Foreign literature of the 17th century. Foreign literature of the 17th-18th centuries
List of questions for testing « Foreign literature XVII-XVIII centuries."
1. XVII century in world literary development.
2. Baroque (general characteristics of direction, method, style).
3. Classicism (general characteristics of direction, method, style).
4. Spanish literature XVII century and its representatives.
5. Creativity of Calderon. “Life is a Dream” by Calderon (analysis of the work).
6. French literature of the 17th century. Development of the theory of classicism from Malherbe to Boileau.
7. Creativity of Corneille. “Cid” by Corneille (analysis of the work).
10. The works of Racine. Phaedra (analysis of the work).
11. Moliere's role in transforming the comedy genre.
12. “Tartuffe” by Moliere (analysis of the work).
13. “The Misanthrope” by Moliere (analysis of the work).
14. Prose of French classicism. "Fairy Tales" by Perrault.
15. Italian comedy. Goldoni and Gozzi.
16. English literature of the 17th century. Lyrics by Donna.
17. Milton's "Paradise Lost" (general characteristics of the work).
18. General characteristics of the literature of the Enlightenment in the context of European XVII culture I century.
19. Defoe's works. "Robinson Crusoe" by Defoe (analysis of volume 1).
20. Swift's work. "Gulliver's Travels" (analysis of the work).
21. “The School of Scandal” by Sheridan (analysis of the work).
22. Burns lyrics.
23. Voltaire's works. “Candide” by Voltaire (analysis of the work).
24. Creativity of Diderot. Analysis of one of Diderot's works.
25. Creativity of Rousseau. Analysis of one of the works.
26. “The Marriage of Figaro” by Beaumarchais (analysis of the work).
27. Wieland's work. Satire.
28. Literature of Sturm and Drang. Goethe's work. Lyrics.
29. “The Sorrows of Young Werther” by Goethe (analysis of the work).
30. “Faust” by Goethe (analysis of the work)
31. Schiller's work. Analysis of one of Schiller's works.
32. Pre-romanticism in foreign literature of the 18th century. English School. From sentimentalism to pre-romanticism (review).
List of required readings for the discipline
“History of foreign literature of the 17th - 18th centuries.”
1. Lope de Vega F. Dog in the manger. Sheep Spring (Fuente Ovejuna). Dance teacher.
2. Tirso de Molina.Pious Martha. The Mischief of Seville, or Don Juan.
3. Calderon P.Life is a dream.
4. Kornel P.Sid. Horace.
5. Racine J. Andromache. Phaedra. Britannic.
6. Moliere J.-B.Misanthrope. Tartuffe . Stingy. Don Juan. A tradesman among the nobility.
7. Donn D. Poems.
8. Thomson D. Seasons.
9. Milton D. Lost heaven. Paradise returned.
10. Defoe D. Robinson Crusoe(volume 1).
11. Swift D. Gulliver's Travels (adult version).
10. Fielding G. The story of Tom Jones, a foundling.
11. Sheridan R.B. School of slander.
12. Stern L. Sentimental Journey . The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy.
13. Burns R. Lyrics.
14. Montesquieu Sh. Persian letters.
15. Voltaire F.-M. Simple-minded. Candide. Virgin of Orleans.
16. Diderot D. Nephew of Ramo. Nun. Jacques the fatalist.
17. Rousseau J.-J. Julia, or New Heloise (separate parts). Emil. Confession. Pygmalion.
18. Beaumarchais P.The Barber of Seville. Marriage of Figaro .
19. Lesage.The Adventures of Gil Blas of Santillana .
20. Lafayette. Princess of Cleves.
21. Lafontaine. Fables. Fairy tales.
18. Lessing G.-E. Emilia Galotti. Laocoon (preface).
19. Goethe I.-V. Lyrics. The Sorrows of Young Werther. Faust.
20. Schiller F. Deceit and love. Robbers. Mary Stuart. Don Carlos.
21. Gray T. Elegies.
22. Wieland. History of the Abderites. Oberon.
23. Goldoni K. The hostess of the hotel, or the innkeeper.
24. Gozzi K. Princess Turandot.
25. Perrault S. Fairy tales.
26. Choderlos de Laclos. Dangerous ties.
27. Prevost A. History of the Chevalier des Grieux and Manon Lescaut.
28. Austin D. Pride and Prejudice. Sense and Sensibility, or Reason and Sensibility. Arguments of reason. Emma.
29. Walpole G. Castle of Otranto.
30. Radcliffe A. Udolf secrets.
Note. Required literature is highlighted in bold. Students must observe proportionality in the selection of works from the list, taking into account national schools and genres.
Required literature is highlighted in bold. Regular - extra (bonus points for reading).
The list of texts for reading consists of mandatory and optional. All works read must be recorded in the “Reader’s Diary” (a separate notebook) in the following form:
1) imprint of the book (indicating the translation);
2) method;
3) genre of a work of art;
4) main storylines;
5) system of images, names.
Each module contains lists of articles to take notes. Notes must be written in a separate notebook.
Foreign literature of the 17th – 18th centuries.17th century in world literary development.
The literary process in Europe in the 17th century was very complex and contradictory. The 17th century is the era that marked the transition from the Renaissance to the Enlightenment, and this determined the characteristics of historical and cultural development in European countries; the positions of the feudal-Catholic reaction were strengthened, and this caused a crisis of Renaissance humanism, most forcefully expressed in Baroque art.
Baroque as a style is formed not only in literature, but also in painting and music. As a literary movement, the Baroque has a number of common ideological and artistic principles.
The Baroque is based on a concept of man that is polemical in relation to the Renaissance traditions. A weak and fragile creature, man, as Baroque writers believed, is doomed to wander in the tragic chaos of life. A deeply pessimistic concept of existence leads Baroque literature to ascetic religious ideals.
Baroque creates an elite theory of art and asserts a special metaphorical ornamental style. Based on the idea of disharmony in the world, Baroque writers, trying to express the idea of disharmony in the very figurative system of the work, are carried away by semantic and pictorial contrasts. The most vivid embodiment of the principles of Baroque was found in the work of the great Spanish playwright P. Calderon.
In European Baroque, two movements emerge - high and low, or democratic, Baroque. To the elite ideas, the sublime rhetoric of the high baroque, represented by the theater of P. Calderon, the poetry of L. de Gongora, D. Donne, the pastoral and gallant-heroic novel, the low baroque contrasts the style of comic burlesque, which in many ways consciously parodies the sublime imagery (these trends are expressed most clearly in a 17th century picaresque novel).
Another literary movement of the 17th century was classicism, which flourished in France. It must be remembered that the origins of classicism go back to the aesthetics of the Renaissance, which created the cult of antiquity as the focus of the artistic ideal. Classicism reflected the rise of national consciousness of French society. In the first third of the 17th century, the formation of an absolute monarchy took place in France, which led to the elimination of feudal civil strife and the formation of a single centralized state. This historically progressive process creates objective preconditions for the development of classicism. The ideas of R. Descartes, the creator of the rationalist philosophical school, had a profound impact on the aesthetics of classicism.
In its development, classicism of the 17th century went through two main stages. In the first half of the 17th century, he asserted high ideas of citizenship and heroism, which were reflected in the political tragedies of P. Corneille.
In the second half of the 17th century, after the tragic events of the Fronde, tragic motifs deepened in classicism. Classicism created a coherent aesthetic theory, which was fully embodied in N. Boileau’s treatise “Poetic Art”. The classicists developed a normative theory of art, including a clear differentiation of “high” and “low”, strict genre and style canons. The rationalistic attitude determined the concept of man and the features of conflict in classic works. At the same time, the classicists defended the principle of “imitation of nature,” “reasonable verisimilitude,” which allowed them to recreate in their works the typical features of social life of the 17th century.
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17th century in world literary development
The Renaissance is difficult to separate from the history and culture of the 17th century. At the beginning of the 17th century, the luminaries of the Renaissance continued to create. The transition between eras is very smooth and lasts for several generations. The same thing happens at the upper boundaries of the period. The 17th - 18th centuries are a fundamental era for the development of modern European culture. During this era, modern states were created. In France, under the influence of the culture of classicism, norms of literature and language are created that took root until the 20th century. The educational movement and rationalist literature had a similar regulatory function in England.
The Renaissance is an era of social optimism, the discovery of the universe and human capabilities. The social system becomes more dynamic, the possibilities of the human personality and destiny open up. There is a belief in overcoming social obstacles in a variety of areas. The ideal of the Renaissance man is typologically similar in different cultures. The universal ideal embodied the trinity of beauty, goodness and truth. But already at the end of the Renaissance, in the 16th century, this ideal began to weaken. In the 16th century, religious wars, the struggle of states for colonies, and competition in the European arena took place. The united European culture is being shaken. The generalizing influence of Latin origin is lost. A national culture appears, and different types of states are created: bourgeois (revolution in Holland and England), which emerged as a result of the process of refeudalization, a return to old social relations (Spain, Germany, Italy). “Dwarf absolutism” reigned in Germany, and the state found itself in a state of fragmentation. The situation was aggravated by the Thirty Years' War that occurred in the 16th century. In France there was a gradual movement towards capitalism. France of that era was one of the leading European powers. It is considered a classic for the literature of the era. The tendencies of centralization are most clearly manifested in it: regional differences disappear, the center strengthens, a unified legal and cultural system is created - and absolutism (the exclusive role of royal power).
In the 17th century, the concept of power appeared. Power becomes a transpersonal force that cannot be controlled. The English philosopher Hobbes imagined the state in the form of the monster Leviathan, which controls everything, demands obedience and acts with harsh methods. There is a complete unification of life, submission to the king. The leading category in the era is the category of controllability. In Europe, rituals emerged that controlled cultural and social life, and etiquette was introduced. In the era of Louis XIV, etiquette was exaggerated. Strict government control becomes a constraining force. Revolutions occur, giving way to dictatorship and the subsequent restoration of the monarchy.
During the 17th century, a new religious ideal was formed. There is a search for a “personal” God, his approach to everyday life. The bourgeoisie presupposes personal initiative. The embodiment of this search is the Reformation in its extreme manifestations (Puritanism, Calvinism). The ritual side is discarded and naked faith remains. The main tenet of Protestantism is individual proof that you are worthy of divine salvation. The content of the era also became the counter-reformation movement, especially developing in Spain and Italy. According to the counter-reformers, God is relegated to the empyrean, he acts as a blind and irrational force. The bearer of this faith becomes the Church, which is also pushed into the empyrean. This strategy is implemented by the Jesuit Order, whose slogan is “The end justifies the means.”
The 17th century is a turning point when human values shift catastrophically. The symbols of the era are endless searches, trust in irrational categories and rebellion, the riot of one’s own will. The man of the era is looking for support in his search. This support becomes either reason or feeling. Truth, goodness and beauty begin to exist separately from each other. As a result, two opposing trends arise: rationalism and irrationalism, respectively.
The most distinct symptom of rationalism is the emergence of science. In empiric studies, the problem of method arises, bringing science closer to literature (René Descartes, Spinoza, Hobbes). These scientific searches continue until the 20th century.
The flip side of these searches is irrationalism. Irrationalism doubts the possibilities of human knowledge. He strives to highlight areas of the unknown, to show the diversity and play of phenomena. In irrationalism, the category of concept is highlighted - the convergence of different, but mystically related categories. From the concept a metaphor develops. The literature of this era is metaphorical. The choice between private truths depends on one's own will.
One of the universals of the era is the feeling of crisis, turning point, revaluation of the ideals of the Renaissance. The literature of the era is polemical and propaganda. They either try to restore the ideal of the Renaissance or deny it. There is also a rejection of the principle of harmony. In the 17th century, there was an orientation toward dominant categories. Dialectics is determined by the unity and struggle of opposites: the interaction of reason and feelings, personality and society. The Baroque era is interested in personal processes. Humanism is changing - it becomes “humanism in spite of.” The value of a person is not given initially, it is acquired. Another feature of the era is analyticalism and a research approach. A method is being developed for dividing reality into details and combining it in unexpected ways. The era strives for wide epic panoramas. Writers focus on centralizing the idea. Thanks to the discovery of an idea, interaction occurs between journalistic and artistic creativity. The idea itself in a literary text is revealed through pathos and logic. Logic organizes the composition, the connection of parts. One of the main issues of the era is truth and credibility. There is a search for criteria of truth.
