What is classicism. Musical culture of classicism: aesthetic issues, Viennese musical classics, main genres

Classicism as a trend in art originated in France at the end of the 17th century. In his treatise "Poetic Art" Boileau outlined the basic principles of this literary trend. He believed that literary work created not by feelings, but by reason; Classicism is generally characterized by the cult of reason, caused by the conviction that only an enlightened monarchy, absolute power, can change life for the better. As in the state there should be a strict and clear hierarchy of all branches of power, so in literature (and in art) everything should be subject to uniform rules, strict order.

Translated from Latin, classicus means exemplary or first class. The model for classic writers was ancient culture and literature. The French classics, having studied the poetics of Aristotle, determined the rules of their works, which they later adhered to, and this became the basis for the formation of the main genres of classicism.

Classification of genres in classicism

Classicism is characterized by a strict division of literary genres into high and low.

• Ode - a work of praise and praise in poetic form;
• Tragedy - dramatic work with a harsh ending;
• Heroic epic - narrative story about the events of the past, which shows the whole picture of time as a whole.

Only great people could be the heroes of such works: kings, princes, generals, noble nobles who devote their lives to serving the fatherland. In the first place they have not personal feelings, but civic duty.

Low Genres:

• Comedy is a dramatic work that ridicules the vices of society or a person;
• Satire is a type of comedy, distinguished by its sharpness of narration;
• Fable - satirical work instructive character.

The heroes of these works were not only representatives of the nobility, but also commoners, servants.

Each genre had its own writing rules, its own style (the theory of three styles), it was not allowed to mix high and low, tragic and comic.

Students French classics, diligently adopting their norms, smashed classicism throughout Europe. The most prominent foreign representatives are: Molière, Voltaire, Milton, Corneille and others.

The main features of classicism

• Classicist authors drew inspiration from the literature and art of ancient times, from the works of Horace, Aristotle, thus the basis was the imitation of nature.
• The works were built on the principles of rationalism. Clarity, clarity and consistency are also characteristic features.
• The construction of images is determined common features for time or epoch. Thus, each character is a thoughtful personification of a period of time or a layer of society.
• A clear division of heroes into positive and negative. Each hero embodies some one main feature: nobility, wisdom or stinginess, meanness. Often the characters have "talking" surnames: Pravdin, Skotinin.
• Strict adherence to the hierarchy of genres. Correspondence of style to genre, prevention of mixing different styles.
• Compliance with the rule of "three unities": place, time and action. All events take place in one place. The unity of time means that all events fit into a period of no more than a day. And the action - the plot was limited to one line, one problem, which was discussed.

Features of Russian classicism

Like European, Russian classicism adhered to the basic rules of direction. However, he did not become just a follower of Western classicism - supplemented by his national spirit of originality, Russian classicism became an independent trend in fiction with its unique features and characteristics:

Satirical direction - such genres as comedy, fable and satire, telling about specific phenomena of Russian life (Kantemir's satires, for example, "On those who blaspheme the teaching. To their own mind", Krylov's fables);

• Classicist authors instead of antiquity took as a basis the national historical images of Russia (the tragedies of Sumarokov "Dmitry the Pretender", "Mstislav", Knyazhnin's "Rosslav", "Vadim Novgorodsky");
• The presence of patriotic pathos in all the works of this time;
• The high level of development of the ode as separate genre(odes of Lomonosov, Derzhavin).

The founder of Russian classicism is considered to be A. D. Kantemir with his famous satires, which had political overtones and more than once became the cause of fierce disputes.

V. K. Trediakovsky did not particularly excel in the artistry of his works, but he had a lot of work in literary direction generally. He is the author of such concepts as "prose" and "poetry". It was he who conditionally divided the works into two parts and was able to give them definitions, substantiated the system of syllabic-tonic versification.

A.P. Sumarokov is considered the founder of the dramaturgy of Russian classicism. He is considered the "father of the Russian theater" and the creator of the national theater repertoire that time.

One of the brightest representatives of Russian classicism is M. V. Lomonosov. In addition to a huge scientific contribution, Mikhail Vasilievich carried out a reform of the Russian language and created the doctrine of the "three calms".

