Soviet Writers A. Solzhenitsyn's letter on censorship. In early January 1968, he signed an appeal from Ginzburg's friends to the Moscow City Court demanding that the Ginzburg-Galanskov trial be held publicly. He was summoned to court at the request of the defense, testified about Ginzburg as "an exceptionally decent, honest and noble person." In February 1968, he signed an open letter in defense of Ginzburg. For signing human rights letters, he was "put in sight" by the Secretariat of the Moscow branch of the Writers' Union (05/20/1968). 09/26/1969 supported the letter of the Initiative Group for the Protection of Human Rights in the USSR to the UN Secretary General U Thant with a request to help political prisoners in the USSR. Signed a petition to the deputies of the Supreme Soviets of the USSR and the RSFSR (December 1968) in defense of the convicted participants in the "demonstration of the seven" on Red Square. Subjected to a search (05/06/1972) in case No. 24 (known as the Chronicle of Current Events case). Signed appeal 325 "Freedom to Alexander Ginzburg!" (4.02.1977). In the same year, P. became one of the initiators of the creation of the "Committee for the Protection of Unofficial Art" ("cultural group"), which issued a declaration on cultural exchange between the USSR and the West. In 1979 he sent to the West a collection of essays Paraphrases and Remembrances (published under the pseudonym N. Lepin in 1980 as a special issue (No. 7) of the magazine Syntax (Paris)): “In it, each chapter (paradigm) is a polemical article, study, fictional story about artists of thought, about spiritual art. Before us is a living text of universal culture, written for each and every one of us personally, read now and always as the only message.<...>In Lepin's book, every essay, a separate chapter is a parable, a lesson without obtrusiveness, available to everyone as an entertaining read. Only the material of the parable is not reality, but philology - the art of the word, thought and spirit.<...>This is a memory that science, too, was once an art ”(A. Terts - Sinyavsky).
Buried at Vagankovsky cemetery in Moscow. “He was not a mild-mannered righteous man. He was a passionate man and passionately biased, going to extremes in his assessments, but he had one main passion that overlapped all the others: a passion for the truth ”(From the speech of G. Pomeranets, delivered at the funeral of P. 1.03.1981).
DI. Zubarev, G.V. Kuzovkin
Publications: Renaissance Realism. M.: Goslitizdat, 1961. 367 p.; [Afterword] // Mandelstam O. Talk about Dante. M., 1967; Shakespeare: Fundamentals of Dramaturgy. M.: Artist. lit., 1971. 606 p.; Paraphrases and remembrances, [Moscow, 1979] // Syntax. 1980. No. 7. S. 3-107. Signed: N. Lepin; Main plot / Entry. Art. A.A. Aniksta. M.: Sov. writer, 1989. 411 p.; Around the "Conversation about Dante": (From the archive of L.E. Pinsky) / Publ. EAT. Lysenko, note. P. Nerler // Word and Fate: Osip Mandelstam: Research and Materials. M., 1991. S. 149-151; Around "Andrei Rublev": From the letters of L.E. Pinsky / Publ. V.Ya. Kurbatova // Film Studies Notes. 1992. No. 14; Thoughts on the main: [From diary entries] // Human. 1999. No. 1; Renaissance. Baroque. Enlightenment: Lectures. M.: RGGU, 2002. 829 p.
About him: Sinyavsky A. Afterword // Syntax. 1980. No. 7. S. 108-109. Signed: Abram Tertz; Vishnevskaya Yu. In memory of Professor L.E. Pinsky // Chronicle of the protection of rights in the USSR. 1981. No. 41. S. 66-68; Levitin-Krasnov A.E. native space. Democratic Movement: Memoirs. Part 4. Frankfurt am Main, 1981. S. 283-288; Pomerants G. Speech at the funeral of L.E. Pinsky, // Syntax. 1981. No. 9. S. 167-169; Evnina E.M. Institute of World Literature in the 1930s-1970s // Memory: Ist. Sat. M., 1981; Paris, 1982. Issue. 5. S. 120-122. Signed: N. Yanevich; Solzhenitsyn A. Our pluralists // Vestnik RHD. 1983. No. 139. S. 133-160. Same. Per. in English. lang.: Our Pluralists // Survey. 1985 Vol. 29. No. 2 (125). P. 1-28; O Rlova R.D., Kopelev L.Z. We lived in Moscow, 1956-1980. Ann Arbor: Ardis, 1988. Id. Ed. in Russia. M., 1990 (spec.); Sharapov Yu.P. Lyceum in Sokolniki: Essay on the history of IFLI. M., 1995 (spec.); Pomerants G. Notes ugly duckling. M., 1998. S. 9, 29-30, 33-34, 51-52, 54-56, 58-59, 102, 155, 194, 301, 368.
PODYAPOLSKY GRIGORY SERGEEVICH
(10/22/1926, Tashkent - on the night of 03/08/1976, Saratov)
Born in the family of an agronomist. In 1943 he graduated from a boarding school in Moscow and entered the Institute of Petrochemical and Gas Industry. Gubkin. After graduating from the institute (1949) he worked as a geophysicist on expeditions. In 1953-1970 - researcher at the Institute of Physics of the Earth, Academy of Sciences of the USSR. He published his scientific works in the Soviet and foreign press.
From the 1960s he published his poems in samizdat, and from 1965 he participated in the human rights movement. In 1968-1969, he signed collective protests against political persecution (against the verdict passed at the “trial of four”; in support of the appeal “To the World Community” by L. Bogoraz and P. Litvinov; a letter from mathematicians in defense of Yesenin-Volpin, who was forcibly placed in a psychiatric hospital ; in defense of P. Grigorenko). After signing last letter P.'s dissertation defense was canceled at the Institute of Physics of the Earth, the next year he was fired from the institute "for downsizing".
In May 1969 P. became one of the founders of the first Soviet human rights association - the Initiative Group for the Protection of Human Rights in the USSR (IG), signed the first letter of the IG to the UN.
In October 1972 P. became a member of the Human Rights Committee in the USSR. In 1972-1974, together with A. Sakharov and I. Shafarevich, he was a co-author of most of the documents adopted by the Committee.
In 1969-1976 P. spoke in defense of political prisoners A. Levitin (Krasnov), A. Amalrik, Zh. Shikhanovich, V. Nekipelov, V. Khaustov, G. Superfin, M. Dzhemilev, S. Kovalev, G. Vince, V. Osipov, A. Tverdokhlebov and others.
He signed documents concerning the entry of Warsaw Pact troops into Czechoslovakia. He protested about various aspects of the violation of rights and freedoms in the USSR, against the use of psychiatry for political purposes, against the use of détente to the detriment of the struggle for human rights in the USSR, advocated an amnesty for prisoners of conscience and the abolition of the death penalty, in defense of the Crimean Tatars.
He joined the "Moscow Appeal" in defense of A. Solzhenitsyn. In 1974 he was one of the initiators of the annual Political Prisoner's Day in the USSR (October 30). He was systematically subjected to extrajudicial harassment: dismissal from work, temporary placement in a psychiatric hospital, interrogations, searches, switching off phones.
In March 1976, while on a business trip, he suddenly died of a cerebral hemorrhage. Buried in Moscow. The parting word at his burial was said by his friend A. Sakharov.
“Grisha had a very non-trivial mind, often giving birth to unexpected ideas. It is characterized by intransigence to any violations of human rights and at the same time exceptional tolerance for people, their beliefs and even weaknesses.<...>a gentle and kind man, while defending his convictions, he was firm, not yielding to any pressure. Numerous interrogations and other attempts to break, intimidate or confuse, deceive him always remained ineffectual ”(From the memoirs of Sakharov).
DI. Zubarev, G.V. Kuzovkin
Publications: The Golden Age: Free verse. Frankfurt am Main: Posev, 1974. 172 p.; Initiative group for the protection of human rights in the USSR: Sat. doc. New York: Chronicle, 1976. 73 p. Contents: Texts signed by P.S. 5-58; Biogr. reference. S. 73; About time and myself. Frankfurt am Main: Posev, 1978. 213 p.; "There will be no golden age ...": Fragments of an autobiography. Publicism. Political statements. Poetry; Memoirs of contemporaries about Grigory Podyapolsky / Redkol. A.B. Roginsky and others. M.: O-vo "Memorial", Links, 2003. 471 p.;
About him: Aikhenwald Yu. In blessed memory of Grigory Podyapolsky, // Rus. thought. 1976. Sept. 9; Grigory Podyapolsky. Obituary // Chronicle of the protection of rights in the USSR. 1976. No. 19. P. 23; Levitin-Krasnov A.E. native space. Democratic Movement: Memoirs. Part 4. Frankfurt am Main, 1981, pp. 244, 277, 302, 395-396, 402-408, 474; Free voices in Russian Literature, 1950s - 1980s: A Bio-Bibliographical Guide. New York, 1987. P. 333; Biographical Dictionary of Dissidents in the Soviet Union, 1956-1975. hague; Boston; London, 1982. P. 440-441; Sakharov A.D. Memoirs: In 2 vols. M., 1996 (indicated).