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Baroque literature (general characteristics).
Writers and poets in the Baroque era perceived real world like an illusion and a dream. Realistic descriptions were often combined with their allegorical depiction. Symbols, metaphors, theatrical techniques, graphic images (lines of poetry form a picture), richness in rhetorical figures, antitheses, parallelisms, gradations, and oxymorons are widely used. There is a burlesque-satirical attitude towards reality. Baroque literature is characterized by a desire for diversity, a summation of knowledge about the world, inclusiveness, encyclopedicism, which sometimes turns into chaos and collecting curiosities, a desire to study existence in its contrasts (spirit and flesh, darkness and light, time and eternity). Baroque ethics is marked by a craving for the symbolism of the night, the theme of frailty and impermanence, life as a dream (F. de Quevedo, P. Calderon). Calderon's play “Life is a Dream” is famous. Genres such as the gallant-heroic novel (J. de Scudéry, M. de Scudéry) and the everyday and satirical novel (Furetière, C. Sorel, P. Scarron) are also developing. Within the framework of the Baroque style, its varieties and directions are born: Marinism, Gongorism (Culteranism), Conceptism (Italy, Spain), the metaphysical school and euphuism (England) (See Precision Literature).
The action of the novels is often transferred to the fictional world of antiquity, to Greece, court gentlemen and ladies are depicted as shepherdesses and shepherdesses, which is called pastoral (Honoré d'Urfe, “Astraea”). Pretentiousness and the use of complex metaphors flourish in poetry. Common forms include sonnet, rondo, concetti (a short poem expressing some witty thought), and madrigals.
In the West, an outstanding representative in the field of the novel is G. Grimmelshausen (the novel “Simplicissimus”), in the field of drama - P. Calderon (Spain). In poetry, V. Voiture (France), D. Marino (Italy), Don Luis de Gongora y Argote (Spain), D. Donne (England) became famous. In Russia, Baroque literature includes S. Polotsky and F. Prokopovich. In France during this period, “precious literature” flourished. It was then cultivated mainly in the salon of Madame de Rambouillet, one of the aristocratic salons in Paris, the most fashionable and famous. In Spain, the baroque movement in literature was called “Gongorism” after the name of its most prominent representative (see above).
Baroque literature (general characteristics).
the universals of the era appear in baroque and classicism. In European literature, classicism appears to be a simplified version of baroque; in Russian literature, baroque and classicism are viewed as different artistic directions. But in the work of one writer both of these directions can converge. In Spain, the Baroque occupied a dominant position. His aesthetics and poetics were developed by representatives of the Lope de Vega school. Classicism developed there only theoretically. In England, none of the methods was dominant, since the traditions of the Renaissance were strong there. Only by the middle of the century did classicist features grow in English art (the theory of Ben Jonson), but they did not take root in this country. In Germany, a low-level baroque is developing, the preferred genres of which are bloody drama and picaresque romance. Classicism becomes the fundamental method in France, but Baroque tendencies also appear here. Along with classicism, there is also salon literature and libertine poetry.
Baroque is realized not only in literature. Initially it was highlighted in architecture (the works of Bernini, the fountains of Versailles). In music, the Baroque was represented by the works of Bach and Handel, in painting - by Titian and Caravaggio, in literature - by Jean-Baptiste Marino and Calderon. Baroque is closely related to the Renaissance. Yu.B. Whipper talks about mannerism - the tragic humanism of the late Renaissance. This is an exit to allegorical spaces with philosophical conflicts that demonstrate faith in man and the tragedy of human existence.
The word "Baroque" itself has no precise explanation. This term refers to a wide range of phenomena. In Baroque, by definition, there are no canons. The canon is individual, diversity reigns here.
Worldviews of the Baroque:
1. A sense of the contradictory nature of the world, the absence of established forms, endless struggle. The author’s task is to capture reality in its variability.
2. Pessimistic emotional tone. It comes from the fragmentation, the duality of the world. In the literature of this direction, the motif of the double is often found.
3. The leading motives are the struggle of flesh and spirit, visible and essential. A favorite theme is the struggle of life and death. Baroque authors often depict a person in his borderline states (sleep, illness, madness, feast during the plague).
4. Theatrics, play, experiments of heroes with life, reverent attitude towards earthly joys, admiring the little things of everyday life. Baroque works display a kaleidoscope of life.
5. The Baroque hero is a complete individualist. This is either a bright, but initially vicious creature who needs to atone for her sins, or an initially kind, but disfigured life circumstances personality. The second type of hero strives to escape from the world either into creativity or by creating life utopias.
Baroque aesthetics is expounded in the treatises “Wit or the Art of the Quick Mind” (Balthazar Grassian) and “Aristotle’s Spyglass” (Emmanuel Tesauro). Art from the Baroque point of view is subjective creativity. It does not express the truth, but creates an illusion, obeying the will of the author. The writer's task is to transform reality. The flight of thought must be exaggerated. Baroque authors are interested in everything unusual. Getting acquainted with the unprecedented, the reader is able to be surprised. The main artistic means is metaphor. Metaphor intersects with amplification—exaggeration. The same object is rotated from different sides.
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Features of English literature of the 17th century.
The first half of the 17th century was marked in England by the flourishing of Baroque poetry, represented primarily by the school of metaphysical poets. One of the most talented poets of this movement, who opened new horizons for European poetry of modern times, was John Donne (1572 - 1631), whose work is recommended for students to get acquainted with. The English bourgeois revolution (1640 - 1650) had a decisive influence on the development of English literature in the 17th century. It took place under religious Puritan slogans, which determined the specifics of the artistic thought of the era.
When studying English literature of the 17th century, the main attention should be paid to the work of D. Milton (1608 - 1674). An outstanding revolutionary publicist, Milton reflected in his poems the most pressing political conflicts of our time. His poem “Paradise Lost” is an attempt at a socio-philosophical understanding of the development of the world and humanity as a whole. In the artistic world of the poem, baroque and classicist trends are organically combined, which must be paid attention to when analyzing it.
Transcript
1 Abstract The publication, intended for philology students and written in the form of lectures, provides a description of the conditions for the formation European literature in the XVII and XVIII centuries, analysis of the creativity of outstanding writers, whose works reflected the characteristic features of the artistic systems of that time: Renaissance realism, Baroque, classicism, educational classicism, educational realism, sentimentalism. After each topic, a list of references is provided, which greatly facilitates student orientation within the course.
2 Veraksich I.Yu. History of foreign literature of the 17th and 18th centuries Course of lectures
3 Preface The course “History of Foreign Literature of the 17th-18th Centuries” is an integral part of the university course “History of Foreign Literature”. The manual, written in the form of lectures, is designed to help students master difficult but interesting material and prepare them to perceive the literature of the 17th and 18th centuries. All material is arranged in such a way that students ultimately have a holistic understanding of the features of the literary process of the 17th and 18th centuries. Foreign literature of the 17th century has long been viewed as a phenomenon that predates the Age of Enlightenment. However, research in recent decades has shown that it has its own distinctive features, including stylistic ones. It was the 17th century that for a long time determined the development of the main artistic systems of that time: classicism, baroque, and Renaissance realism. The Enlighteners relied heavily on the experience of their predecessors in developing epic concepts (honor, reason, the relationship between honor and duty, etc.). The artistic systems of the 18th century (Enlightenment classicism, Enlightenment realism, sentimentalism) are examined in detail. Complex theoretical material is supplemented by an analysis of the works of the most prominent representatives of a particular artistic system. At the same time, the well-known concepts of literary scholars presented in textbooks, teaching aids on the history of literature and reference books are taken into account, which greatly facilitates the orientation of students within this course. The number of hours allocated by the curriculum for studying the course “History of Foreign Literature of the 17th-18th Centuries” is, unfortunately, small, therefore this manual provides a system of basic knowledge necessary for students. After each topic, students are offered a list of literature, the study of which will allow them to summarize the knowledge gained in lectures, as well as during independent work by subject.
4 Contents Lecture 1. General characteristics of the literary process of the 17th century. The works of Lope de Vega. Lecture 2. Spanish Baroque literature of the 17th century. Lecture 3. German literature of the 17th century. Lecture 4. French classicism (Cornel, Racine, Moliere). Lecture 5. The Age of Enlightenment. General characteristics of the English Enlightenment. Lecture 6. English Enlightenment. D. Swift. R. Burns. Lecture 7. German Enlightenment. Lessing's aesthetic program. Lecture 8. Goethe's work. Lecture 9. French Enlightenment. Voltaire. J.-J. Rousseau. Lecture 10. The work of Beaumarchais.
5 Lecture 1 General characteristics of the literary process of the 17th century. Creativity of Lope de Vega Plan 1. Features of the development of the literary process of the 17th century. 2. Leading literary movements of the 17th century: a) classicism; b) baroque; c) Renaissance realism. 3. The work of Lope de Vega: a) a brief overview of the life and creative path of the playwright; b) the ideological and artistic originality of the drama “Fuente Ovejuna”; c) the ideological and artistic originality of the drama “Star of Seville”. 1. Features of the development of the literary process of the 17th century Literary eras are difficult to fit into the strict framework of the calendar. When speaking about literature of the 18th century, we mean primarily the era of Enlightenment. Is there such ideological and aesthetic content in the concept of “foreign literature of the 17th century”? There is no consensus on this issue both in domestic science and abroad. Many literary scholars answer this question in the negative and put forward many arguments that sound very convincing. Anyone who turns to the study of this era is struck first of all by the variety of economic, social, political and cultural processes that took place at that time in different European countries. In the economies of England and the Netherlands, bourgeois relations became predominant in the 17th century; in France, capitalist orders triumphed in industry, trade and banking, but in agriculture the feudal structure remained quite strong; in Spain, Italy, Germany, bourgeois relations were barely visible, taking the form of usury. Equally obvious are the contrasts in the balance of social forces. At the beginning of the 17th century, the bourgeois revolution in the Netherlands ended, which merged with the national liberation struggle against Spanish rule and led to the emergence of the bourgeois state of Holland. A bourgeois revolution took place in England. However, in Italy, Spain and Germany, feudal forces are trying to consolidate their power.
6 An equally motley picture of political life Western Europe. In the 17th century, the dominant form of state was absolutism. It is no coincidence that the century under review is called the century of absolutism. However, the forms of the absolutist system were varied in European countries. The 17th century was an era of continuous wars in Europe, ongoing colonial conquests in the New World, Asia and Africa. At the same time, the old colonial countries of Spain and Portugal are gradually being pushed into the background by the young states of Holland and England. With such diversity of economic, political and social relations in European countries, it would seem impossible to talk about any unity of Western European culture in the 17th century. And yet we will refer to the point of view of S.D. Artamonova, Z.T. Civil, who consider this era as an independent stage in the history of foreign literature, since through the variety of specific forms of historical and cultural development of individual countries, features of the typological community of social, political and cultural processes of this era are visible. So, the 17th century is an independent period in the transitional era from feudalism to capitalism, which lies between the Renaissance and the Enlightenment. This is an eventful period of history, marked by extremely intense class struggle and characterized by the growing development of nature. Two groups enter the political arena: the Protestant Union (France, the Netherlands, England, Denmark, Sweden founded in 1607) and the Catholic League (Austria, Spain, Vatican founded in 1609). The rivalry between these two political camps led to the 30 Years' War, a key event in the 17th century. The war began in 1618 and was characterized by a struggle between the early bourgeois order established in the Netherlands as a result of the liberation movement, and a particular reactionary form of the late feudal order. On the other hand, an armed conflict arose between feudal countries with different levels of development. The war ended with the conclusion of the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, the final recognition of the States General (the Netherlands) and the English bourgeois revolution of 1649. This is how the first bourgeois national states arose and the dominance of reactionary Spain was broken. Thus, we see that the main thing that characterizes the history of Europe in the 17th century is the transition, the crisis of the era. Age-old foundations are crumbling; feudal orders still retain dominance, but in the depths of feudalism, acute contradictions are revealed that foreshadow the collapse of the old system.