D. I. Fonvizin is considered the creator of the Russian household comedy. His works "Foreman" and "Undergrowth" still have not lost their significance and are studied in the school curriculum.

G. R. Derzhavin is one of the last major representatives of Russian classicism. He was able to inscribe vernacular into strict rules in his works, thereby expanding the scope of classicism. He is also considered the first Russian poet.

The main periods of Russian classicism

There are several divisions into periods of Russian classicism, but, summarizing, they can be reduced to the main three:

1. 90 years of the XVII century - 20 years of the XVIII century. Also called the Petrine era. During this period, as such, there are no Russian works, and translated literature is actively developing. This is where Russian classicism originates as a result of reading translated works from Europe. (F. Prokopovich)
2. 30-50 years of the XVII century - a bright surge of classicism. There is a clear genre formation, as well as reforms in the Russian language and versification. (V. K. Trediakovsky, A. P. Sumarokov, M. V. Lomonosov)
3. The 60-90s of the 18th century are also called the Catherine era or the Age of Enlightenment. Classicism is the main one, but at the same time, the emergence of sentimentalism is already observed. (D. I. Fonvizin, G. R. Derzhavin, N. M. Karamzin).

Classicism gave the world the architecture of such cities as London, Paris, Venice and St. Petersburg. Classicism in architecture dominated for more than three hundred years, from the 16th to the 19th centuries, and it was loved for its harmony, simplicity, rigor and at the same time elegance. Turning to the forms of ancient architecture, classicism in architecture is characterized by clear three-dimensional forms, symmetrical-axial compositions, monumentality, direct and spacious city planning system.

The origin of classicism in architecture, Italy

Classicism in architecture originated at the end of the Renaissance, in the 16th century, and the great Italian, Venetian architect Andrea Palladio is considered to be the father of this architectural style. As the writer Peter Vail said about Palladio in his book The Genius of Place:

“In order not to go into architectural details, it is easiest to conjure up big theater or the regional House of Culture - they are such thanks to Palladio. And if you were to make a list of people whose efforts the world - at least the world of the Hellenic-Christian tradition from California to Sakhalin - looks like it looks, and not otherwise, Palladio would take first place.

The city where Andrea Palladio lived and worked is the Italian Vicenza, located in the north-east of Italy near Venice. Now Vicenza is widely known in the world as the city of Palladio, who created many beautiful villas. In the second half of his life, the architect moved to Venice, where he designed and built wonderful churches, palazzos and other public buildings. Andrea Palladio was awarded the title of "the most prominent citizen of Venice".

Cathedral of San Giorgio Mangiore, Andrea Palladio

Villa Rotunda by Andrea Palladio

Loggia del Capagno, Andrea Palladio

Teatro Olimpico, Andrea Palladio and Vincenzo Scamozzi

A follower of Andrea Palladio was his talented student Vincenzo Scamozzi, who, after the death of his teacher, completed work on the Teatro Olimpico.

The works and ideas of Palladio in the field of architecture fell in love with his contemporaries and were continued in the works of other architects of the 16-17th century. The architecture of classicism received the most powerful impetus in its development from England, Italy, France and Russia.

Further development classicism

Classicism in England

Classicism literally swept into England, becoming the royal architectural style. A whole galaxy of the most talented architects of England of those times studied and continued the ideas of Palladio: Inigo Jones, Christopher Wren, Earl of Burlington, William Kent.

The English architect Inigo Jones, an admirer of the work of Andrea Palladio, brought the architectural legacy of Palladio to England in the 17th century. It is believed that Jones was one of the architects who laid the foundation for the English school of architecture.

Queens House in Greenwich, Inigo Jones

House of Banquets, Inigo Jones

England was rich in classicist architects - along with Jones huge contribution such masters as Christopher Wren, Lord Burlington and William Kent brought to the architecture of England.

Sir Christopher Wren, architect and professor of mathematics at Oxford, rebuilt the center of London after the great fire in 1666, created the national English classicism "Wren Classicism".