POMERANTS GRIGORY SOLOMONOVYCH
(b. 03/13/1918, Vilna (now Vilnius), Lithuania)
She has been living in Moscow since the age of seven. In 1940 he graduated from the Moscow Institute of Philosophy, Literature and Art, Department of Russian Literature, studied the works of F.M. Dostoevsky. Student work P. about Dostoevsky was rated by teachers as anti-Marxist.
In 1941 he went to the front as a volunteer and was wounded.
Arrested in 1949; the candidate's dissertation prepared by him and confiscated by the investigation was destroyed as "a document that is not relevant to the case." Sentenced to 5 years under Art. 58-10 of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR. In 1950-1953 in Kargopollag (Arkhangelsk region, RSFSR). Released under an amnesty (rehabilitated in 1958).
In 1953-1956 a rural teacher in the Donbass (Ukraine). Returning to Moscow, he worked as a bibliographer, became an employee of the Fundamental Library of Social Sciences (then INION), where he worked until his retirement in 1978. In 1959, P.'s first wife, I.I. Muravyov, the memory of which for a long time inspired the philosophical and literary work of P.
By 1953-1959, P.'s first essays ("Experienced abstractions") belong - works built in the traditional form of philosophical dialogue, but arranged by the modern realities of the Stalinist concentration camp.
The Hungarian events of 1956 and the persecution of Boris Pasternak made a strong impression on P., evoking thoughts of direct political opposition to the regime (up to the experiment with the underground and participation in the armed struggle, if one spontaneously begins). In 1959-1960, something like a philosophical-historical and political-economic seminar was formed around P. (“slightly conspiratorial, but without any organization”). Among the participants of the seminar are many Mayakovka activists, in particular V. Osipov. The experience of this philosophical and political semi-underground was assessed by P. as negative. Meanwhile, the acquaintance with A. Ginzburg, N. Gorbanevskaya, Yu. Galanskov, which took place in 1960, opened up a different perspective: uncensored activity, the main thing in which is “perfect openness and freedom from fear.” The new mood was associated with the magazine "Syntax" (Moscow), with a free and creative spirit that reigned among new acquaintances and among the "Lianoz" artists with whom P. spoke at the same time. In compiling the "Syntax" P. took part.
Of great importance for the formation of P.'s worldview was a meeting in 1961 with Z.A. Mirkina, who became his wife. According to P., his own "views and the views of Zinaida Alexandrovna developed in constant exchange and can be considered as one."
Beginning in 1962, P. published articles on oriental studies and comparative culturology in scientific publications (the spiritual life of India and China was at the center of his interests), and he delivered reports and lecture courses at various scientific institutions and higher educational institutions. At the same time, he writes a number of essays on cultural, historical and socio-political topics, which are widely used in samizdat. The essays "Quadrillon" and "The Moral Image of a Historical Personality"), which were included in 1966 in the samizdat almanac "Phoenix", caused a strong resonance. In 1967-1968 both essays were reprinted abroad, in the journal "Frontiers".
P. maintains relations with dissidents of various directions, participates in informal scientific seminars. In 1970 he attended a seminar that was held at the apartment of V. Turchin. Later, A. Sakharov spoke about this seminar in his “Memoirs”: “The most interesting and profound were the reports of Grigory Pomerants - I first knew him then and was deeply shocked by his erudition, breadth of views and “academicism” in the best sense of the word<...>The main concepts of Pomeranz...: the exceptional value of a culture created by the interaction of the efforts of all the nations of East and West over the millennia, the need for tolerance, compromise and breadth of thought, the poverty and wretchedness of dictatorship and totalitarianism, their historical futility, wretchedness and futility of narrow nationalism, soiledness " .
In 1968, after P. put his signature under a letter in defense of A. Ginzburg, Yu. Galanskov and others, he was deprived of the opportunity to defend his dissertation at the Institute of Asian Countries.
In 1972, in Munich, P.'s work was published as a separate edition (Unpublished). Since 1976, the publication of P.'s scientific articles in Soviet publications has ceased. At the same time, his works are widely distributed in samizdat and reprinted in foreign emigre press, incl. in the journals "Syntax" (Paris), "Country and World". In the second half of the 1970s, P. published his essays in the samizdat magazine Searches. Everything written is signed by his own name, without resorting to pseudonyms.
In his journalistic works, P. defends the ideas of personal freedom and European democracy, and opposes the idols of "blood and soil", a new wave of nationalism. Consistent and vigorous upholding of this position made him one of the most prominent opponents of the right-wing conservative trend in dissidence. Of particular importance was P.’s many years of controversy with A. Solzhenitsyn (“A Man from Nowhere”, “Passionate One-sidedness and Dispassion of Spirit”, “Dream of Just Retribution”, “Controversial Style”, etc. P.; “Education”, etc. A. Solzhenitsyn). A. Solzhenitsyn attacked the views of P., regarding them as the worldview of an unfounded Soviet "educated person"; P. sharply criticized Solzhenitsyn's "passionate one-sidedness," the spirit of vindictiveness and intransigence, and his soil-based utopianism.
P. was close to the circle of human rights activists. In the "Information Bulletin" No. 1 of the Committee for the Defense of T. Velikanova, released shortly after her arrest (end of 1979), P.'s essay "On the eve of the anniversary of Moloch" was published (meaning the 100th anniversary of the birth of I.V. Stalin). The essay ended with the words: “our common duty is to resist the shadow of Stalin, to which these new victims are brought on the eve of the centenary. A few more heads for a hecatomb of 30, 40 or 60 million.”
In March 1980, samizdat received the essay "My Interlocutor Viktor Sokirko", in which P. writes about the human qualities of one of the editors of the Poiski magazine, which led to his arrest.
Publicism P. caused increased attention from the KGB. Fragments from P.'s book "Dreams of the Earth", published in No. 6-7 of "Search", were qualified as "slanderous" by the investigation in the "Search" case. 11/14/1984 P. was warned by the Decree of the PVS of the USSR of 12/25/1972 on possible criminal liability in connection with the publication of his works abroad. On May 26, 1985, a search was made in P.'s apartment, and the literary archive was confiscated.
In the same year, the full text of "Dreams of the Earth" was printed in Paris.
Since the late 1980s, journalistic essays P. published in domestic periodicals. Several philosophical and literary books have been published: “Openness to the Abyss. Meetings with Dostoevsky”, “Lectures on the Philosophy of History”, “Collecting Oneself”, “Out of Trance” (a collection of essays and cultural articles for many years), “Images of the Eternal” (co-authored with Z.A. Mirkina). P. delivers reports and lecture courses, including in universities (Russian State University for the Humanities, University of Cultural History).
Having evolved “from Marxism to idealism” (“I started commenting on Dostoevsky according to Marx, and ended up interpreting Marx according to Dostoevsky”), P. came to the justification of religion and deep philosophy as the foundations of human existence. The rejection of scientific and mythological ideologies, the "independence" of the individual in religion and culture, the path into the depths of oneself instead of dissolving in the mass - such is the way out of the spiritual and political crises of modernity proposed by P. “Only a new spirit, found in our own depths, can lead us out of the quagmire. And this, in fact, is discussed in all my books.