7 This period began with the previous era. The Renaissance worldview is being replaced by a new one. Shifts in the field of science also contributed to its formation. The first scientific communities and academies emerged in Europe, and the publication of scientific journals began. The scholastic science of the Middle Ages gives way to the experimental method. Mathematics became the leading field of science in the 17th century. In these historical conditions, as well as under the influence of the partly continuing tradition of the Renaissance, concepts for comprehending reality were developed, which were based on opposing views on the world and the purpose of man. These processes could not help but be reflected in the sphere literary creativity and in the development of philosophical thought of the era. While writers, on the one hand, advocated the liberation of the individual, on the other hand, they observed a gradual return to the old public order, which, instead of the previous personal subordination, established a new form of human dependence on a material and ideological basis. This new thing gave rise to faith in fate. What was new in the concept of man put forward by the literature of this period was the understanding of responsibility for one’s actions and deeds, regardless of the political and religious relations by which he was constrained. The question of man's relationship to God occupied a decisive place in the thinking of the 17th century. God represented a higher order, harmony, which was taken as a model for the chaotic earthly structure. Involvement in God was supposed to help a person withstand the trials of life. 2. Leading literary movements of the 17th century The aggravation of the political and ideological struggle was reflected in the formation and confrontation of the two artistic systems of Baroque and Classicism. Usually, when characterizing these systems, attention is focused on their differences. Their dissimilarity is undeniable, but it is also undeniable that these two systems have typologically common features: 1) artistic systems arose as an awareness of the crisis of Renaissance ideals; 2) representatives of Baroque and Classicism rejected the idea of harmony underlying the humanistic Renaissance concept: instead of harmony between man and society, the art of the 17th century reveals a complex interaction between the individual and the environment; Instead of harmony between reason and feeling, the idea of subordinating passions to reason is put forward.
8 A. Classicism Classicism of the 17th century became a unique reflection of post-Renaissance humanism. Classicists are characterized by the desire to explore the individual in its connections with the world. Classicism as art system combines an orientation towards antiquity with a deep penetration into the inner world of the characters. The struggle between feeling and duty is the main conflict of classicism. Through his prism, writers tried to resolve many contradictions of reality. Classicism from lat. classicus, first-class, exemplary, originated in Italy in the 16th century in university circles as a practice of imitating antiquity. Humanist scientists tried to contrast the high optimistic art of the ancients with the feudal world. They sought to revive ancient drama, tried to derive from the works of ancient masters general rules on the basis of which ancient Greek plays were supposedly built. In fact, ancient literature did not have any rules, but humanists did not understand that art from one era cannot be “transplanted” into another. After all, any work does not arise on the basis certain rules, but on the basis of specific conditions of social development. In France of the 17th century, classicism not only developed rapidly, found its methodological justification in philosophy, but also became an official literary movement for the first time in history. This was facilitated by the policy of the French court. French absolutism (a transitional form of state, when the weakened aristocracy and the bourgeoisie, which had not yet gained strength, were equally interested in the unlimited power of the king) sought to restore order in all areas of life and establish the principles of civil discipline. Classicism with its strict system of rules was convenient for absolutism. It allowed royal power to interfere in the artistic sphere of public life, to control creative process. It was for such control that the famous Academy of Resiliers was created in the 40s of the 17th century. The philosophy of Rene Descartes (), which argued that man, and not God, is the measure of all things, largely opposed the Catholic reaction of that time. Instead of affirming asceticism and obedience, Descartes proclaims “Cogito, ergo sum” “I think, therefore I am.” The proclamation of human reason was objectively anti-clerical in nature. This is precisely what attracted theorists of the aesthetics of classicism to the teachings of the French thinker. The philosophy of rationalism predetermined the nature of the classicists' ideas about the ideal and the positive hero. The classicists saw the purpose of art in the knowledge of truth, which acted as the ideal of beauty. They put forward a method for achieving it, based on three central categories of their
9 aesthetics: reason, model, taste. All these categories were considered objective criteria of artistry. From the point of view of classicists, great works are the fruit not of talent, not of inspiration, not of artistic imagination, but of stubborn adherence to the dictates of reason, the study of classical works of antiquity and knowledge of the rules of taste. The classicists believed that a worthy example is only that person who can subordinate his feelings and passions to reason. That is why the positive hero of classic literature has always been considered a person capable of sacrificing his feelings for the sake of reason. This, in their opinion, is Sid, a character in Corneille’s play of the same name. Rationalistic philosophy also predetermined the content of the artistic system of classicism, which is based on the artistic method as a system of principles with the help of which the artistic development of reality in all its diversity occurs. The principle of hierarchy (i.e., subordination) of genres appears, asserting their inequality. This principle was in good agreement with the ideology of absolutism, which likened society to a pyramid, at the top of which stands the king, as well as with the philosophy of rationalism, which required clarity, simplicity, and a systematic approach to any phenomenon. According to the principle of hierarchy, there are “high” and “low” genres. “High” genres (tragedy, ode) were assigned a national theme; they could only tell stories about kings, generals, and the highest nobility. The language of these works had an upbeat, solemn character (“high calm”). In “low” genres (comedy, fable, satire) it was possible to touch only on private problems or abstract vices (stinginess, hypocrisy, vanity, etc.), acting as absolutized private traits of human character. Heroes in “low” genres could be representatives of the lower classes of society. The removal of noble persons was allowed only in exceptional cases. In the language of such works, rudeness, ambiguous allusions, and wordplay (“low calm”) were allowed. The use of the words “high calm” here was, as a rule, of a parodic nature. In accordance with the principles of rationalism, classicists put forward a demand for purity of genres. Mixed genres, such as tragicomedy, are being squeezed out. This deals a blow to the ability of a particular genre to comprehensively reflect reality. From now on, only the entire system of genres is capable of expressing the diversity of life. In other words, in classicism the richness and complexity of reality is revealed not through genre, but through method.
10 By the middle of the 17th century, the opinion had become established that the most important literary genre was tragedy (in architecture a palace, in painting a ceremonial portrait). In this genre, the laws were the most stringent. The plot (historical or legendary, but plausible) should reproduce ancient times, the life of distant states. It should be guessed from the title, just like the idea from the first lines. The fame of the plot opposed the cult of intrigue. It was required to establish the logic of life, in which regularity triumphed over chance. The principle of three unities occupied a special place in the theory of tragedy. It was formulated in the works of Italian and French humanists of the 16th century (G. Trissino, J. Scaliger), who relied on Aristotle in the fight against medieval theater. But only the classicists of the 17th century (especially Boileau) elevated it to an indisputable law. Unity of action required the reproduction of one integral and complete action that would unite all the characters. The unity of time came down to the requirement to fit actions into one day. The unity of place was expressed in the fact that the entire play should take place in one place. The main theoretical work in which the principles we considered were set out was N. Boileau’s book “Poetic Art” (1674). The most famous representatives of classicism: Jean La Fontaine (), Pierre Corneille (), Jean Racine (), Jean-Baptiste Moliere (). B. Baroque There are different explanations for the term "baroque". And each of them gives a lot for understanding the style itself. It is believed that the name of this destination comes from the Portuguese perola barrocca, meaning pearl of great price. irregular shape, shimmering and shimmering with all the colors of the rainbow. According to the second version, barocco is an intricate scholastic syllogism. Finally, the third option, barocco, means falsehood and deception. The fact that this pearl is irregular in shape immediately contrasts Baroque with the harmonious art of the Renaissance, close to the classical ideal. The rapprochement with a precious pearl marks the Baroque's desire for luxury, sophistication, and decorativeness. The mention of the syllogism indicates the connection between the Baroque and medieval scholasticism. Finally, the fact that Baroque is interpreted as falsehood and deception emphasizes the illusory aspect that is very strong in this art.
11 At the heart of the Baroque is disharmony and contrast. This is the contrast between unreasonable human nature and sober reason. Baroque is also characterized by the contrast of prosaic and poetic, ugly and beautiful, caricature and sublime ideal. Baroque writers emphasized man's dependence on objective conditions, on nature and society, the material environment and situation. Their view of a person is sober and mercilessly tough. Having abandoned the idealization of man, which formed the basis of Renaissance literature, Baroque artists depict people as evil and selfish or prosaic and ordinary. The person himself is in their eyes the bearer of disharmony. In his psychology they look for contradictions and oddities. In this way, they highlight the complexity of a person’s inner world and emphasize seemingly mutually exclusive features in it. But it is not only man who is disharmonious. One of the principles of Baroque literature is also the principle of dynamics and movement. The movement is seen as based on internal contradictions and antagonism. This internal disharmony, reflected in Baroque literature, revealed the fact that in society itself there is disharmony arising from the struggle of selfish interests. Connected with this is an important feature of the understanding of beauty, the idea of beauty in Baroque art. Life is prosaic, man is weak and vicious by nature. Therefore, everything beautiful is outside the material natural principle. Only a spiritual impulse can be beautiful. The beautiful is fleeting, ideal and belongs not to the real world, but to the other world, the world of fantasy. For Renaissance writers, beauty was contained in nature itself, for example, in the natural poetry of the people. For Baroque writers, beauty is the result of conscious mastery, conscious mental activity. It is whimsical, peculiar, pretentious. In the 16th and 17th centuries, writers from different countries argued about what is higher: this spontaneity of nature itself or art, skill. The sympathies of Baroque writers were on the side of craftsmanship. This also applies to the literary style, which they sought to make difficult to access, intricate, filled with complex metaphors and similes, hyperbole and rhetorical figures. Despite the fact that the Baroque is a complete style, from an ideological point of view it was not integral. It is enough to point out the fierce policy that Gongora and Quevedo pursued between themselves. Gongora represented the Baroque in its aristocratic form. He contrasted reality with an illusory world, similar to a conventional decoration. Gongora's style, replete with intricate hyperboles and bizarre images, also contributed to the creation of this world.
12 turning life into fantasy. This style was called “culteranism” (from the word culto, processed, dressed). In contrast to Gongora, his opponent Quevedo looked for contrasts and contradictions in Spanish reality itself, bringing the vices of life to caricature and grotesque. His style of "conceptism" (from the word concepto thought) is opposed to what Gongora represented. To complete the description of the Baroque, we must add the following. The greatest writers of this era, Quevedo, Tirso de Molina, and Calderon, were religious people. Many of their works are imbued with religious ideas and belong to religious art. Based on this, it is very easy to declare them reactionaries. However, the greatest of them (Calderon, Quevedo, Gracian, Tirso de Molina) came into contact in their work with popular ideas and the popular point of view. They gave a sober and sharp criticism of the emerging monetary world, painted an ordinary person and thereby contributed to the democratization of art. B. Renaissance realism Renaissance realism, developing in parallel with classicism and baroque, shed new light on the contradictions of the time, especially in views on moral values, the highest of which remained man. Representatives of Renaissance realism were in many ways opponents of classicism with its system of rules and norms and baroque, aimed at the world of exoticism and fantasy. They did not accept the mannerisms and excessive sophistication of Baroque works. Followers of humanism remained supporters of clarity and truthfulness in art, but were no longer in a hurry to affirm the power of the human mind and the limitless possibilities of the individual. Experiencing the same disappointment in humanistic ideals as their contemporaries, the writers of Renaissance realism were not afraid to pose pressing questions. A special place among them is occupied by the concept of virtue, including human dignity, pride, honor, which conflicts with the class prejudices of feudalism. In addition, representatives of Renaissance realism turned to describing the everyday life of people. They continued to develop the traditions of urban literature. For the first time, representatives of Renaissance realism raised the question of the relationship between a person’s moral character and his class, with the environment in which he was raised. At the same time, representatives of the people appeared higher and morally more often in their works, and Lope de Vega, for example, was the first to show peasants as a community of bright individuals, people capable of talking about lofty matters and, if necessary, defending their human dignity to the end.