Royal Chelsea Hospital Christopher Wren

Richard Boyle, Earl Architect of Burlington, philanthropist and patron of architects, poets and composers. The Count Architect studied and collected the manuscripts of Andrea Palladio.

Burlington House, Earl Architect of Burlington

The English architect and gardener William Kent collaborated with the Earl of Burlington, for whom he designed gardens and furniture. In horticulture, he created the principle of harmony of form, landscape and nature.

palace complex in golkham

Classicism in French architecture

In France, classicism has been the dominant style since the Great french revolution when in architecture there is a desire for conciseness.

It is believed that the beginning of classicism in France was laid by the construction of the church of Saint Genevieve in Paris. , designed by French self-taught architect Jacques Germain Soufflot in 1756, later called the Pantheon.

Temple of Saint Genevieve in Paris (Pantheon), Jacques Germain Soufflot

Classicism brought serious changes to the planning system of the city; winding medieval streets were replaced by majestic, spacious avenues and squares, at the intersection of which architectural monuments were placed. At the end of the 18th century, a unified urban planning concept appeared in Paris. An example of a new urban planning concept of classicism was Rivoli Street in Paris.

Rivoli street in Paris

Architects of the Imperial Palace, prominent representatives architectural classicism in France - Charles Percier and Pierre Fontaine. Together they created a number of majestic architectural monuments - the Arc de Triomphe on Carruzel Square in honor of Napoleon's victory in the battle of Austerlitz. They own the construction of one of the wings of the Louvre, the Marchand Pavilion. Charles Percier participated in the restoration of the Compiègne Palace, created the interiors of Malmaison, Saint-Cloud Castle and Fontainebleau Palace.

Triumphal Arch in honor of Napoleon's victory at the Battle of Autherlitz, Charles Percier and Pierre Fontaine

Wing of the Louvre, Marchand Pavilion, Charles Percier and Pierre Fontaine

Classicism in Russia

In 1780, at the invitation of Catherine II, Giacomo Quaregi arrived in St. Petersburg as "Her Majesty's architect". Giacomo himself was from Bergamo, Italy, studied architecture and painting, his teacher was the largest German painter of the Classical era, Anton Raphael Mengs.

The authorship of Quarenghi belongs to several dozen beautiful buildings in St. Petersburg and its environs, including the English Palace in Peterhof, the pavilion in Tsarskoye Selo, the building of the Hermitage Theater, the Academy of Sciences, the Assignation Bank, the summer palace of Count Bezborodko, the Horse Guards Manege, the Catherine Institute of Noble Maidens and many others.

Alexander Palace, Giacomo Quarenghi

The most famous projects of Giacomo Quarenghi are the buildings of the Smolny Institute in St. Petersburg and the Alexander Palace in Tsarskoye Selo.

Smolny Institute, Giacomo Quarenghi

An admirer of the traditions of the Palladian and the new Italian school of architecture, Quarenghi designed amazingly elegant, noble and harmonious buildings. The beauty of the city of St. Petersburg is largely due to the talent of Giacomo Quaregi.

Russia in the 18th and 19th centuries was rich in talented architects who worked in the style of classicism along with Giacomo Quarenghi. In Moscow famous masters architecture were Vasily Bazhenov and Matvey Kazakov, and Ivan Starov in St. Petersburg.

The artist and architect, teacher, Vasily Bazhenov, a graduate of the Academy of Arts and a student of the French professor of architecture Charles Devayi, created projects for the Tsaritsyna Palace and Park Ensemble and the Grand Kremlin Palace, which remained unrealized, since the architect fell out of favor with Catherine II. The objects were completed by M.Kazakov.

Plan of the architectural ensemble of Tsaritsino, Vasily Bazhenov

Russian architect Matvey Kazakov during the reign of Catherine the Great worked in the center of Moscow in the Palladian style. His work belongs to such architectural ensembles as the Senate Palace in the Kremlin, the Petrovsky Travel Palace, the Grand Tsaritsy Palace.