YES. Ermoltsev
Publications : Quadrillion // Facets. 1967. No. 64. S. 150-166. From alm. "Phoenix 1966"; On the role of the moral image of the individual in the life of the historical team // Facets. 1968. No. 67. S. 134-143. Per. in English. lang.: The moral aspect of personality // The Political, Social and Religius Thought of Russian "Samizdat": An Antology. Belmont (Mass.), 1977. P. 99-115; Same. Address to the Institute of Philosophy in Moscow by the G. Pomerantz // In quest of justice: Protest and dissent in the Soviet Union today / Ed. by A. Brumberg. New York; Washington; London, 1970. P. 323-330; Man without an adjective // Facets. 1970. No. 77. S. 171-198. Per. in English. lang.: Man without an adjective // Russian review. 1971. No. 3. P. 219-225; Small essays // Facets. 19 71. No. 80. P. 177-190; Unpublished: Large and small essays. Publicism. Frankfurt am Main: Posev, 1972. 335 p.; On pseudo-revolutionary movements and the role of the intelligentsia: (From a letter from G.S. Pomerants to M.A. Lifshits) // Polit. a diary. Amsterdam, 1975. Vol. 2: 1965-1970. pp. 174-182; On the essence of religion. Communists and religion: (From the speech of the philosopher G. Pomerants at the discussion at the Institute of the Peoples of Asia) // Ibid. pp. 529-540; Modernization of non-Western countries // Self-consciousness: Sat. Art. New York, 1976, pp. 209-242; Tolstoy and the East // Searches. 1979. No. 1. S. 275-284; Same: Syntax. 1979. No. 4. S. 56-71; Prince Myshkin // Syntax. 1981. No. 9. S. 112-166; Speech at the funeral of L.E. Pinsky // Syntax. 1981. No. 9. S. 167-169; The price of renunciation // Sakharov collection. New York, 1981, pp. 87-103. The same: Sakharov collection. M., 1991. S. 87-103; Per. in English. lang.: The Price of Recantation // On Sakharov. P. 47-65; Akathist to vulgarity // Syntax. 1984. No. 12. S. 4-54; Dreams of the Earth: Reflections of the Author. Paris: Searches, 1984. 442 p. Bibliography P.: s. 426-432; Same. [Fragm. under different titles] Dreams of the Earth: (The fate of an idea) // Twenty-two. 1980. No. 12. S. 121-131; Same. Dreams of the Earth: (Chapters from the book) // Syntax. 1980. No. 8. S. 116-171; Same. Dream of just retribution // Syntax. 1980. No. 6. S. 13-88; Ed. in Russia: Century XX and the world. 1990. No. 11. S. 36-41; Same. Dreams of the Earth. Part 6. Dream of just retribution: (My protracted dispute) // Search magazine: Documents and materials. M., 1995. S. 49-55; Style of controversy // Vestnik RHD. 1984. No. 142. S. 288-297; Passionate one-sidedness and dispassion of spirit: Art. 1-4 // Country and world. 1984. No. 1. S. 101-114; No. 2. S. 70-78; No. 3. S. 77-90; Three dimensions of the spirit// Country and world. 1984. No. 9. S. 70-86; Touch of the blind // Country and world. 1987. No. 1. S. 107-118; Hope risk // Syntax. 1987. No. 20. S. 4-10; The same // Country and world. 1987. No. 6. S. 54-58; Turned away generation // Country and world. 1988. No. 2. S. 42-50; What to say to Job?: Around Vasily Grossman's "Life and Fate" // Country and World. 1988. No. 6. S. 138-151; Pluralism or empire? // Time and us. 1988. No. 101. S. 155-163; Openness to the abyss: Etudes about F.M. Dostoevsky. New York: Liberty, 1989. 469 p. Ed. in Russia: Meetings with Dostoevsky. M.: Sov. writer, 1990. 382 p.; Living and dead ideas // Diving into the quagmire: (Anatomy of stagnation). M.: Progress, 1991. S. 311-345; Diaspora and Abrashka Terts // Cinema Art. 1990. No. 2. S. 20-26; Corinthian bronze // New lit. review. 1992. No. 1. S. 279-296; Collecting yourself: a course of lectures, read. at the University of Cultural History in 1990-1991. M.: Lira "DOK", 1993. 240 p.; Exit from trance: Sat. Art. M.: Lawyer, 1995. 574 p.; Five years without Andrei Sakharov // Human Rights Defender. 1995. No. 1. S. 3-8; Farewell: [Obituary to M. Gefter] // General Gas. 1995. Feb. 23-March 1. (No. 8); [Speech at the round table] // Znamya. 1997. No. 9. S. 163-193; The same // Knights without fear and reproach. M.: Pik, 1998. S. 274-279; Underground experiment // Polikovskaya L.V. We are a premonition... forerunner...: Mayakovsky Square, 1958-1965. M., 1997. S. 161-168; Smile of understanding // Intercessor: Lawyer S.V. Kallistratova (1907-1989). M.:, 1997. S. 208-209; Notes of the ugly duckling. M.: Mosk. worker, 1998. 399 p. The same: [Chapter] Basket of flowers to the Nobel laureate // October. 1990. No. 11. S. 143-162; The truth does not live outside the truthful style: [In memory of A. Sinyavsky] // Syntax. 1998. No. 36. S. 51-52; Trinitarian thinking and modernity: Sat. articles. M.: Phantom-press, 2000. 316 p. With M.N. Kurochkina; Great Religions of the World. St. Petersburg: Universitetskaya kniga, 2001. 278 p. With Z.A. Mirkina.
Interview: Interview with G.S. Pomerants // Search magazine: Documents and materials. M., 1995. S. 261-264: photo. Biogr. reference.
Drafting: Life in darkness: [Sat. memories of the repressions of the 30-50s]. St. Petersburg: Universitetskaya kniga, 2001. 461 p.; Life is an unpaired boot: [Sat. memories of repression]. M.: Pik, 2001. 347 p.; "Vegetarian Epoch": [Sat. memories of dissidents]. M.: Pik, 2003. 477 p.
About him: Lifshitz M. Caution - humanity // Lit. gas. Feb 15, 1967; Solzhenitsyn A.I. Education // From under the rocks. Paris, 1974, pp. 230-232, 243-248, 252-253. Per. in English. lang.: The Smatterers // From under the rubble. Boston; Toronto, 1975. P. 242-245, 247, 253, 259-263, 270; Borisov V. In search of the lost history // Vestnik RHD. 1978. No. 125. S. 122-159; Solzhenitsyn A. Our pluralists // Vestnik RHD. 1983. No. 139. S. 133-160. Per. in English. lang.: Our Pluralists // Survey. 1985 Vol. 29. No. 2 (125). P. 1-28; Lett R. Against political boulevardism: The truth about the "Search" // Lert R.B. "Do not remember dashingly ...". Paris, 1986, pp. 332-364. Ed. in Russia: Lett R. On that I stand: Publications of "Samizdat". M., 1991. S. 328-362; Journal "Search": Documents and materials. M., 1995 (spec.); Polikovskaya L.V. We are a premonition... forerunner...: Mayakovsky Square, 1958-1965. M., 1997 (spec.); Glazov Yu.Ya. In the Land of the Fathers: A Chronicle of the Recent Past. M., 1998. S. 52-53, 56, 63, 76, 79-80, 82, 88-90, 97, 107, 114, 125, 137, 142, 157, 163-164, 169, 171-174 , 180, 185-186, 203, 271.
POPOVSKY MARK ALEKSANDROVICH
(b. 07/08/1922, Odessa, Ukraine)
He studied at the military medical school, then at the Military Medical Academy. Member of the Great Patriotic War.
After demobilization, he entered the Faculty of Philology of Moscow State University and graduated in 1952.
One of the first biographers of the geneticist N. Vavilov, who became a victim Stalinist repressions. As a member of the commission of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR for the study of the scientific heritage of Vavilov, P. in 1964 received access to his investigative file (a rare case in Soviet practice, even the relatives of the rehabilitated were not allowed to investigative materials). In 1965-1966, P. gave a series of public lectures in Moscow, Leningrad, Novosibirsk, where he spoke about the details of the investigation and named the scientists-informers and secret informants who killed Vavilov. These speeches caused a great resonance in the scientific community, and P. came to the attention of the KGB. The first version of the book about Vavilov was published by P. in the Prostor magazine in 1966, and a separate edition was published in the same year. In Novy Mir, Zh. Medvedev responded with a review of the book. In 1964-1970, P. revised the book, added new chapters (on the investigation, on the reaction of the scientific world); in the late 1960s, she became known in samizdat (“The Trouble and Wine of Academician Vavilov”). Several chapters from the book P. published in 1977 in the uncensored historical collection "Memory".
After finishing the book about Vavilov, P. took up the life story of the famous Russian doctor V. Voyno-Yasenetsky, who became a priest and then a bishop of the Russian Orthodox Church during the years of persecution against her. The book was widely distributed in samizdat in the mid-1970s.
From 1966 he took part in human rights speeches. P. signed a letter from writers to the presidium of the XXIII Congress of the CPSU with a request to release the convicted writers Y. Daniel and A. Sinyavsky (spring 1966). In 1967 he signed a petition to the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR with a proposal to adopt a law on freedom of dissemination, collection and use of information. In May 1967, he signed a letter to the 80th Congress of Soviet Writers in support of A. Solzhenitsyn's letter.