13 The reproach that critics make against humanist writers is the lack of sharp social criticism in their works. But we should not forget that in both drama and prose, ethical issues are closely related to political issues. Only now they are not put in the foreground. The earthly daily life of a person does not require high pathos and sophistication in the expression of thoughts. At the same time, behind all the apparent simplicity of the description of reality, serious reflections of the writers about the fate of their country and people are hidden. That is why the dramaturgy of Lope de Vega or the early dramaturgy of Tirso de Molina has not yet lost its civil sound. And it is no coincidence that in various literary sources, writers of Renaissance realism of the first half of the 17th century are often considered among the authors of the late Renaissance, and their work is considered in the section on the history of literature of the Renaissance. We find this approach in the works of A.L. Stein, V.S. Uzina, N.I. Balashova. 3. The work of Lope de Vega A. Review of the life and creative path of the playwright At the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries, Lope de Vega (), relying on the traditions of Spanish folk theater and the powerful realistic tradition of the Renaissance, created Spanish drama. Among the galaxy of outstanding playwrights, he holds first place. The Spaniards adored their national genius. His name has become a symbol of all that is beautiful. Lope Felix de Vega Carpio was born on November 25, 1562 in Madrid. His father, who came from an Asturian peasant family, was a wealthy man who had his own gold embroidery establishment in Madrid. He gave his son a good education and even the nobility, purchasing, according to the custom of those times, a patent for the title of nobility. Having received his initial education at a Jesuit college, the young man graduated from the university. From a young age he was in the service of noble people, early on he performed with acting troupes for which he wrote plays, was at one time a soldier, was married several times, had an endless number of love affairs, at the age of fifty he became an employee of the Inquisition, then a monk and priest , which did not prevent him from leading a secular lifestyle, without stopping until advanced years love affairs. Only very shortly before his death, under the influence of difficult personal experiences (the death of his son, the kidnapping of his daughter), Lope de Vega began to indulge in ascetic beliefs and show a penchant for mysticism. He died surrounded by universal honor. More than a hundred poets composed poems on his death. The diverse life of Lope de Vega is reflected in his literary work. The ease with which he wrote, the richness and brilliance
14 of his work delighted his contemporaries, who called him a “miracle of nature,” a “phoenix,” and an “ocean of poetry.” At the age of five, Lope de Vega was already writing poetry, and at twelve he composed a comedy, which was staged on stage. Subsequently, as he assured, he wrote a play more than once in one day. He tried all poetic and prose genres. According to Lope de Vega himself, he wrote 1800 comedies, to which must be added 400 religious plays and very a large number of sideshow. However, Lope de Vega himself cared little about the safety of his dramatic works, which were considered a lower type of literature, as a result of which most of them were not published during his lifetime. The text of only 400 plays by Lope de Vega (almost entirely written) has reached us, and another 250 are known only by their titles. The playwright noticed early on that plays written according to the strict rules of classicism did not find the proper response among the people. The pompous phrases of the characters are perceived coldly, passions seem excessive. Lope de Vega wanted to please the audience, he wrote for the common people. The founders of the classic theater demanded unity of impression, for tragic tragedy, for funny comedy. Lope de Vega refused this, declaring that in life everything is not tragic or everything is funny, and for the sake of the truth of life, he established for his theater “a mixture of the tragic and the funny,” “a mixture of the sublime and the funny.” Lope de Vega believed that limiting the playwright to a twenty-four-hour time limit and demanding unity of place from him is absurd, but unity of plot is necessary, unity of action is mandatory. The playwright develops a theory of stage intrigue. The intrigue is the nerve of the play. She ties the play together and powerfully holds the viewer captive to the scene. From the very beginning, the intrigue should already firmly tie the knot of events and lead the viewer through the labyrinth of stage obstacles. Lope de Vega tried his hand at various genres. He wrote sonnets, epic poems, short stories, and spiritual poems. However, Lope de Vega was primarily a playwright. The range of plots of the works is wide: human history, the national history of Spain, especially heroic times, events from the life of contemporaries of various social strata of the country, vivid episodes from the life of all peoples. There are 3 periods in the playwright’s work: Period I () during this time he actively summarizes the achievements of the national theater and asserts the writer’s right to free creativity. The best plays of this period are “The Dancing Teacher” (1594), “The Valencian Widow” (1599), “The New World Discovered by Christopher Columbus” (1609).
15 In the second period (), the writer creates his own national historical dramas, using plots folk novels"Fuente Ovejuna" (1613), "Illegitimate son of Mudarra" (1612). During this period, the most famous comedies appeared: “The Dog in the Manger” (1613), “The Fool” (1613). III period () writes dramas “The Best Alcalde King” (), “Star of Seville” (1623), comedies “Girl with a Jug” (1623), “To Love Without Knowing Who” (1622). Despite the complexity of classifying a writer’s heritage by genre, three groups of works are usually distinguished: folk-heroic, national-historical and social dramas; domestic comedies called “cloak and sword comedies”; autos spiritual actions. B. Ideological and artistic originality of the drama “Fuente Ovejuna” The drama “Fuente Ovejuna” is one of the peaks of Lope de Vega’s creativity. It can also be classified as a historical play, since its action takes place at the end of the 15th century, during the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella. The most remarkable thing about this play, imbued with truly revolutionary pathos, is that its hero is not any individual character, but the masses. The town of Fuente Ovejuna, translated as “Sheep Spring”, is located in Spain near the city of Cordoba. Here, in 1476, an uprising broke out against the arbitrariness of the commander of the Order of Calatrava, Fernan Gomez de Guzman. The commander was killed by the rebels. The playwright reproduced this historical fact in his play. The concept of “spiritual order” leads us to the deep antiquity of Spain. Back in the 12th century, spiritual knightly orders and military monastic organizations were created in the country to fight the Moors. At the head of the order was the Grand Master, who was subordinate to the council of the order and the Pope. The power of the Grand Master was exercised by commanders and regional military governors. These orders soon captured vast territories, grew stronger economically, and since they were subordinate directly to the pope and not the king, they became unique strongholds of feudal anarchy in the country. The commander of the Order of Calatrava, Fernand Gomez, stationed with his detachment in the village of Fuente Ovejuna, commits violence against the residents, insults the local mayor and tries to dishonor his daughter Laurencia. The peasant Frondoso, who loves her, manages to protect the girl. But during the wedding of Frondoso and Laurencia, the commander appears with his henchmen, disperses the crowd, beats the alcalde, wants to hang Frondoso and kidnaps Laurencia in order to then take possession of her by force. The peasants cannot bear such dishonor: they are all men,
16 women and children arm themselves and beat the rapists. During the judicial investigation in this case appointed by the king, when the peasants are being tortured as to who exactly killed Fernan Gomez, everyone answers as one: “Fuente Ovejuna!” The king is forced to stop the trial: he “forgives” the peasants and takes Fuente Ovejuna under his direct authority. Such is the power of popular solidarity. Commander Fernand Gomez, as the historical chronicle says, took possession of the town of Fuente Ovejuna willfully, contrary to the will of the king and the authorities of the city of Cordoba. The peasants who rebelled against him personified not only fighters against the oppressors of the people, but also fighters for the political unity of the country, which Lope de Vega emphasized in his play. This coincided with the political program of the Spanish authorities. Therefore, it was possible to so boldly glorify the rebel peasants. The political issues of the play are interpreted by Lope de Vega from a historical perspective. The marriage of the Aragonese infanta Ferdinand with Isabella of Castile meant the annexation of the kingdom of Aragon to Castile, that is, the unification of all of Spain. In Lope de Vega, the peasants of Fuente Ovejuna are loyal to Ferdinand and Isabella, while the commander, along with his entire order, acts as a traitor, supporting the claims to the Castilian throne of another claimant, which would lead to the fragmentation of Spain. Thus, in Lope de Vega's play, national unity, nationality and true nobility are internally linked. The central character of the play is Laurencia. This is a simple peasant girl. Charming, proud, sharp-tongued, smart. She has a highly developed sense of self-esteem, and she will not allow herself to be insulted. Laurencia is being courted by village boys, but so far she and her friend Pascuala have decided that every single man is a cheat. The soldiers try to seduce Laurencia with gifts, persuading her to favor the commander, but the girl answers them with contempt: The hen is not so stupid, And she’s too harsh for him. (Translation by K. Balmont) However, the girl already knows that love exists in the world; she already had a certain philosophy on this matter. In one of the scenes of the play, a dispute about love ensues between young peasant boys and girls. What is love? Does it even exist? The peasant Mengo, one of the most interesting characters in the play, denies love. Barrildo does not agree with him: If love did not exist, then the world could not exist. (Translation by K. Balmont)
17 This judgment is echoed by others. Love, according to Laurencia, is “the desire for beauty” and its ultimate goal is “to experience pleasure.” Before us is the life-affirming philosophy of the Renaissance. Laurencia's character is not immediately revealed to the viewer. We do not yet know what powers of soul this peasant girl conceals within herself. Here is a scene by the river: Laurencia is rinsing clothes, the peasant boy Frondoso, languishing in love with her, tells her about his feelings. Careless Laurencia laughs at him. It gives her joy to mock her lover, but she likes him, this honest, truthful young man. The commander appears. Seeing him, Frondoso hides, and the commander, believing that the girl is alone, rudely pesters her. Laurencia is in great danger, and she has no choice but to call for help. She does not name Frondoso, who is hiding behind a bush, she calls out to the sky. Here is a test of Frondoso's courage: is his love strong, is he selfless enough? And the young man rushes to the rescue. He is threatened with death, but he saves the girl. Frondoso is forced to go into hiding. The commander's soldiers are hunting him down to catch him and execute him. But he is careless. He is looking for meetings with Laurencia, he loves her and once again tells her about his love. Now the girl cannot help but love him, she is ready to marry him. So, careless Laurencia, who considered all men to be deceivers and cheats, fell in love. Everything portends happiness for her. The wedding is coming soon. The parents of the young people agree to unite them. Meanwhile, the commander and his soldiers are rampaging, overflowing the patience of the people. Terrible things are happening in the town of Fuente Ovejuna. But the poet cannot be gloomy when talking even about this. Moods of despondency and pessimism are alien to him, like his peasant heroes. The spirit of cheerfulness and faith in truth is invisibly present on the stage. Frondoso and Laurencia are married. The peasants sing happy songs. The wedding procession is overtaken by the commander and his soldiers. The commander orders both to be captured. And the festive crowd is scattered, young spouses are captured, unhappy parents mourn their children. Frondoso faces death. After much torture and dirty harassment, Laurencia runs away from the commander. And how she has changed! She appeared at the national assembly, where women were not allowed: I don’t need the right to vote, A woman has the right to moan (Translation by K. Balmont) But she didn’t come here to moan, but to express her contempt for pathetic men who are unable to defend themselves. She refuses her father. She denounces the cowardly peasants:
18 You are sheep, and the Sheep Key is just right for you to live in!.. You are savages, not Spaniards, Cowards, a brood of hares. Unhappy ones! You are giving your wives to other people's men! Why do you carry swords? Hang the spindles from the side! I swear to you, I will arrange it so that the women themselves will wash their stained honor in the blood of treacherous tyrants, and you will be left in the cold (Translation by K. Balmont) Laurencia’s speech ignited the peasants, they rebelled. The rage of the rebels is merciless. The commander is killed. Cheerful and shy, a completely ordinary peasant woman at the beginning of the play, Laurencia, as the action progresses, becomes the recognized leader of the rebels. And not only personal resentment and love for Frondoso guide her actions, but also the general interests of the village. The play ends with a happy denouement. The peasants won. And it couldn’t be otherwise, since life always wins. This is the main difference between Lope de Vega and the Baroque poets and playwrights. The essence of the issue is not in the themes and plots, not in the events depicted, but in the author’s attitude to these themes, plots and events. B. Ideological and artistic originality of the drama “The Star of Seville” (1623) The play takes place in Seville, the center of Andalusia, in ancient times, when the country was ruled by the peasant king Sancho IV the Bold. The conflict develops between the king, who does not take into account the human dignity of others, and old Spain, which preserves traditions and lives according to the laws of high honor. Two concepts of honor determine the development of the conflict. Both are embodied in the central character Sancho Ortiz. The king liked Estrella, nicknamed the “Star of Seville” by the people for her beauty. He wants to take possession of the beauty, but the girl’s brother, Busto Tabera, stands in his way. Finding the king in his house, he rushes at him with a sword. The monarch decides to kill the enemy, but to do this he will use the noble Sancho Ortiz, Estrella's fiancé. The king plays on Sancho's honesty. Before ordering the murder of Busto Tabera, he brings Sancho to a frank conversation about
19 devotion and loyalty to the king and takes his word to carry out all the orders of the master unquestioningly. Knowing Sancho’s proud nature very well, he hands the young man a paper justifying all subsequent actions, but Sancho tears it up. And only after the king is finally convinced of Sancho’s readiness to take revenge for the insult to the monarch, he gives a written order with the name of the victim and immediately leaves hastily with a remark indicating complete indifference to the fate of his subordinates: Read after and find out Who you have to kill. Although the name may confuse you, But do not retreat (Translation by T. Shchepkina-Kupernik) Having learned that he must kill Busto Taber, his best friend and Estrella’s brother, Sancho is faced with a choice: to carry out the king’s order or refuse. In both cases he is a hostage to honor. For the first time, the playwright spoke about the lack of human freedom in an inhumane society and the meaninglessness of life. Sancho kills Busto Tabera and loses Estrella forever. The climax of the dispute over honor will be the court scene in which Sancho refuses to name the man who ordered the murder. Focusing special attention on issues of honor and traditions of old Spain, Lope de Vega at the same time emphasized that, brought up in the spirit of these traditions, Sancho Ortiz becomes their hostage, finding himself an instrument in the hands of royal power. A characteristic feature of the play is that the author introduces into the stage narrative a historical flavor inherent in the era of Sancho IV the Bold, which gives the action an exciting poetry. Like many other works, “The Star of Seville” is also characterized by humor and a sly joke. Immediately after the pathetic explanation of the young lovers, he forces the servants, who happened to be casual witnesses of this event, to parody their masters. Here Lope de Vega follows his tradition, introducing “the sublime and the funny” into the stage narrative. List of recommended and used literature 1. Artamonov, S.D. History of foreign literature of the 17th and 18th centuries / S.D. Artamonov. M.: Education, S. Artamonov, S.D. Foreign literature of the 17th and 18th centuries: a reader. Textbook aid for students ped. Institute / S.D. Artamonov. M.: Enlightenment, St.