Petrovsky Travel Palace, Matvey Kazakov

Tsarina's Palace, Vasily Bazhenov and Matvey Kazakov

Academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences Ivan Starov is the author of such architectural structures as the Trinity Cathedral in the Alexander Nevsky Lavra, Saint Sophia Cathedral near Tsarskoye Selo, the Pellinsky Palace, the Tauride Palace and other beautiful buildings.

Tauride Palace, Ivan Starov

The European direction of classicism was based on the ideas of rationalism and the canons of ancient art. It implies strict rules for creating a work of art, which give it conciseness and logic. Attention is paid only to a clear elaboration of the main part, without spraying on the details. The priority goal of this direction is the fulfillment of the social and educational function of art.

The formation of classicism takes place in each united territory, but in different time periods. The need for this direction is felt in historical period transition from feudal fragmentation to territorial statehood absolute monarchy. In Europe, the formation of classicism took place primarily in Italy, but one cannot but note the significant influence of the emerging French and English bourgeoisie.

Classicism in painting

(Giovanni Battista Tiepolo "The Feast of Cleopatra")

In their creative search, sculptors and artists turned to ancient art and transferred its features into their works. This generated a wave of public interest in art. Despite the fact that the views of classicism imply a natural depiction of everything that is presented in the picture, the masters of the Renaissance, like the ancient creators, idealized human figures. The people captured in the paintings are more like sculptures: they “freeze” in eloquent poses, male bodies athletic and female figures exaggeratedly feminine, even in elderly heroes the skin is toned and elastic. This trend, borrowed from the ancient Greek sculptors, is explained by the fact that in ancient times a person was presented as an ideal creation of God without flaws and shortcomings.

(Claude Lorrain "Noon. Rest on the Flight into Egypt")

Ancient mythology also had a significant impact on the formation of style. On the early stages it was expressed literally, in the form of mythical plots. Over time, manifestations became more veiled: mythology was represented by ancient buildings, creatures or objects. The later period was marked by a symbolic interpretation of myths: artists conveyed their own thoughts, emotions and moods through individual elements.

(Fyodor Mikhailovich Matveev "View of Rome. Colosseum")

The function of classicism in the bosom of the world artistic culture- it's moral public education, formation ethical standards and rules. The regulation of creative laws held a strict hierarchy of genres, each of which contained formal boundaries:

• Low(still life, landscape, portrait);
• High(historical, mythological, religious).

(Nicolas Poussin "The Arcadian Shepherds")

The painter Nicolas Poussin is considered to be the founder of the style. His works are built on sublime philosophical subjects. From a technical point of view, the structure of the canvases is harmonious and complemented by rhythmic coloring. Vivid examples of the master's works: "The Finding of Moses", "Rinaldo and Armida", "The Death of Germanicus" and "The Arcadian Shepherds".

(Ivan Petrovich Argunov "Portrait of an unknown woman in a dark blue dress")

AT Russian art classicism prevail portrait images. Admirers this style are A. Agrunov, A. Antropov, D. Levitsky, O. Kiprensky, F. Rokotov.

Classicism in architecture

The fundamental features of the style are the clarity of lines, clear, uncomplicated forms, and the lack of an abundance of details. Classicism sought to rationally use each square meter space. Over time, the style has been influenced different cultures and worldview of masters from all over Europe. In the architecture of classicism, the following areas are distinguished:

• Palladianism

The initial form of manifestation of classicism, the founder of which is the architect Andrea Palladio. In the absolute symmetry of the buildings, the spirit of architecture is guessed. Ancient Greece and Rome;

• empire

The direction of high (late) classicism, whose birthplace is considered to be France during the reign of Napoleon I. The royal style combines theatricality and classical elements (columns, stucco, pilasters), arranged in accordance with clear rules and perspective;

• neo-Greek

"Return" of ancient Greek images with features Italian Renaissance in the 1820s. The founders of the direction are Henri Labrust and Leo von Klenze. The uniqueness lies in the detailed reproduction of the classics on the parliament buildings, museums, temples;

• regency style

In 1810-1830. developed a style that combined classical directions with French design. Particular attention is paid to the decoration of facades: geometrically correct patterns and ornaments of the walls are complemented by decorated window openings. The emphasis is on the decorative elements framing the front door.