At the very end of the 1960s, P. appointed A. Levitin (Krasnov) as his literary secretary, saving him from accusations of parasitism.
In the 1970s, P. collaborated with the Chronicle of Current Events.
In June 1976, P. addressed an open letter to the VI Congress of Writers of the USSR with a sharp criticism of the situation in Soviet literature and in the Union, raised in it questions of freedom of the press and the responsibility of the leadership of the SP to ordinary members. In March 1977, he sent a telegram to the leadership of the USSR Writers' Union announcing his withdrawal from the Union in protest against the exclusion of V. Kornilov from it, against the persecution of L. Kopelev and P.
In June 1977, P. announced the founding of an independent press agency, Mark Popovsky-Press, to supply the Western press with uncensored information about events in the USSR. Prepared several press releases: on the persecution of sociology; about the problems of leaving the USSR; about the religious seminar of A. Ogorodnikov; about the persecution of G. Vladimov, K. Lyubarsky and activists of the Jewish Emigration Movement (JEM); about the arson of the house of M. Land.
In November 1977, P. emigrated to the United States.
In addition to his works on Vavilov and Voyno-Yasenetsky, he published several other books in the West: “Controlled Science” (about the problems faced by Soviet scientists), “Russian Men Tell” (about the fate of Leo Tolstoy’s followers in the USSR), etc. He collaborated in Russian emigrant press: the magazines "Continent", "Time and Us", "Frontiers".
Lives in the USA.
EAT. Papovyan
Publications: June news: (Notes of an unaccredited). Frankfurt am Main: Posev, 1978. 107 p. (Free word; Issue 29); Managed Science. London: OPI, 1978. 317 p. Per. in English. lang.: Manipulated science: The crisis of science a. scientists in the Sov. Union today / Popovsky M. Garden City (New York): Doubleday, 1979. 244 p.; Same. Science in chains: The crisis of science a. scientists in the Soviet Union today. London: Collins & Harvill press, 1980. 244 p.; Life and Life of Voyno-Yasenetsky, Archbishop and Surgeon. Paris: YMCA-press, 1979. 513 p. Ed. in Russia: M.: Pik, 2001. 476 p.; The ideal Soviet writer. Konstantin Simonov: the results of life: 1915-1979 // Continent. 1980. No. 24. S. 297-329; Case of Academician Vavilov. Ann Arbor: Hermitage, 1983. 278 p. Same. For the first time: The Vavilov case: (Chapters from the book) // Memory: Ist. Sat. M., 1977; Paris, 1979. Issue. 2. S. 263-371. Ed. in Russia. M.: Book, 1990. 303 p.; Per. in English. lang.: The Vavilov affair / Foreword by A. Sakharov. Hamden (Conn.): Archon Books, 1984. 216 p.; Russian men tell: Followers of L. Tolstoy in the Soviet Union, 1918-1977. London: OPI, 1983. 314 pp.; Children and emigration: Soviet education in the world of Western freedom // Time and we. 1984. No. 78. S. 136-147; One-story America half a century later // Facets. 1984. No. 131. S. 282-290; Family happiness in the country of socialism // Time and we. 1984. No. 80. S. 111-128; The Soviet prostitute is a profession that does not exist. Chapters from the book "He, she and Soviet power" // Facets. 1984. No. 132. S. 125-185; Limits of irony // Facets. 1985. No. 136. S. 282-288; Third extra: He, she and the Soviet regime. London, 1985. 458 p.
About him: Levitin-Krasnov A.E. native space. Democratic Movement: Memoirs. Part 4. Frankfurt am Main, 1981. S. 288-291; Babenyshev A."Dialogue" with a crooked mirror // Syntax. 1988. No. 23. P. 327. Signed: S. Maksudov.
RUBIN ILYA DAVIDOVICH
(05/26/1941, Moscow - 02/02/1977, Haifa, Israel), poet, journalist
Studied at the Moscow Institute of Chemical Technology. Mendeleev, was expelled from the third year. Lived in Moscow. He worked as a technician at the Physics Institute. Lebedev. In the early 1970s, he applied to emigrate to Israel, got acquainted with Moscow "refuseniks" - those who were denied the right to choose their place of residence by the authorities. He took an active part in the publication of the uncensored collection (magazine) "Jews in the USSR". After leaving for Israel, V. Voronel (1974) became one of the editors of the journal (issues 7-10). He published his poems and stories in it, as well as essays on the moral self-identification of assimilated Jewry (“Who was a nobody”, “Jewish birthright as lentil soup”, etc.).
On May 22, 1975, KGB officers searched the apartments of the magazine's publishers. Copies of the journal "Jews in the USSR", editorial materials (articles and essays on Jewish cultural and religious life), and typewriters were confiscated. 06/5/1975 R. together with R. Nudelman signed an open letter to the international PEN club and five foreign writers with a call to defend the publishers of the collection "Jews in the USSR".
At the end of 1975 he signed several EED documents. 12/24/1975 took part in a demonstration of Jewish activists national movement dedicated to the fifth anniversary of the "aircraft process".
In the spring of 1976 he emigrated to Israel, became a leading contributor to the Zion magazine. Together with Rafail Nudelman, he founded the Moscow-Jerusalem publishing house in 1976.
He was buried in Tel Aviv at the Holon Cemetery.
A.G. Papovyan
Publications: The bitterness of memory // Time and we. 1976. No. 6. S. 103-107; Who was nobody... // Jewish samizdat. Jerusalem, 1976. T. 11. S. 153-157; Repentance and enlightenment: About the novel by V. Maksimov "Seven days of creation" // Time and we. 1976. No. 10. S. 123-139; To the International PEN Club...: An open letter // Jewish samizdat. Jerusalem, 1977. T. 12. S. 2. Sovm. with R. Nudelman; Look back in tears: Poems, articles, prose. Jerusalem: Rubin, 1977. 299 p.; Willfulness of Boris Khazanov // Time and us. 1977. No. 15. S. 143-153; Chained to Pushkin's dimensions: Poems // Time and us. 1977. No. 16. S. 105-110; ...and punishment // Voronel N. Dust and ashes. Jerusalem, 1977. S. 3-9; Poems // Facets. 1977. No. 105. S. 3-10.
Editing and compiling: Jews in the USSR. 1974/1975. No. 9 // Jewish samizdat. Jerusalem, 1976. T. 11. S. 1-184; Jews in the USSR. 1975. No. 10, 11 // Jewish samizdat. Jerusalem, 1977. T. 12. S. 1-267.
About him: Nudelman R. “It seems to me that you can tell”: [Foreword] // Rubin I. Look back in tears: Poems, articles, prose. Jerusalem, 1977. S. 5-8.
* For the beginning of the publication, see No. 66; its objectives and principles are also set out there.
dissidents in the ussr of sex, dissidents in the ussr
Dissidents in the USSR(lat. dissidens - “dissenting”) - citizens of the USSR who openly expressed their political views, which differed significantly from the communist ideology and practice that prevailed in society and the state, for which many of the dissidents were persecuted by the authorities.
A special place within the dissident world was occupied by the human rights movement, which united the disparate manifestations of an independent civil and cultural initiative into a single whole. Human rights activists created a unified information field supported by dissident activity itself, which radically distinguished the situation of the 1960s and 1980s from the disparate attempts to create a political underground in the 1950s. From the mid 1960s to the early 1980s. this direction of independent civic activity absolutely dominated the public scene.
- 1 History of the term
- 2 Ideology
- 3 Social composition
- 4 Activities of Soviet dissidents
- 5 Position of the authorities
- 6 Persecution of dissidents
- 7 Exchange of political prisoners
- 8 Influence and outcomes
- 9 Dissident organizations
- 10 See also
- 11 Notes
- 12 Links
- 13 Literature
History of the term
As part of a research program launched at the end of 1990 by the NIPTs "Memorial" to study the history of dissident activity and the human rights movement in the USSR, the following definition of dissidence (dissent) was proposed:
- a set of movements, groups, texts and individual actions, heterogeneous and multidirectional in their goals and objectives, but very close in terms of basic principles:
- non-violence;
- publicity;
- implementation of fundamental rights and freedoms "without prior notice";
- requirement to comply with the law
- by forms of social activity:
- creation of uncensored texts;
- association in independent (most often - non-political in their goals) public associations;
- occasionally - public actions (demonstrations, distribution of leaflets, hunger strikes, etc.)
- and according to the tools used:
- dissemination of literary, scientific, human rights, informational and other texts through samizdat and Western mass media;
- petitions addressed to Soviet official bodies, and "open letters" addressed to public opinion (Soviet and foreign); in the end, the petitions, as a rule, also ended up in samizdat and / or published abroad.