20 3. Vipper, Yu.B., Samarin, R.M. Course of lectures on the history of foreign literature of the 17th century / Yu.B. Whipper, R.M. Samarin; edited by S.S. Ignatova. M.: Universitetskoe, S. Erofeeva, N.E. Foreign literature. XVII century: textbook for pedagogical students. universities / N.E. Erofeeva. M.: Bustard, S. Plavskin, Z.I. Lope de Vega / Z.I. Plavskin. M.; L., p. 6. Stein, A.L. History of Spanish literature / A.L. Matte. 2nd ed. M.: Editorial URSS, S
21 Lecture 2 Spanish Baroque literature of the 17th century Plan 1. Features of the development of Spanish Baroque literature. 2. Literary schools Spanish Baroque. 3. Luis de Gongora as a leading representative of Spanish Baroque lyric poetry. 4. Spanish Baroque dramaturgy (Calderon). 5. Francisco de Quevedo and the prose of the Spanish Baroque. 1. Features of the development of Spanish Baroque literature of the 17th century in Spain, an era of deep economic decline, political crisis and ideological reaction. When a unified Spanish state emerged at the end of the 15th century and the Reconquista was completed, it seemed that nothing foreshadowed a quick catastrophe. Colonization first served as an impetus for the development of the economy and the emergence of early bourgeois relations in industry and trade. Very soon, however, the deep decline of the Spanish state, its economy and politics was revealed. The gold of America allowed the ruling classes and the royal power of Spain to neglect the development of domestic industry and trade. As a result, by the end of the 16th century, industry withered away. Entire branches of production disappeared, trade ended up in the hands of foreigners. Agriculture fell into decline. The people were begging, and the nobility and the highest clergy were drowning in luxury. Social and national contradictions within the country sharply worsened. In 1640, a widespread separatist uprising began in Catalonia (the most industrially developed region of what was then Spain), accompanied by numerous peasant uprisings and riots. Gradually, Spain began to lose its colonies. All this could not but leave its mark on Spanish literature of the 17th century. Distinctive features of Spanish literature of the 17th century: 1) during the first decades of the 17th century, Renaissance art maintained a strong position in Spain, although crisis features were already revealed in it. Progressive writers are becoming more and more clearly aware of the internal contradictions of the ideals of the Renaissance, their inconsistency with the gloomy reality;
22 2) the dominant artistic system in Spain throughout the century was Baroque. Its tendencies are inherent in the work of the 17th century artists Velazquez (“Venus in front of the mirror”), Murillo (“Jesus distributes bread to strangers”), etc. The interaction of the Baroque and the Renaissance in Spain was more intense than in other countries of Western Europe. It is no coincidence that in the works of major literary figures of the Spanish Baroque, Quevedo, Calderon and others, echoes of Renaissance ideals and problems are clearly visible; 3) spanish art Baroque was aimed at the intellectual elite. In general, the art of Spanish Baroque is distinguished by: severity and tragedy; foregrounding spiritual origin; the desire to escape from the clutches of life's prose. In the second half of the 17th century, it was characterized by an increase in mystical tendencies. 2. Literary schools of the Spanish Baroque In the literature of the Spanish Baroque (especially in the first half of the century), there was a struggle between its two main schools of cultism (culteranism) and conceptism. Cultism (from the Spanish cultos, processed, cultivated) was designed to be perceived by select, finely educated people. Not accepting reality, opposing it to the perfect and beautiful world of art, the cultists used language primarily as a means of rejecting ugly reality. They created a special “dark style”, overloading their works with unusual and complex metaphors, neologisms (mostly of Latin origin), and complex syntactic constructions. The largest and most talented poet-cultist was Gongora (therefore, cultism is also called Gongorism). Conceptism (from Spanish sonsepto thought), in contrast to cultism, claimed to express the entire complexity of human thought. The main task of conceptists is to uncover deep and unexpected connections between concepts and objects that are far apart from each other. Conceptists demanded maximum semantic richness of the statement. The favorite techniques of conceptists are the use of polysemy of words, puns, and the destruction of stable and familiar phrases. Their language is more democratic than the language of the cultists, but it is no less difficult to understand. It is no coincidence that the prominent Spanish philologist R. Menendez Pidal called the conceptist style a “difficult style.” The most prominent conceptist writers were Quevedo, Guevara and Gracian (the latter is also a theorist of conceptism).
23 However, both schools have more in common than differences. Both directions placed metaphor above all else, in which the “fast mind” combined unexpected and distant concepts, combined the incongruous. With extreme adherence to their dogmas, schools enriched literature with new expressive means and influenced its subsequent development. Cultism received its most vivid embodiment in poetry, conceptism in prose. And this is no coincidence. The cultists expressed the subtlest shades of feeling: their poetry is emotionally oversaturated. The Conceptists conveyed all the richness and flexibility of acute thought: their prose is dry, rationalistic, and witty. 3. Luis de Gongora as a leading representative of Spanish baroque lyricism Luis de Gongora y Argote () one of the most complex and talented poets of world literature, has long been considered “abstruse”, “dark”, inaccessible to the common reader. Interest in his work was revived in the twentieth century through the efforts of poets such as R. Dario and F. García Lorca. Gongora's works were not published during his lifetime. They were published posthumously in the collection Works in Verse of the Spanish Homer (1627) and in his collected works, published in 1629. Romance, letrilla (popular forms of folk poetry), sonnet, lyric poem genres in which the poet immortalized his name. Gongora created a special “dark style” in poetry, which excluded thoughtless reading of poetry and was for him a kind of means of rejecting ugly reality. Great importance Medieval Arab-Andalusian lyric poetry was used to shape the poet’s style (Gongora was born in Cordoba, the former capital of the Arab Caliphate, which preserved the traditions of a thousand-year-old culture). She reproduced reality on two levels, real and conditional. The constant replacement of the real plane with a metaphorical one is the most common technique in Gongora’s poetry. The themes of his poems are almost always simple, but their implementation is extremely complex. His lines need to be unraveled, and this is his conscious creative attitude. The author believed that the vagueness of expressions and the “dark style” encourage a person to be active and co-creative, while familiar, worn-out words and expressions lull his consciousness. That is why he saturated his poetic speech with exotic neologisms and archaisms, using familiar words in an unusual context, he abandoned traditional syntax. Gongora's poetry demonstrates the plurality of points of view on the subject (pluralism) and the polysemy of words, typical of the Baroque artistic system. His poetic vocabulary contains peculiar
24 supporting words on which a whole system of metaphors is built: crystal, ruby, pearl, gold, snow, carnation. Each of them, depending on the context, acquires one or another additional meaning. Thus, the word “crystal” can mean not only water, a source, but also a woman’s body or her tears. “Gold” is the gold of hair, the gold of olive oil, the gold of honeycombs; “flying snow” a white bird, “spun snow” a white tablecloth, “running snow” the snow-white face of a beloved. In While still very young, Gongora created about 30 sonnets, which he wrote based on Ariosto, Tasso and other Italian poets. Already these poems, often still written by students, are characterized by originality of concept and careful polishing of form. Most of them are devoted to the theme of the frailty of life, the fragility of beauty. The motif of the famous sonnet “While the fleece of your hair flows” goes back to Horace. It was developed by many poets, including Tasso. But even in the tragic Tasso it does not sound as hopeless as in Gongora: beauty will not just fade or wither, but will turn into an omnipotent Nothing....Hurry to experience the pleasure in the power Hidden in the skin, in the curl, in the lips. Until your bouquet of carnations and lilies Not only has not withered ingloriously, But the years have not turned you into ash and earth, into ashes, smoke and dust. (Translation by S. Goncharenko) The disharmony of the world, in which happiness is fleeting in the face of the all-powerful Nothing, is emphasized by the harmoniously harmonious, thoughtful composition of the poem down to the smallest detail. Gongora's poetic style was most fully expressed in his poems “The Tale of Polyphemus and Galatea” (1612) and “Loneliness” (1614). The plot of Polyphemus and Galatea is borrowed from Ovid's Metamorphoses. Gongora was attracted to the plot by its fantastic character and whimsicality of images. Starting from the classical image, Gongora created a complete and perfect Baroque poem, moreover lyrical than narrative. She is internally musical. A researcher of Gongora's work, Belmas, compared it to a symphony. The poem, written in octaves, is built on the antithesis of the beautiful, bright world of Galatea and her beloved Asis and the dark world of Polyphemus, as well as the ugly appearance of the Cyclops and that tender, powerful feeling that completely filled him. At the center of the poem is the meeting of Asis and Galatea. We do not hear their speech; it is a silent pantomime or ballet. The date looks like an idyll, imbued with the spirit of harmony and serenity. He is interrupted by the appearance of a monster enraged by jealousy. Lovers flee, but disaster
25 overtakes them. The angry Polyphemus throws a rock onto Asis and buries him under it. Asis turns into a stream. Gongora leads the reader to the thought: the world is disharmonious, happiness is unattainable in it, beauty perishes in it, just as the beautiful Asis perishes over the fragments of a rock. But the disharmony of existence is balanced by the strict harmony of art. The poem is finished. And despite all the internal disharmony, she has balance components. The true pinnacle of Gongora’s work is the poem “Loneliness” (only “The First Loneliness” and part of the “Second” of the planned 4 parts were written). The name itself is polysemantic and symbolic: the loneliness of fields, forests, deserts, human destiny. The wanderings of the lonely wanderer, the hero of the poem, are perceived as a symbol of human existence. There is practically no plot in the poem: a nameless young man, disillusioned with everything, suffering from unrequited love, ends up on a deserted shore as a result of a shipwreck. The plot serves only as a pretext for identifying the subtlest associations of the consciousness of the hero contemplating nature. The poem is oversaturated with images and metaphors, most often based on the merging in one image of concepts that are far apart from each other (the so-called “concetto”). The figurative density of the verse, taken to the limit, creates the effect of “darkness” of the style. Thus, we see that Gongora’s work required a thoughtful reader, educated, familiar with mythology, history, and knowledgeable of historicisms and aphorisms. For the perfect reader, his poetry is, of course, more understandable, but for Gongora’s contemporaries it seemed mysterious and unearthly. 4. Spanish Baroque Drama (Calderon) The formation of Baroque drama took place in the context of an intensified ideological struggle in the theater. The most fanatical supporters of the Counter-Reformation repeatedly put forward demands for the prohibition of secular theatrical performances. However, not only humanistically minded figures of the Spanish theater, but also moderate representatives of the ruling elite of society opposed these attempts, seeing in the theater a powerful means of affirming their ideals. Nevertheless, from the very beginning of the 17th century, the ruling classes increasingly attacked the democratic forces that had established themselves in the Spanish theater. This goal was met by reducing the number of theater troupes, establishing strict secular and church censorship over the repertoire and, in particular, gradually limiting the activities of public city theaters (the so-called “corrals”) and strengthening the role of court theaters. Naturally, the trendsetter of theatrical fashion here is not the riotous and disobedient mass of townspeople, as in the “corrals”,
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KOZLOVA G.A.FOREIGN LITERATURE 17-18 centuries. 2 COURSE, OZO
Requirements for credit.