In the 1960s, the term “dissident” was introduced to refer to representatives of the opposition movement in the USSR and Eastern Europe, which (in contrast to the anti-Soviet and anti-communist movements of the previous period) did not try to fight by violent means against the Soviet system and Marxist ideology, but appealed to Soviet laws and officially proclaimed values. The term first began to be used in the West, and then by dissidents themselves - at first, perhaps in jest, but then quite seriously. depending on who exactly used this word, it could acquire different connotations.
Since then, dissidents have often been referred to primarily as people who oppose authoritarian and totalitarian regimes, although the word is also used in a broader context, for example, to refer to people who oppose the prevailing mentality in their group. According to Lyudmila Alekseeva, dissidents are a historical category, like the Decembrists, populists and even informals:58.
The terms "dissident" and "dissident" have caused and continue to cause terminological disputes and criticism. For example, Leonid Borodin, who actively opposed the Soviet system and was subjected to persecution, refuses to consider himself a dissident, since by dissent he understands only the liberal and liberal democratic opposition to the regime of the 1960s and early 1970s, which took shape in the mid-1970s in human rights movement. According to L. Ternovsky, a dissident is a person who is guided by the laws written in the country where he lives, and not by spontaneously established customs and concepts.
Dissidents dissociated themselves from any involvement in terrorism and in connection with the bombings in Moscow in January 1977, the Moscow Helsinki Group stated:
... Dissidents treat terror with indignation and disgust. … We appeal to media professionals around the world to use the term “dissidents” in this sense only and not to expand it to include violent individuals. … We ask you to remember that every journalist or commentator who does not distinguish between dissidents and terrorists helps those who are trying to revive the Stalinist methods of reprisals against dissidents.
In official Soviet documents and propaganda, the term "dissident" was usually used in quotation marks: "the so-called "dissidents"". Much more often they were called "anti-Soviet elements", "anti-Soviet", "renegades".
Ideology
Among the dissidents were people of very different views, but they were united mainly by the inability to openly express their convictions. A single "dissident organization" or "dissident ideology" uniting the majority of dissidents has never existed.
Larisa Bogoraz wrote in 1997:
If what was, and can be called movement - as opposed to "stagnation", - then this movement is Brownian, that is, a phenomenon more psychological than social. But in this Brownian movement, here and there, eddies and currents constantly arose, moving somewhere - "movements" national, religious, including human rights.
According to Elena Bonner, the dissidence of the 1960s - 1970s should be considered primarily a moral and ethical movement, the participants of which wanted to "free themselves from official lies." According to her, many of the dissidents never aspired to political activity and, when the opportunity arose, they deliberately left it.
Leonid Borodin, who, as mentioned above, does not consider himself a dissident, gave the following characterization:
Dissidence as a phenomenon originated among the Moscow intelligentsia, to a large extent in that part of it that survived the tragedy of fathers and grandfathers at the end of the thirties, experienced a fair sense of revenge on the wave of the famous “thaw” and the subsequent disappointment. At the first stage, Moscow dissidence was neither anti-communist nor anti-socialist, but precisely liberal, if liberalism is understood as a certain totality good wishes not certified by political experience, political knowledge, and, moreover, political worldview.
Back in 1983, Lyudmila Alekseeva identified several "ideological types" of dissidents in the USSR:
- "true communists" - they were guided by the Marxist-Leninist doctrine, but believed that it was distorted in the USSR (for example, Roy Medvedev, the Revolutionary Communism Group, the NKPSS, "Young Socialists");
- "Western liberals" - considered Western European or American-style capitalism to be the "correct" system; some of them were supporters of the "convergence theory" - the doctrine of the inevitability of rapprochement and subsequent merging of capitalism and socialism, however, most of the "Westerners" considered socialism a "bad" (or short-lived) system;
- "eclectic" - combined different views that contradicted the official ideology of the USSR;
- Russian nationalists - supporters of Russia's "special path"; many of them attached great importance to the revival of Orthodoxy; some were supporters of the monarchy; see also soil specialists (in particular, Igor Shafarevich, Leonid Borodin, Vladimir Osipov);
- other nationalists (in the Baltics, Ukraine, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan) - their demands ranged from the development of a national culture to complete separation from the USSR. They often proclaimed themselves liberals, but having achieved political power during the collapse of the USSR, some of them (for example, Zviad Gamsakhurdia, Abulfaz Elchibey) became the ideologists of ethnocratic regimes. As Leonid Borodin wrote, “quantitatively, the nationalists of Ukraine, the Baltic states and the Caucasus have always prevailed in the camps. Between the nationalist opposition and the Moscow dissidence, of course, there were connections, but according to the principle - "at least a tuft of wool from a lousy Muscovite." Sluggishly welcoming the anti-Russian sentiments of the Moscow opposition, the nationalists did not connect their successes with the prospects of Moscow dissidence, pinning their hopes on the collapse of the Union in economic rivalry with the West, and even on the third world.
Activists of the Zionist movement (“refuseniks”), activists of the Crimean Tatar movement for the return to Crimea (leader - M. A. Dzhemilev), non-conformist religious figures: Orthodox - D. S. Dudko, S. A. Zheludkov , A. E. Krasnov-Levitin, A. I. Ogorodnikov, B. V. Talantov, G. P. Yakunin, "True Orthodox Christians", Baptist - Council of Churches of Evangelical Christian Baptists, Catholic in Lithuania, Adventist Reformists, led by V. A. Shelkov, Pentecostals (in particular, the Siberian Seven), Hare Krishnas (see International Society for Krishna Consciousness in Russia).
Since the late 1960s, the meaning of the activity or tactics of many dissidents who adhered to different ideologies has become the struggle for human rights in the USSR - first of all, for the right to freedom of speech, freedom of conscience, freedom of emigration, for the release of political prisoners ("prisoners of conscience") - see Human rights movement in the USSR.
In 1978, the Free Interprofessional Association of Workers (SMOT), an independent trade union, was created. 1982, the "Group for establishing confidence between the USSR and the USA" appeared.
Social composition
The institutionalization of science inevitably led to the emergence of a layer of people critically comprehending the surrounding reality. By some estimates, most of the dissidents belonged to the intelligentsia. At the end of the 1960s, 45% of all dissidents were scientists, 13% were engineers and technicians:55,65-66.
For a thousand academicians and corresponding members,
For the whole of the educated cultural legion
There was only this handful of sick intellectuals,
Say out loud what a healthy million thinks!
The poem "Imitation of V. Vysotsky" by Yuli Kim (1968)
In fact, there were two main directions of dissident opposition to the totalitarian regime.
The first of them focused on support from outside the USSR, the second - on the use of the protest moods of the population within the country.
The activity, as a rule - open, of some part of the dissidents, mainly Moscow human rights activists, was based on an appeal to foreign public opinion, the use of the Western press, non-governmental organizations, foundations, connections with political and statesmen West.
At the same time, the actions of a significant part of the dissidents were either simply a form of spontaneous self-expression and protest, or a form of individual or group resistance to totalitarianism - the All-Russian Social-Christian Union for the Liberation of the People, the Revolutionary Communism Group, Valentin Sokolov, Andrey Derevyankin, Yuri Petrovsky and others. In particular, this second direction was expressed in the creation of various kinds of underground organizations focused not on relations with the West, but exclusively on organizing resistance within the USSR.
Dissidents sent open letters to the central newspapers and the Central Committee of the CPSU, produced and distributed samizdat, staged demonstrations (for example, the Glasnost Rally, Demonstration on August 25, 1968), trying to bring to the public information about the real state of affairs in the country.
One of the posters of the demonstrators 08/25/1968
The beginning of a broad dissident movement is associated with the process of Daniel and Sinyavsky (1965), as well as with the entry of Warsaw Pact troops into Czechoslovakia (1968).
Dissidents paid much attention to "samizdat" - the publication of self-made brochures, magazines, books, collections, etc. The name "Samizdat" appeared as a joke - by analogy with the names of Moscow publishing houses - "Detizdat" (publishing house of children's literature), "Politizdat" ( publishing house of political literature), etc. People themselves typed unauthorized literature on typewriters and thus distributed it around Moscow, and then to other cities. “Erika takes four copies,” Alexander Galich sang in his song. - That's all. And that's enough!" (See the lyrics) - this is about "samizdat": "Erika", a typewriter, became the main instrument when there were no copiers or computers with printers (copiers began to appear in the 1970s, but only for institutions , and all those working for them were required to keep a record of the number of printed pages). Some of those who received the first copies reprinted and replicated them. This is how dissident magazines spread. In addition to "samizdat", "tamizdat" was distributed - the publication of prohibited materials abroad and their subsequent distribution on the territory of the USSR.
In February 1979, the Elections-79 group arose, whose members intended to implicitly exercise the right granted by the USSR Constitution to nominate independent candidates in elections to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. Roy Medvedev and Lyudmila Agapova, the wife of the defector Agapov, who was seeking to join her husband, were nominated. The group submitted documents for the registration of these candidates, but did not receive a response by the due date, as a result, the relevant election commissions refused to register the candidates.
The position of the authorities
The Soviet leadership fundamentally rejected the idea of the existence of any opposition in the USSR, and even more so the possibility of a dialogue with dissidents was rejected. On the contrary, in the USSR the "ideological unity of society" was proclaimed; dissidents were referred to only as "renegades".
Official propaganda sought to present dissidents as agents of the Western secret services, and dissidence as a kind of professional activity that was generously paid from abroad.
So, the chairman of the KGB of the USSR, Yu. V. Andropov, speaking at the plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU on April 27, 1973, stated that, according to available information, in the conditions of detente, Western intelligence services changed their tactics of work aimed at undermining the socialist system, moving from "frontal attack”, direct preaching of anti-Sovietism and anti-communism, to attempts to “erode” socialism, incite negative processes that would “soften and ultimately weaken socialist society”. In connection with this, according to him, the KGB is aware of the plans of Western intelligence services to intensify work on “establishing contacts with various kinds of dissatisfied persons in the Soviet Union and creating illegal groups from them”, and subsequently on consolidating such groups and turning them into a “resistance organization” , that is, in the current opposition. Andropov, in his speech, mentioned the KGB's "preventive measures against a number of persons who harbored hostile political intentions in the form of the worst nationalism", as well as the criminal prosecution "for outright anti-Soviet activities" of a number of nationalists in Ukraine, Lithuania, Latvia, Armenia . In almost all cases, according to Andropov, the activities of these individuals were “inspired by subversive centers located in the West” and sent through their emissaries to Soviet Union instructions, money, means of cryptography and printing equipment for their wards.
Some dissidents did receive royalties for works published in the West (see tamizdat); the Soviet authorities invariably tried to portray this in a negative light as "bribery" or "corruption", although many officially recognized Soviet writers also published in the West and received royalties for this in the same way.
Persecution of dissidents
See also: Use of psychiatry for political purposes in the USSRThe persecution to which Soviet dissidents were subjected included dismissal from work, expulsion from educational institutions, arrests, placement in psychiatric hospitals, exile, deprivation of Soviet citizenship and expulsion from the country.
Wikisource has the full text Article 58 of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR of 1926
The criminal prosecution of dissidents before 1960 was carried out on the basis of paragraph 10 of Art. 58 of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR of 1926 and similar articles of the criminal codes of other Union republics (“counter-revolutionary agitation”), which provided for imprisonment for up to 10 years, and since 1960 - on the basis of Art. 70 of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR of 1960 (“anti-Soviet agitation”) and similar articles of the criminal codes of other union republics, which provided for imprisonment for up to 7 years and 5 years of exile (up to 10 years in prison and 5 years of exile for those previously convicted of a similar crime) . Since 1966, Art. 190-1 of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR "Dissemination of deliberately false fabrications discrediting the Soviet state and social system", which provided for imprisonment for up to 3 years (and similar articles of the criminal codes of other union republics. For all these articles from 1956 to 1987 in the USSR there were 8145 people were convicted.
In addition, articles 147 (“Violation of the laws on the separation of church from state and school from church”) and 227 (“Creation of a group that harms the health of citizens”) of the RSFSR Criminal Code of 1960, articles on parasitism and violation of the regime were used to prosecute dissidents. registration, there are also known cases (in the 1980s) of planting weapons, cartridges or drugs with their subsequent discovery during searches and initiation of proceedings under the relevant articles (for example, the case of K. Azadovsky).
Some dissidents were declared socially dangerous mentally ill, applying measures of compulsory treatment to them under this pretext. years of stagnation, punitive psychiatry attracted the authorities by the lack of the need to create the appearance of legality required in legal proceedings.
In the West, Soviet dissidents subjected to criminal prosecution or psychiatric treatment were treated as political prisoners, "prisoners of conscience."
The fight against dissidents was carried out by state security agencies, in particular, since 1967 - the 5th Directorate of the KGB of the USSR (to combat "ideological sabotage")
Until the mid-1960s, virtually any open display of political dissent led to arrest. But starting from the mid-1960s, the KGB began to widely use the so-called "preventive measures" - warnings and threats, and arrested, basically, only those dissidents who continued their activities despite intimidation. Often, KGB officers offered dissidents a choice between emigration and arrest.
The activities of the KGB in the 1970-80s were significantly influenced by the socio-economic processes taking place in the country during the period of “developed socialism” and changes in the foreign policy of the USSR. During this period, the KGB concentrated its efforts on combating nationalism and anti-Soviet manifestations at home and abroad. Inside the country, the state security agencies stepped up the fight against dissent and the dissident movement; however, the acts of physical violence, deportations and detentions became more subtle and disguised. The use of means of psychological pressure on dissidents has intensified, including surveillance, pressure through public opinion, undermining professional careers, preventive talks, deportation from the USSR, forced imprisonment in psychiatric clinics, political lawsuits, slander, lies and compromising evidence, various provocations and intimidation. Practiced a ban on the residence of politically unreliable citizens in the capital cities of the country - the so-called "exile for the 101st kilometer". Under the close attention of the KGB were, first of all, representatives of the creative intelligentsia - figures of literature, art and science - who, due to their social status and international authority, could harm the reputation of the Soviet state in the understanding of the Communist Party.
The activity of the KGB in persecution is indicative Soviet writer, winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature A. I. Solzhenitsyn. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, a special unit was created in the KGB - the 9th department of the Fifth Directorate of the KGB - which was exclusively engaged in the operational development of a dissident writer. In August 1971, the KGB made an attempt to physically eliminate Solzhenitsyn - during a trip to Novocherkassk, he was secretly injected with an unknown poisonous substance; the writer survived, but after that he was seriously ill for a long time. In the summer of 1973, KGB officers detained one of the writer's assistants, E. Voronyanskaya, and during interrogation forced her to reveal the location of one copy of the manuscript of Solzhenitsyn's work The Gulag Archipelago. Returning home, the woman hanged herself. Upon learning of what had happened, Solzhenitsyn ordered the publication of The Archipelago in the West to begin. In the Soviet press, a powerful propaganda campaign was launched, accusing the writer of slandering the Soviet state and social system. Attempts by the KGB, through Solzhenitsyn's ex-wife, to persuade the writer to refuse to publish The Archipelago abroad in exchange for a promise of assistance in the official publication in the USSR of his story Cancer Ward were unsuccessful, and the first volume of the work was published in Paris in December 1973. In January 1974, Solzhenitsyn was arrested, accused of treason, deprived of Soviet citizenship and expelled from the USSR. The initiator of the deportation of the writer was Andropov, whose opinion became decisive in choosing a measure to "suppress anti-Soviet activities" of Solzhenitsyn at a meeting of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the CPSU. After the expulsion of the writer from the country, the KGB and personally Andropov continued the campaign of discrediting Solzhenitsyn and, as Andropov put it, "exposing the active use of such renegades by the reactionary circles of the West in ideological sabotage against the countries of the socialist community."
A. D. Sakharov
Prominent scientists were the object of many years of persecution by the KGB. For example, a Soviet physicist, three times Hero Socialist Labor, dissident and human rights activist, Nobel Peace Prize laureate A. D. Sakharov was under the supervision of the KGB since the 1960s, subjected to searches, numerous insults in the press. In 1980, on charges of anti-Soviet activities, Sakharov was arrested and sent into exile without trial in the city of Gorky, where he spent 7 years under house arrest under the control of the KGB. In 1978, the KGB made an attempt, on charges of anti-Soviet activities, to initiate a criminal case against the Soviet philosopher, sociologist and writer A. A. Zinoviev with the aim of sending him for compulsory treatment in a psychiatric hospital, however, “taking into account the campaign unleashed in the West around psychiatry in the USSR This measure of restraint was considered inappropriate. Alternatively, in a memorandum to the Central Committee of the CPSU, the leadership of the KGB recommended that Zinoviev and his family be allowed to travel abroad and that he be banned from entering the USSR.