Boileau. Poetic art.
P. Corneille. Sid.
J. Racine. Phaedra.
D. Milton. Lost heaven.
D. Donn. Lyrics.
D. Defoe. Robinson Crusoe.
R. Burns. Lyrics.
Voltaire. Candide.
Schiller. Robbers.
Goethe. Faust.
1. Artamonov, S. D. History of foreign literature of the 17th-18th centuries: textbook / S. D. Artamonov. – M.: Education, 1978 / (reprint 2005)
2. Zhirmunskaya N. A. History of foreign literature of the 17th century: textbook / N. A. Zhirmunskaya. – M.: Higher. school, 2007.
3. Erofeeva N. E. Foreign literature. 17th century – M., 2005.
4.Erofeeva N.E. Foreign literature. 18 century. Textbook. – M., 2005
5. History of foreign literature: textbook. – M.: MSU, 2008
6. History of foreign literature of the 17th century / Ed. M.V. Razumovskaya. - M., 2009.
7. History of foreign literature of the 18th century / Ed. L.V.Sidorchenko. - M., 2009.
8. History of foreign literature of the 17th-18th centuries: Textbook for students of pedagogical institutes. M.: Education, 1988.
9. Pakhsaryan N.T. History of foreign literature of the 17th-18th centuries. Educational and methodological manual. - M.: 19969.
10. Samarin R. M. Foreign literature. – M., 1987.
11. Solovyova N. A. History of foreign literature: Pre-romanticism. – M., 2005.
additional literature
1. Atarova, K. N. Lawrence Stern and his “Sentimental Journey through
France and Italy” / K. N. Atarova. - M., 1988.
2. Balashov, N. I. Pierre Corneille / N. I. Balashov. - M., 1956.
3. Barth, R. Rasinovsky man / R. Barth // Barth R. Selected works
Semiotics. Poetics. - M., 1989.
4. Bordonov, J. Moliere / J. Bordonov. - M., 1983.
5. Vertsman, I. E. Jean-Jacques Rousseau / I. E. Vertsman. – M., 1958.
6. Vipper, Yu. B. Creative destinies and history (About Western European
literatures of the XVI - first half of the 19th century century) / Yu. B. Vipper. - M., 1990.
7. Volkov, I. F. “Faust” by Goethe and the problem of artistic method / I. F. Volkov. - M., 1970.
8. XVII century in world literary development / Ed. Yu. B. Vipper.
9. Ganin, V. N. Poetics of pastoral: The evolution of English pastoral
poetry of the 16th-18th centuries / V. N. Ganin. - Oxford, 1998.
10. Grandel, F. Beaumarchais / F. Grandel. - M., 1979.
11. De Sanctis, F. History of Italian literature. In 2 volumes / Ed.
D. E. Mikhalchi. - M., 1963-1964.
12. Dlugach, T. B. Denis Diderot / T. B. Dlugach. - M., 1975.
13. Dubashinsky, I. A. “Gulliver’s Travels” by Jonathan Swift / I. A. Dubashinsky. - M., 1969.
14. Elistratova, A. A. English novel of the Enlightenment / A. A. Elistratova. - M., 1966.
15. Ermolenko, G. N. French comic poem of the 17th-18th centuries. / G. N.
Ermolenko. - Smolensk, 1998.
16. Zhirmunsky, V. M. Essays on the history of classical German literature / V. M. Zhirmunsky. - L., 1972.
Foreign literature: Renaissance. Baroque. Classicism. – M, 1998
17. History of English literature. In 3 volumes - M., 1943 - 1945. - T. 1
18. History of Western European theater. In 8 volumes. T. 1. / Under general. ed. S.S.
Mokulsky. - M., 1956.
19. History of foreign literature of the 18th century / Ed. A.P.
Neustroeva, R. M. Samarina. - M., 1974.
20. History of foreign literature of the 17th century / Ed. Z. I. Plavskina. - M., 1987.
2
13
1. History of foreign literature of the 18th century / Ed. Z. I. Plavskina.
22. History of German literature. In 5 volumes. T.1 - M., 1962.
23. History of French literature. In 4 volumes. T. 1. - M., 1946.
24. History of aesthetics: Monuments of aesthetic thought: In 5 volumes. T. 2. - M., 1964.
25. Kadyshev, B.S. Racine / V. S. Kadyshev. - M., 1990.
26. Kettle, A. Introduction to the history of the English novel / A. Kettle. - M., 1966.
27. Kirnoze, Z. I. Workshop on the history of French literature / Z. I. Kirnoze, V. N. Pronin. - M., 1991.
28. Conradi, K. O. Goethe: Life and Work. In 2 volumes / K. O. Conradi. - M., 1987.
29. Lukov, V. A. History of foreign literature: XVII-XVIII centuries. At 2 o'clock / V. A. Lukov. - M., 2000.
30. Lukov, V. A. French drama(pre-romanticism, romantic movement) / V. A. Lukov. - M., 1984.
31. Maurois, A. From Montaigne to Aragon / A. Maurois. - M., 1983.
32. Multatuli, V. M. Moliere / V. M. Multatuli. 2nd ed. - M., 1988.
33. Muravyov, B.C. Travel with Gulliver / V. S. Muravyov. - M., 1972. 34. Oblomievsky, D. D. French classicism / D. D. Oblomievsky. - M., 1968.
35. Plavskin, Z. I. Spanish literature of the 17th-19th centuries / Z. I. Plavskin. - M., 1978.
36. Practical lessons in foreign literature / Ed. N. P. Michalskaya, B. I. Purisheva. - M., 1981.
37. Problems of Enlightenment in world literature / Rep. ed. S. V. Turaev. - M., 1970.
38. Purishev, B. I. Essays on German literature of the 15th-17th centuries. / B.I. Purishev. - M., 1955.
39. Razumovskaya, M. V. The formation of a new novel in France and the ban on the novel in the 1730s / M. V. Razumovskaya. - L., 1981.
40. Sidorchenko, L. V. Alexander Pope and artistic quests in English literature of the first quarter of the 18th century / L. V. Sidorchenko. - St. Petersburg, 1992.
41. Svasyan, K. A. Johann Wolfgang Goethe / K. A. Svasyan. - M., 1989.
42. Chameev, A. A. John Milton and his poem “Paradise Lost” / A. A. M. A. M. A. M. A. Chameev. - L., 1986.
43. Chernozemova, E. N. History of English literature: Plans. Developments. Materials. Assignments / E. N. Chernozemova. - M., 1998.
44. Shaitanov, I. O. Thinking muse: “Discovery of nature” in poetry of the 18th century / I. O. Shaitanov. - M., 1989.
45. Schiller, F. P. History of Western European literature of modern times. In 3 volumes. T. 1. / F. P. Schiller. - M., 1935.
46. Stein, A. L. Literature of the Spanish Baroque / A. L. Stein. - M., 1983.
47. Stein, A. L. History of Spanish literature / A. L. Stein. - M., 1994.
48. Stein, A. L. History of German literature: Part 1. / A. L. Stein. - M., 1999
49. Stein, A. L. History of French literature / A. L. Stein, M. N. Chernevich, M. A. Yakhontova. - M., 1988.
Readers
1. Artamonov, S. D. Foreign literature of the 17-18 centuries: anthology; textbook / S. D. Artamonov. – M.: Education, 1982.
2. Purishev, B. I. Reader on foreign literature of the 18th century: textbook / B. I. Purishev. – M.: Higher. school, 1973 / (reprint 1998)
3. Foreign literature of the 18th century: anthology: a textbook for universities in 2 volumes / Ed. B. I. Purisheva - M.: graduate School, 1988.PLANS AND CONTENTS PRACTICAL LESSONS
Topic No. 1.Theater of French classicism. Corneille. Racine. Moliere.
Aesthetic principles of 17th century classicism. “Eternal images” and “eternal plots”.
Aristotle's development of the aesthetic principles of classicism in Poetics.
The philosophy of rationalism and classicism of the 17th century. Descartes, Bacon.
“Poetic art” by N. Boileau and the aesthetics of classicism of the 17th century.
The high tragedy of the theater of French classicism.
Reflection of the dramatic principles of P. Corneille in the tragedy “The Cid”. Images of tragedy.
Aesthetic views of J. Racine. Ancient Greek myths in the tragedies of Racine (“Andromache”, “Phaedra”).
High comedy of classicism.
Moliere's aesthetic views. “Eternal plots in Moliere’s comedies.
Problems of Molière's comedy "The Bourgeois in the Nobility". Comedy images.
Problems of studying Moliere's work at school.
The problem of studying classicism at school. Russian criticism and Russian writers about classicism, classics and classicists (Pushkin and others)
Forms and methods of conducting classes, types of educational activities of students:
- interview on the topic of the lesson;
- answers on questions;
Listening to reports on the topics “Russian literature about French classicism”, “Problems of studying Moliere’s work at school” and discussing them.
1. Carefully read the lecture material and textbooks on a given topic.2. Answer the questions in the plan.
3. Make presentations.
Literature
Boileau N. Poetic art. – M., 2005.
History of foreign literature of the 17th century. / ed. M.V. Razumovskaya. – M.: Higher School, 2001.
Lukov V.A. History of literature. Foreign literature from its origins to the present day. – M.: Academia, 2009.
Mikhailov A.V., Shestopalov D.P. Tragedy // Brief literary encyclopedia. – M., 1972. – T. 7. – P. 588-593.
Nikolyukin A.N. Literary encyclopedia of terms and concepts. – M.: NPK Intelvac, 2001.
Subjects of reports, abstracts.