Yu. F. Orlov A. B. Sharansky
To control the implementation of the Helsinki agreements on the observance of human rights by the USSR, in 1976 a group of Soviet dissidents formed the Moscow Helsinki Group (MHG), the first leader of which was the Soviet physicist, corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences of the Armenian SSR Yu. F. Orlov. Since its inception, the MHG has been subjected to constant persecution and pressure from the KGB and other law enforcement agencies of the Soviet state. Members of the group were threatened, they were forced to emigrate, they were forced to stop their human rights activities. Since February 1977, activists Yu. F. Orlov, A. Ginzburg, A. Sharansky and M. Landa began to be arrested. In the case of Sharansky, the KGB received the sanction of the Central Committee of the CPSU to prepare and publish a number of propaganda articles, as well as to write and transfer to US President J. Carter a personal letter from the defendant's father-in-law denying the fact of Sharansky's marriage and "exposing" his immoral appearance. Under pressure from the KGB in 1976-1977, MHG members L. Alekseeva, P. Grigorenko and V. Rubin were forced to emigrate. In the period from 1976 to 1982, eight members of the group were arrested and sentenced to various terms of imprisonment or exile (a total of 60 years in camps and 40 years in exile), six more were forced to emigrate from the USSR and deprived of their citizenship. In the autumn of 1982, in the face of increasing repression, the three remaining free members of the group were forced to announce the termination of the MHG. The Moscow Helsinki Group was able to resume its activities only in 1989, at the height of Gorbachev's perestroika.
The KGB sought to obtain from the arrested dissidents public speaking condemning the dissident movement. Thus, the “Counterintelligence Dictionary” (published by the Higher School of the KGB in 1972) states: “The KGB organs, carrying out measures for the ideological disarmament of the enemy together with party organs and under their direct supervision, inform the leading authorities about all ideologically harmful manifestations, prepare materials to publicly expose the criminal activities of carriers of anti-Soviet ideas and views, organize open speeches by prominent enemy ideologists who have broken with their former views, carry out political and educational work with persons convicted of anti-Soviet activities, organize disintegration work among members of ideologically harmful groups, and carry out preventive measures in that environment in which these groups recruit their members." exchange for mitigation of punishment, it was possible to achieve "repentant" speeches from Pyotr Yakir, Viktor Krasin, Zviad Gamsakhurdia, Dmitry Dudko.
Letters from Western figures in support of dissidents were deliberately left unanswered. For example, in 1983, the then General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU, Yu. V. Andropov, gave a special instruction not to respond to a letter from Austrian Federal Chancellor Bruno Kreisky in support of Yuri Orlov.
Lawyers who insisted on the innocence of dissidents were removed from political affairs; this is how Sofya Kallistratova was dismissed, insisting on the absence of corpus delicti in the actions of Vadim Delone and Natalya Gorbanevskaya.
Exchange of political prisoners
Main article: Exchange of political prisoners L. CorvalanIn 1976, Vladimir Bukovsky, who was serving his fourth term of imprisonment under Art. 70 of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR (“anti-Soviet agitation and propaganda”). December of this year, he was exchanged for a Chilean political prisoner - the former leader of the Communist Party of Chile, Luis Corvalan. The exchange took place in Switzerland, where Bukovsky was taken under escort and handcuffed.
Shortly after his expulsion from the USSR, Bukovsky was received at the White House by US President Carter. He settled in the UK, graduated from the University of Cambridge with a degree in neurophysiology. Wrote a book of memoirs "And the wind returns ...", published in many languages
Corvalan, after being released from a Chilean prison, was received in the Kremlin by Leonid Brezhnev. Later, Luis Corvalan changed his appearance and illegally returned to Chile.
The exchange of Bukovsky and Korvalan became the most famous case of a successful exchange of political prisoners.
On February 11, 1986, in Berlin, on the Glienicke bridge, the dissident Natan Sharansky was exchanged for Soviet intelligence officers arrested in the West - Karl Koecher and his wife Hana.
Impact and Outcomes
Most residents of the USSR had no information about the activities of dissidents. Dissident publications were for the most part inaccessible to most citizens of the USSR; Western broadcasting in the languages of the peoples of the USSR until 1988 was jammed.
According to Yakov Krotov, who describes the parishioners of Alexander Men,
The activities of dissidents drew the attention of the foreign public to human rights violations in the USSR. Demands for the release of Soviet political prisoners were put forward by many foreign politicians, including even some members of foreign communist parties, which caused concern to the Soviet leadership.
There is a case when an employee of the 5th Directorate of the KGB of the USSR, Viktor Orekhov, under the influence of the ideas of dissidents, began to inform his “supervised” information about the upcoming searches and arrests.
Be that as it may, by the beginning of the 1980s, according to the testimony of the former participants in the dissident movement themselves, dissent as a more or less organized opposition was over.
In the mid-1980s, democratic reforms were launched in the USSR, which ultimately led to the collapse of the USSR and the beginning of building democratic forms. state structure in most of the newly formed states of the post-Soviet space.
In 1986-1987 on the initiative of M. S. Gorbachev, most of the dissidents, including Academician Sakharov, were released from imprisonment and exile. Some dissidents emigrated after their release, but others (L. Alekseeva, K. Lyubarsky) returned to the USSR from forced emigration. A number of dissidents joined in political life, become people's deputies of the USSR (A. D. Sakharov), the RSFSR (S. A. Kovalev, R. I. Pimenov, M. M. Molostov), the Ukrainian SSR (Vyacheslav Chernovol), the activities of human rights organizations (MHG) resumed.
crash totalitarian regime in the USSR, the acquisition by the population of certain political rights and freedoms - such as, for example, freedom of speech and creativity, led to the fact that a significant part of dissidents, recognizing their task as completed, integrated into the post-Soviet political system.
A number of Soviet dissidents are active legal political activities in modern Russia - Lyudmila Alekseeva, Valeria Novodvorskaya, Alexander Podrabinek and others.
At the same time, some of the Soviet dissidents either categorically did not accept the post-Soviet political regime - Adel Naydenovich, Alexander Tarasov, or were not rehabilitated - Igor Ogurtsov, or even repressed for their opposition activities - Sergey Grigoryants, Vladimir Osipov, Andrey Derevyankin.
Dissident organizations
- People's Labor Union of Russian Solidarists
- All-Russian Social Christian Union for the Liberation of the People
- Initiative Group for the Protection of Human Rights in the USSR
- Human Rights Committee in the USSR
- Moscow Helsinki Group
- Free interprofessional association of workers
- Revolutionary Communism Group
- International Union of Evangelical Christian Baptist Churches
- Group for the establishment of trust between the USSR and the USA
- Russian Public Fund for Assistance to the Persecuted and Their Families
- Working Commission to Investigate the Use of Psychiatry for Political Purposes
see also
- Case of Ginzburg and Galanskov
- Demonstration August 25, 1968
- Day of Remembrance for Victims of Political Repressions
- The communists caught the boy
- Unofficial art of the USSR
- They chose freedom
- Human rights movement in the USSR
- Dissidence in the Far East of the USSR
- Sinyavsky and Daniel trial
- Religion in the USSR
- samizdat
- Censorship in the USSR
- Sixties
- Dubravlag
- Perm-36
- Chronicle of current events
Notes
- 1 2 History of Soviet dissidents
- History of Soviet dissidents. Memorial
- "Dissident" (from the manuscript of the book by S. A. Kovalev)
- Where did dissidence come from? : The history of Soviet dissent in the memoirs of one of the heroines of the dissident movement - Lyudmila Alekseeva. . Colta.ru (February 27, 2014). Retrieved 19 January 2015.