1. Bourgeois revolution and literature.
2. The influence of the ideas of Puritanism on the literature of the 17th-18th centuries.
3. Philosophy of the 17th-18th centuries and literature.
4. Russian writers about Western European literature 17th century
5. Western European Enlightenment and Russian literature.
6. Western European poetry of the 17th century. in the context of Christian thought.
7. Creativity of writers (poets) of the 17th-18th centuries. in the context of Christian thought.
8. Western European lyrics of the 17th-18th centuries. in the context of Christian thought
Interim certification in the discipline - test .
Requirements for credit. Availability of notes, quality of homework, knowledge literary texts, performing tests and tests, mastery of skills reasoned speech and work with primary sources, Internet resources.
Literary texts for mandatory use(2nd year OZO, 4th semester. 3rd year ZSVL, 5th semester).
Baroque lyric. Marino. Gongora.
Lope de Vega. Sheep source.
P. Calderon. Worship of the cross. Life is a dream.
Boileau. Poetic art.
P. Corneille. Sid.
J. Racine. Phaedra.
J. B. Moliere. Tartuffe. A tradesman among the nobility.
D. Milton. Lost heaven.
D. Donn. Lyrics.
D. Defoe. Robinson Crusoe.
D. Swift. Gulliver's travels.
G. Fielding. The Story of Tom Jones, Foundling" (excerpts).
R. Burns. Lyrics.
D. Diderot. The paradox about the actor. Nephew of Ramo.
Voltaire. Candide.
Rousseau. New Eloise. Confession.
Schiller. Robbers.
Goethe. Faust.
General characteristics of foreign literature of the 17th century.
Puritanism and its influence on literature.
The English bourgeois revolution and the world literary process.
General characteristics of literary trends of the 17th century.
General characteristics of literature of the 18th century. The concept of Enlightenment.
Aesthetic program of the Enlighteners. Theories of “natural law”, “natural man”, “social contract”.
17th century philosophy and literature. V. Kozhinov on the influence of Western European philosophy on literature. Descartes, Bacon.
18th century philosophy and literature. Hobbes, Locke, Hume.
General characteristics of Baroque literature. Baroque in architecture. Representatives.
General characteristics of the literature of classicism. Architecture, painting. Representatives.
The dramaturgy of Lope de Vega as a reflection of a new period in the development of theater. Problems of the drama "Sheep Spring".
Comedies "cloak and sword" by Lope de Vega.
Baroque in the poetry of Italy and Spain. Marinism, Gongorism.
Poetry of the Spanish Baroque. Luis de Gongora. Francisco de Quevedo.
Aesthetics of Calderon. Turgenev about Calderon. Christian motives of the drama “Worship of the Cross”.
Problems of Calderon's drama “Life is a Dream”. Christian-philosophical context of drama. Images of drama.
English literature of the 17th century and the English bourgeois revolution. Puritanism and English literature.
Poetry of metaphysicians. Creativity of D. Donne.
Milton and the English bourgeois revolution. Milton's aesthetics in the poem "Paradise Lost".
Features of the biblical plot in Milton's poem "Paradise Lost". Images of the poem.
General characteristics of German literature of the 17th century.
Artistic features of Grimmelshausen's novel “Simplicius Simplicissimus”.
Traditions of Aristotle's Poetics. “Poetic art” of Boileau and the demands of classicism.
Development of the aesthetics of classic theater in the works of P. Corneille. The conflict of duty and passion in the tragedy "Sid".
Racine and the traditions of ancient tragedy. Euripides and Racine. Problems of Racine's tragedy "Phaedra".
Features of the “high” comedy of classicism. Moliere on the aesthetics of comedy.
Themes and problems of Moliere's comedies "Tartuffe", "Don Juan", "The Misanthrope".
Problematics of the comedy "The Bourgeois in the Nobility". Specifics of studying Moliere at school.
“Eternal plots” and “eternal images” in Moliere’s comedies.
Features of the literature of the English Enlightenment and its theory of the novel. Problems of the novel "The Story of Tom Jones, Foundling".
English drama of the 18th century. Sheridan's School of Scandal.
The work ethic of the Puritans and the problems of Defoe’s novel “Robinson Crusoe”. Problems of studying Defoe's work at school.
Swift and the English Enlightenment. Problems of the novel "Gulliver's Travels". Studying the novel at school.
English sentimentalism. Stern, Smollett, R. Burns. Problems of studying Burns's lyrics at school.
Stern's book "A Sentimental Journey".
Literature of the French Enlightenment. Voltaire's aesthetic views. Problems of philosophical stories.
Features of Diderot's aesthetics. Problems of the philosophical story “Ramo’s Nephew.”
Social, political and philosophical views of Rousseau. Artistic features of "Confession".
Rousseau and sentimentalism. General characteristics of sentimentalism.
Problems of Rousseau's novel “The New Heloise”.
Artistic features of Beaumarchais' comedies "The Barber of Seville" and "The Marriage of Figaro".
Features of the development of the German Enlightenment. Literature of Sturm and Drang.
Weimar classicism": aesthetic characteristics, rethinking the heritage of antiquity.
Lessing's treatise "Laocoon" and its influence on the aesthetics of the Enlightenment.
Problems of Schiller's drama "The Robbers". Studying Schiller's work at school.
Philosophical views of Goethe. Goethe and Russian literature. Studying Goethe's works at school.
German sentimentalism. Goethe "The Sorrows of Young Werther".
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A useful form is to compile chronological tables, for example, tables of the dates of the writer’s life and work.
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Foreign literature of the 17th century
Main literary trends
The 17th century was interpreted throughout almost the entire half of the 20th century as the “era of classicism.” All artistic phenomena that fall outside the category of classicism were considered either as artistically imperfect works (in foreign literary criticism, mainly) or as realistic creations, the most important in the perspective of literary development (in Soviet literary criticism). A peculiar fashion for the Baroque, which arose in Western science in the 30-40s of the twentieth century and is increasingly spreading, including in our country, gave rise to the opposite phenomenon, when XVII century turned into the “Baroque era”, and classicism began to be considered as a kind of variant of baroque art in France, so that recently the study of classicism requires, perhaps, greater effort and scientific courage than the study of baroque.
Particular attention should be paid to the problem of “realism of the 17th century”. This concept was very popular at a certain stage in the development of Russian literary criticism: despite the demand of major, authoritative literary scholars proclaimed in the mid-1950s not to use “realism” as a complementary and evaluative concept, experts still saw the development of literature as a kind of “accumulation” elements of realism, were willingly associated with realistic trends by democratic literary movements, grassroots comic and satirical literature, etc. Claims that the literary process of the 17th century involved realism in one form or another. Artistic truthfulness, authenticity and persuasiveness of images, motives, conflicts, etc. were achieved and embodied according to different aesthetic laws than would be the case in realism - a phenomenon of literature of the 19th century.
Borocco and classicism
In modern science it is now almost universally accepted that the main literary movements of the 17th century were Baroque and Classicism. Their development was contradictory and uneven; between the poetics of these directions there were similarities and divergences, mutual influence and polemics. Baroque and classicism in varying degrees spread in different regions and at different stages within that historical and literary era.
First of all, let us dwell on the key points of studying Baroque literature. It is necessary to understand the complex etymology of the term “Baroque”: scientists argued about it from the early 30s to the mid-50s of our century. It should also be remembered that the writers whom today's science classifies as belonging to the Baroque movement did not know this term (as a literary one, at least) and did not call themselves Baroque writers. The very word “Baroque” as a term in the history of art began to be applied to a certain range of artistic phenomena of the 17th century only in the next, 18th century, and with a negative connotation. Thus, in the “Encyclopedia” of French Enlightenment, the word “baroque” is used with the meaning “strange, bizarre, tasteless.” It is difficult to find one linguistic source for this term, because the word was used, with shades of meaning, in Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish. It should be emphasized that, although etymology does not exhaust the modern meaning of this literary concept, it allows one to grasp some features of Baroque poetics (bizarreness, unusualness, polysemy), is correlated with it, and proves that the birth of terminology in the history of literature, although accidental, is not entirely arbitrary, has a certain logic.
The designation of baroque as a terminological concept does not mean that there are no debatable points in its interpretation today. Often this term receives directly opposite interpretations from cultural historians. Thus, a certain part of researchers puts a very broad content into the concept of “Baroque”, seeing in it a certain repeating stage in the development of an artistic style - a stage of its crisis, a “disease” leading to some kind of failure of taste. The famous scientist G. Wölfflin, for example, contrasts the “healthy” art of the Renaissance with the “sick” Baroque art. E. Ors identifies the so-called Hellenistic, medieval, Romanistic baroque, etc. In contrast to this interpretation, most scientists prefer a specific historical understanding of the term “Baroque”. It is this interpretation of Baroque art that has become most widespread in Russian literary criticism. But even among our scientists there are differences in the analysis of Baroque poetics and discussions on certain aspects of its theory.
You need to know that our interpretation of the Baroque has long been influenced by its vulgar sociological, straightforwardly ideological concept. You can still find in the literature statements that Baroque art is the art of the Counter-Reformation, that it flourished primarily where noble circles took over the bourgeoisie, that it expresses the aesthetic aspirations of the court nobility, etc. Behind this lies the conviction that the Baroque style is “reactionary”: although writers of this movement are valued for the formal sophistication of their style, they cannot forgive them for their “ideological inferiority.” This, apparently, is the meaning of the notorious definition of baroque in S.D.’s textbook. Artamonova: “Baroque is a sickly child, born of a freak father and a beautiful mother.” Thus, for a truly deep and correct understanding of the characteristics of Baroque literature, what is especially needed is not outdated textbooks, but new scientific research.
We will try to briefly characterize the main parameters of Baroque poetics, as they emerge in these studies, before recommending relevant additional literature.
The importance that scientists, including domestic ones, attach at the present stage to Baroque culture and literature sometimes leads to the assertion that Baroque is “not a style or a direction at all.” This kind of statement seems to be a polemical extreme. Baroque, of course, is both an artistic style and a literary movement. But this is also a type of culture, which does not cancel, but includes previous meanings this term. It must be said that the general pathos of A.V.’s article. Mikhailov is very important, since baroque is very often perceived as a style in the narrow sense of the word, i.e. as a sum of formal and aesthetic techniques.
The worldview of the Baroque man, Baroque as an artistic system has still been studied, as it seems, somewhat less and worse. As the famous Swiss baroque specialist J. Rousset noted, “the idea of baroque is one of those that eludes us; the more closely you look at it, the less you master it.” It is very important to understand how the goal and mechanism of artistic creativity are conceived in the Baroque, what its poetics are, how it relates to the new worldview and captures it. Of course, A.V. is right. Mikhailov, who emphasizes that Baroque is the culture of the “ready-made word”, i.e. rhetorical culture, which has no direct outlet into reality. But this very idea of the world and man, passed through the “ready word”, makes it possible to feel the deep socio-historical shift that occurred in the consciousness of man in the 17th century, reflecting the crisis of the Renaissance worldview. It is necessary to trace how, on the basis of this crisis, mannerism and baroque are related, which makes mannerism still part of the literary process of late Renaissance literature, and takes baroque beyond its framework, including it in a new literary stage - the 17th century. Observations that allow you to feel the difference between mannerism and baroque are in the excellent article by L.I. Tanaeva “Some concepts of mannerism and the study of the art of Eastern Europe of the late 16th and 17th centuries.”
The philosophical basis of the Baroque worldview becomes the idea of the antinomic structure of the world and man. It is possible to compare some constructive moments of the Baroque vision (the opposition of the physical and spiritual, high and low, tragic and comic) with the medieval dualistic perception of reality. We emphasize, however, that the traditions of medieval literature are included in Baroque literature in a modified form and are correlated with a new understanding of the laws of existence.