- 1 2 Bezborodov A. B. Academic dissidence in the USSR // Russian Historical Journal, 1999, Volume II, No. 1. ISBN 5-7281-0092-9
- 1 2 3 Vladimir Kozlov. Sedition: Dissent in the USSR under Khrushchev and Brezhnev. 1953-1982 years. According to declassified documents of the Supreme Court and the Prosecutor's Office of the USSR
- 1 2 3 4 5 Dissidents about dissidence. // "Banner". - 1997. No. 9
- L. Ternovsky. Law and "concepts" (Russian version). Leonard Ternovksi. The law and the idea
- Sergei Ermilov. cartoon "Laws - concepts"
- Regarding the explosions in the Moscow metro (Statement for press)
- About the resistance movement or dissidents
- 1 2
- SOCIALISTS
- Scientific Communism: A Dictionary (1983) / "Convergence" Theory
- Socio-political and ideological unity of society // Scientific Communism: Dictionary (1983)
- The FSB declassified the contents of the "Special folder" of the Chairman of the KGB of the USSR
- From the speech of the chairman of the KGB of the USSR Yu. V. Andropov at the plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU on April 27, 1973
- 1
2
Intercessor. S. V. Kallistratova. Compiled by: E. Pechuro. "Links", 2003.
http://lib.web-malina.com/getbook.php?bid=5700&page=1
http://lib.prometey.org/?id=1844
http://bookz.ru/authors/pe4uro-e/kallistr.html
http://bibliotera.org.ua/book.php?id=1153866711&s=81 - Brandeis University, KGB file of Sakharov, http://www.brandeis.edu/departments/sakharov/
The KGB File of Andrei Sakharov. (ed.: J. Rubenstein, A. Gribanov), New Haven: Yale University Press, c2005; ISBN 0-300-10681-5, Call number JC599.S58 K43 2005, http://catalog.library.georgetown.edu/search/o?SEARCH=57557418
The KGB File of Andrei Sakharov, http://www.yale.edu/annals/sakharov/sakharov_list.htm, (images of original pages and text in Windows-1251 encoding, as well as English translations). - KGB in the Baltic States: Documents and Researches. KGB 1954-1991
- 1 2 Likhanov D. Deadly heat // Top secret. - 2007. - Issue. 2.
- Persecution of Solzhenitsyn and Sakharov. Official publications and documents (Russian). Samizdat anthology. Retrieved August 23, 2012. Archived from the original on August 24, 2011. .
- Counterintelligence Dictionary. Higher Red Banner School of the State Security Committee under the Council of Ministers of the USSR. F. E. Dzerzhinsky, 1972
- Instruction to leave Chancellor Bruno Kreisky's request for Orlov's release unanswered, July 29, 1983
- Speech by S. V. Kallistratova in defense of V. Delone. http://www.memo.ru/library/books/sw/chapt49.htm
-
- The interview with V. Bukovsky was first published in Gazeta wyborcza. March 1998 Warsaw. Translation from Polish: Julia Sereda
- Vladimir Bukovsky. New York with Victor Topaller.
- Bukovsky offers to exchange Mikhail Khodorkovsky for Yevgeny Adamov October 11, 2005, 11:56 pm
- "Vladimir Bukovsky" http://politzeki.mypeople.ru/users/politzeki/wiki/vladimir_bukovskii/
- Appeal to the Communists of the West in support of the release of Bukovsky and Korvalan.
- Interview with Bukovsky.
- Konstantinovich Bukovsky. Electronic library of Alexander Belousenko.
- Yuri Glazov. So where did we go wrong? // New world. 1998, No. 1. http://magazines.russ.ru/novyi_mi/1998/1/rec06.html
- Vladimir Bukovsky. The grumbling of the last dissident. http://gazeta.aif.ru/online/aif/1211/10_01
- Luis Corvalan: "It's not socialism's fault that there is no sausage!" // Arguments and facts, No. 44 (1305) dated November 2, 2005, http://gazeta.aif.ru/online/aif/1305/11_01
- Joseph Raskin. Bukovsky Vladimir. Encyclopedia of the hooligan Orthodox.
- Vladimir Bukovsky. "And the wind returns..." 1978
- Vladimir Bukovsky. "And the wind returns..." 1978
- Podrabinek A.P. Moneychangers
- Krotov, Ya. Alik in Wonderland
- Time mine
- Bergman J. Was the Soviet Union totalitarian? The view of Soviet dissidents and the reformers of the Gorbachev era // Studies in East European Thought. 1998 Vol.50, No. 4. P. 247. DOI:10.1023/A:1008690818176
- S. I. Grigoryants about the murder of his son
- In the Vladimir region, the prosecutor's office demands to recognize the book of the leader of the "Christian Renaissance" Union as extremist
- Russian "eternal revolutionary" asked for asylum in Georgia to fight Putin's "fascist regime" from there
Links
- Cecile Vessier. For your freedom and ours! dissident movement in Russia. - M.: New Literary Review, 2015. - 576 p. - ISBN 978-5-4448-0268-7.
- Alekseeva L. M. History of dissent in the USSR: Newest period. - Vilnius - M.: Vesti, 1992. - ISBN 5-89942-250-3.
- Power and dissidents. From the documents of the KGB and the Central Committee of the CPSU / Archive nat. security at the University of George Washington (USA), Moscow Helsinki Group. - M.: MHG, 2006. - 282 p. - ISBN 5-98440-034-0.
- Conversation between V. Igrunov and B. Dolgin. 02/20/94 - 03/6/94. Edited by Elena Schwartz. 2007. CAUSES OF SOVIET DISSENT AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE
- A. Yu. Daniel. Dissidence: a culture that eludes definitions?
- Giuseppe Boffa "From the USSR to Russia. The history of the unfinished crisis. 1964-1994" Chapter V: "Power and dissidence"
- Vladimir Kozlov SEDITION: DISSENT OF THE USSR UNDER KHRUSHCHEV AND BREZHNEV. 1953-1982 YEARS. ACCORDING TO THE DECLASSIFIED DOCUMENTS OF THE SUPREME COURT AND PROSECUTION OF THE USSR
- Section of the website of the society "Memorial" about Soviet dissidents
- Leningrad. History of resistance in the mirror of repression (1956-1987)
- Dissident movement in Leningrad
- The ideological origins of the modern concept of human rights.
- Information about dissidents in the Andreevskaya Encyclopedia
- V. E. Dolinin, D. Ya. Severyukhin. Overcoming Silence
- Molostov M. M. "Revisionism - 58"
- Bukovsky V. K .. “And the wind returns ...” 1978
- "DISSIDENT" (from the manuscript of the book by S. A. Kovalev)
- Sinyavsky A. D. Dissidence as personal experience. // Youth Magazine No. 5, 1989
- Amalrik A. A. Notes of a dissident. - Ann Arbor: Ardis, 1982. - 361 p.
- Ternovsky, Leonard B. "why" or "why".
- Dissident slide films and books by V. and L. Sokirko 1960-80.
- A.Shubin Dissidents, informals and freedom in the USSR
- Soviet dissidents and human rights activists. Sakharov Center. - Photo documents. Retrieved June 12, 2015.
Literature
- 58-10. Supervisory proceedings of the USSR Prosecutor's Office on cases of anti-Soviet agitation and propaganda. Annotated directory. March 1953-1991. Edited by V. A. Kozlov and S. V. Mironenko. Compiled by O. V. Edelman with the participation of E. Yu. Zavadskaya and O. V. Lavinskaya. - M.: Democracy, 1999.
- Shubin A. V. Dissidents, informals and freedom in the USSR. M., 2008.- 384 p.: ill.
- Victor Seleznev. “Who chooses freedom. Saratov. Chronicle of dissent 1920-1980s "(Edited by the candidate historical sciences V. M. Zakharova). Saratov, 2012
- Robert Horvath (2005) The Legacy of Soviet Dissent: Dissidents, Democratization and Radical Nationalism in Russia, ISBN 0-415-33320-2
- Skutnev A.V. The protest movement in the USSR in 1945-1985: emigration and the dissident movement. - Kirov, 2011. - 105 p. ISBN 978-5-91371-031-4 http://search.rsl.ru/ru/catalog/record/5375297
- Typology of the dissident movement in the USSR: 1950s - 1980s (dissertation)
- Saveliev A.V. Political originality of the dissident movement in the USSR in the 1950s - 1970s. // Questions of history. 1998. No. 4.
dissidents in the ussr, dissidents in the ussr sex
Dissidents in the USSR Information About
- Burns, Robert - short biography
- The concept of common vocabulary and vocabulary of limited use
- Nancy Drew: The Captive Curse Walkthrough Nancy Drew Curse of Blackmoore Manor Walkthrough
- Deadpool - Troubleshooting
- Won't start How to Survive?
- What to do if bioshock infinite won't start
- Walkthrough Nancy Drew: Alibi in Ashes
- Spec Ops: The Line - game review, review Spec ops the line crashes on missions
- Room escape level 1 walkthrough
- Processing tomatoes with boric acid How much will 2 grams of boric acid
- Cucumber Grass (Borago)
- Bioinsecticide Lepidocid: purpose, properties and application procedure Lepidocide waiting period
- How to change the language to Russian in steam
- Dendrobium noble: room care
- Morphology of plants general concepts - document
- Planting, propagation and care of bamboo at home, photo Growing bamboo from seeds
- How to strengthen the cellular signal for the Internet in the country
- Sanskrit reveals the forgotten meaning of Russian words (2 photos)
- The oldest language Sanskrit programming language of the future Dead language Sanskrit
- Who has dominion over all the earth?