First of all, baroque antinomies are an expression of the desire to artistically master the contradictory dynamics of reality, to convey in words the chaos and disharmony of human existence. The very bookishness of the baroque artistic world comes from the ideas of the Universe as a book inherited from the Middle Ages. But for a Baroque man, this book is depicted as a huge encyclopedia of existence, and therefore literary works in the Baroque also strive to be encyclopedias, to depict the world in its completeness and decomposability into individual elements - words, concepts. In the creations of the Baroque one can find both the traditions of Stoicism and Epicureanism, but these opposites not only fight, but also converge in a general pessimistic feeling of life. Baroque literature expresses a sense of impermanence, variability, and the illusion of life. Actualizing the thesis “life is a dream”, known back in the Middle Ages, the Baroque draws attention primarily to the fragility of the boundaries between sleep and “life”, to the constant doubt of a person whether he is in a state of sleep or awake, to the contrasts or bizarre rapprochements between the face and the mask , “to be” and “to seem”.
The theme of illusion, appearance, is one of the most popular in Baroque literature, which often recreates the world as a theater. It is necessary to clarify that the theatricality of the Baroque is manifested not only in the dramatic perception of the vicissitudes of a person’s external life and his internal conflicts, not only in the antinomic opposition between the categories of face and mask, but in a predilection for the peculiar demonstrativeness of the artistic style, decorativeness and pomp. visual arts, their exaggeration. That is why Baroque is rightly sometimes called the art of hyperbole, and they talk about the dominance in Baroque poetics of the principle of wastefulness of artistic means. Attention should be paid to the polysemantic nature of the world and language, the multivariate interpretations of images, motifs, and words in baroque literature. On the other hand, one should not lose sight of the fact that baroque combines and expresses the emotional and rational in the poetics of its works, and has a certain “rational extravagance” (S.S. Averintsev). Baroque literature is not only not alien to, but organically inherent in, deep didacticism, but this art sought above all to excite and surprise. That is why one can find among Baroque literary works those in which didactic functions are not expressed straightforwardly, which is greatly facilitated by the rejection of linearity in composition, the development of artistic conflict (this is how specific spatial and psychological baroque labyrinths arise), a complex branched system of images, and metaphorical language.
We find important observations about the specifics of metaphorism in the Baroque in Yu.M. Lotman: “...here we are faced with the fact that tropes (the boundaries separating one type of tropes from others acquire an exceptionally unstable character in Baroque texts) do not constitute an external replacement of some elements of the plane of expression with others, but a way of forming a special structure of consciousness.” Metaphor in Baroque, therefore, is not just a means to decorate the narrative, but a special artistic point of view.
It is also necessary to understand the features of the Baroque genre system. The most characteristic genres developing in line with this literary movement are pastoral poetry, dramatic pastorals and pastoral novels, philosophical and didactic lyrics, satirical, burlesque poetry, comic novels, and tragicomedy. But special attention should be paid to such a genre as the emblem: it embodies the most important features of Baroque poetics, its allegorism and encyclopedicism, the combination of the visual and the verbal.
Undoubtedly, one should know about the main ideological and artistic movements within the Baroque movement, but it is necessary to warn against a narrow sociological interpretation of these movements. Thus, the division of Baroque literature into “high” and “low”, although it correlates with the concepts of “aristocratic” and “democratic” Baroque, is not reduced to them: after all, most often the appeal to the poetics of the “high” or “low” wing of the Baroque is not dictated the social position of the writer or his political sympathies, but is an aesthetic choice, often guided by the genre tradition, the established hierarchy of genres, and sometimes consciously opposed to this tradition. One can easily be convinced, analyzing the work of many writers of the baroque movement, that they sometimes created works of both “high” and “low” almost simultaneously, willingly resorted to the contamination of “secular-aristocratic” and “democratic” subjects, introduced into the sublime baroque version of artistic the world of burlesque, reduced characters, and vice versa. So those researchers who feel that in the Baroque “the elite and the plebeian constitute different sides of the same integrity” are absolutely right. Within the Baroque movement, as you can see, there is an even more detailed division. You need to have an idea of the characteristics of such phenomena as cultism and conceptism in Spain, Marinism in Italy, libertine literature in France, and the poetry of English metaphysicians. Particular attention should be paid to the concept of “precision” applied to the phenomena of the Baroque in France, which is interpreted incorrectly both in our textbooks and in scientific works. Traditionally, “precision” is understood by domestic experts as synonymous with the literature of the “aristocratic” Baroque. Meanwhile, modern Western studies of this phenomenon not only clarify its socio-historical roots (precision arises not in the courtly-aristocratic, but primarily in the urban, salon bourgeois-noble environment), chronological framework- the mid-40s - 50s of the 17th century (thus, for example, the novel by D. Yurfe “Astrea” (1607-1627) cannot be considered as precious), but also reveal its artistic specificity as a special classicist-baroque type of creativity, based on the contamination of aesthetic principles of both directions.
We should also remember the evolution of the Baroque throughout the 17th century, its relative movement from the “materiality” of style inherited from the Renaissance, the picturesqueness and colorfulness of empirical details to the strengthening of philosophical generality, symbolic-allegorical imagery, intellectuality and sophisticated psychologism (cf., for example, Baroque picaresque novels of the early 17th century in Spain with the philosophical Spanish novel of the mid-century, or the prose of C. Sorel and Pascal in France, or the poetic works of the early Donne with the poetry of Milton in England, etc.). It is also important to feel the difference in national versions of the Baroque: its special confusion, dramatic tension in Spain, a significant degree of intellectual analytism that brings together Baroque and classicism in France, etc.
It is necessary to consider further prospects for the development of baroque traditions in literature. Of particular interest in this aspect is the problem of the relationship between Baroque and Romanticism. The articles listed in the bibliography will help you get acquainted with the current level of solving this problem. The problem of studying the traditions of the Baroque in the twentieth century is also relevant: those interested in modern foreign literature will easily find among its works those whose poetics clearly echo the Baroque (this applies, for example, to the Latin American novel the so-called “ magical realism" and etc.).
When starting to study another important literary trend in foreign literature of the 17th century - classicism, one can adhere to the same sequence of analysis, starting with elucidating the etymology of the term “classical”, which is clearer than the etymology of “baroque”, as if capturing the gravitation of classicism itself towards clarity and logic. As in the case of Baroque, "classicism" as a definition art XVII century, focused on a kind of competition with the “ancient”, ancient writers, contains in its original meaning some features of classicist poetics, but does not explain them all. And just like the Baroque writers, the classicists of the 17th century did not call themselves such; they began to be defined by this word in the 19th century, in the era of romanticism.
Almost until the middle of the twentieth century, the 17th century was considered by literary historians to be the “era of classicism.” This was connected not only with the underestimation of the artistic achievements of the Baroque or, on the contrary, with the overestimation of classicism (since for some countries classicists are also classics of national literature, this direction is “difficult to overestimate”), but above all with the objective significance of this art in the 17th century, with the fact that theoretical reflections on artistic creativity during this period were predominantly classicistic. This can be seen by referring to the anthology “Literary Manifestos of Western European Classicists” (Moscow, 1980). Although there were baroque theorists in the 17th century, their concepts often gravitated toward a mixture of baroque and classicist principles and included a fair amount of rationalistic analyticism and even sometimes normativity (like the theory of the novel by the French writer M. de Scudéry), who tried to create the “rules” of this genre ).
Classicism is not only a style or direction, but, like Baroque, a more powerful artistic system that began to take shape back in the Renaissance. When studying classicism, it is necessary to trace how the traditions of Renaissance classicism are refracted in the classic literature of the 17th century, to pay attention to how antiquity from an object of imitation and accurate recreation, “revival,” turns into an example of correct observance of the eternal laws of art and an object of competition. It is extremely important to remember that classicism and baroque were generated by the same time, contradictory, but a single worldview. However, the specific sociocultural circumstances of the development of a particular country often determined very different degrees of its prevalence in France, and, for example, in Spain, England and Germany, etc. Sometimes in the literature you can find the statement that classicism is a kind of “state” art, since greatest flourishing it is associated with countries and periods characterized by increasing stabilization of centralized monarchical power. One should not, however, confuse orderliness, discipline of thought and style, hierarchy as aesthetic principles with hierarchy, discipline, etc. as principles of strict statehood, and especially not to see in classicism a kind of official art. It is very important to feel the internal drama of the classicist vision of reality, which is not eliminated, but, perhaps, even strengthened by the discipline of its external manifestations. Classicism, as it were, is trying to artistically overcome the contradiction that Baroque art whimsically captures, to overcome it through strict selection, ordering, classification of images, themes, motifs, and all the material of reality.
One can also come across statements that the philosophical basis of classicism was the philosophy of Descartes. However, I would like to warn against reducing classicism to Descartes, as, indeed, Descartes to classicism: let us remember that classicist tendencies began to take shape in literature before Descartes, back in the Renaissance, and Descartes, for his part, generalized much that was floating in the air, systematized and synthesized the rationalistic tradition of the past. At the same time, the undoubted “Cartesian” principles in the poetics of classicism (“separation of difficulties” in the process of artistic recreation of complex phenomena of reality, etc.) deserve attention. This is one of the manifestations of the general aesthetic “intentionality” (J. Mukarzhovsky) of classicist art.
Having become acquainted with the most important theories of European classicists, one can trace their logical justification for the principles of the primacy of design over embodiment, “correct” reasonable creativity over whimsical inspiration. It is very important to pay special attention to the interpretation in classicism of the principle of imitation of nature: nature appears as a beautiful and eternal creation, built “according to the laws of mathematics” (Galileo).
The specific principle of verisimilitude plays a significant role in classicism. Let us note that this concept is far from the common everyday use of this word; it is not at all synonymous with “truth” or “reality”. As a famous modern scientist writes, “classical culture lived for centuries with the idea that reality could in no way be confused with verisimilitude.” Plausibility in classicism presupposes, in addition to the ethical and psychological persuasiveness of images and situations, decency and edification, the implementation of the principle of “educating while entertaining.”
The characteristics of classicism, therefore, cannot be reduced to listing the rules of three unities, but one cannot ignore these rules. For classicists, they are, as it were, a special case of the application of the universal laws of art, a way to maintain the freedom of creativity within the boundaries of reason. We must realize the importance of simplicity, clarity, and logical consistency of composition as important aesthetic categories. Classicists, in contrast to Baroque artists, refuse “extra” artistic details, images, words and adhere to “economy” of means of expression.
It is necessary to know how the hierarchical system of genres in classicism is built, based on the consistent division of “high” and “low”, “tragic” and “comic” phenomena of reality into different genre formations. At the same time, it is necessary to pay attention to the fact that the genre theory of classicism and practice do not completely coincide: giving preference in theoretical reasoning to “high” genres - tragedy, epic, classicists tried their hand at “low” genres - satire, comedy, and even non-canonical, falling out of the classicist hierarchy (such as a novel: see below about the classicist novel by M. de Lafayette).
The classicists evaluated works of art based on what they considered to be the “eternal” laws of art, and laws not based on custom, authority, tradition, but based on reasonable judgment. Therefore, it should be noted that the classicists think of their theory as an analysis of the laws of art in general, and not the creation of some separate aesthetic program of a school or direction. The classicists' discussions about taste do not mean individual taste, not the whimsical nature of aesthetic preference, but “good taste” as a collective reasonable norm of “well-bred people.” However, in reality, it turned out that the specific judgments of classicists on certain issues of artistic creativity and assessments of specific works diverged quite significantly, which led to polemics within classicism and a real difference between national versions of classicist literature. It is necessary to understand the historical, social and cultural patterns of development of literary trends of the 17th century, to understand why in Spain, for example, baroque art predominated, and in France - classicism, why researchers talk about the “baroque classicism” of M. Opitz in Germany, about a peculiar harmony or the balance of baroque and classic principles in the work of Milton in England, etc. It is important to feel that the real life of literary movements of that era was not schematic, that they did not successively replace each other, but were intertwined, struggling and interacting, entering into different relationships.
baroque classicism literary poetics
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