(Stupinigi is a country residence of the monarchs of the House of Savoy, province of Turin, Italy)

The main features of classicism in architecture:

• Majestic simplicity;
• The minimum number of parts;
• Conciseness and rigor of both external and internal decoration of buildings;
• Soft color palette, which is dominated by milky, beige, light gray shades;
• High ceilings decorated with stucco;
• The interior included items exclusively carrying a functional purpose;
• Of the decor elements, royal columns, arches, exquisite stained-glass windows, openwork railings, lamps, carved fireplace grates, light curtains made of plain materials were used.

(Bolshoi Theatre, Moscow)

Classicism is recognized as one of the most common styles throughout the world. In Europe, the vector of development of this direction was influenced by the works of the masters Palladio and Scamozzi. And in France, the architect Jacques-Germain Soufflot was the author of the basic structural solutions for the style. Germany acquired several administrative buildings in classical style thanks to the masters Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel. Andrey Zakharov, Andrey Voronikhin and Karl Rossi made an invaluable contribution to the development of this trend in Russia.

Conclusion

The era of classicism left behind many magnificent creations of artists and architects, which can be seen throughout Europe to this day. The most ambitious projects of the late 17th and early 19th centuries took place under the auspices of classicism: city parks, resorts and even new cities were rebuilt. By the 20s of the XIX century strict style was diluted with elements of luxurious baroque and renaissance.

Among artistic styles Of no small importance is classicism, which became widespread in the advanced countries of the world in the period from the 17th to the beginning of the 19th century. He became the heir to the ideas of the Enlightenment and appeared in almost all types of European and Russian art. Often came into conflict with the Baroque, especially at the stage of formation in France.

The age of classicism in each country is different. First of all, it developed in France - back in the 17th century, a little later - in England and Holland. In Germany and Russia, the direction was established closer to the middle of the 18th century, when the time of neoclassicism was already beginning in other states. But this is not so significant. Another thing is more important: this direction became the first serious system in the field of culture, which laid the foundations for its further development.

What is classicism as a direction?

The name comes from the Latin word classicus, which means "exemplary". Main principle manifested itself in the appeal to the traditions of antiquity. They were perceived as a norm to which one should aspire. The authors of works were attracted by such qualities as simplicity and clarity of form, conciseness, rigor and harmony in everything. This applied to any works created during the period of classicism: literary, musical, pictorial, architectural. Each creator sought to find his place for everything, clear and strictly defined.

The main features of classicism

All types of art were characterized by the following features that help to understand what classicism is:

• a rational approach to the image and the exclusion of everything related to sensuality;
• the main purpose of a person is to serve the state;
• strict canons in everything;
• established hierarchy of genres, the mixing of which is unacceptable.

Specification of artistic features

Analysis certain types art helps to understand how the style of "classicism" was embodied in each of them.

How classicism was realized in literature

In this art form, classicism was defined as a special direction in which the desire to re-educate with a word was clearly expressed. The authors works of art believed in a happy future, where justice, freedom of all citizens, equality will prevail. It meant, first of all, liberation from all types of oppression, including religious and monarchical. Classicism in literature certainly demanded the observance of three unities: action (no more than one storyline), time (all events fit into a day), place (there was no movement in space). J. Moliere, Voltaire (France), L. Gibbon (England), M. Twain, D. Fonvizin, M. Lomonosov (Russia) received more recognition in this style.

The development of classicism in Russia

The new artistic direction established itself in Russian art later than in other countries - closer to the middle of the 18th century - and occupied a leading position until the first third of the 19th century. Russian classicism, in contrast to Western European, relied more on national traditions. It was in this that his originality manifested itself.

Initially, it came to architecture, where it reached its greatest heights. It was related to the construction new capital and the growth of Russian cities. The achievement of the architects was the creation of majestic palaces, comfortable residential buildings, suburban noble estates. Special attention deserves the creation architectural ensembles in the city center, which fully make it clear what classicism is. These are, for example, the buildings of Tsarskoye Selo (A. Rinaldi), the Alexander Nevsky Lavra (I. Starov), the spit of Vasilyevsky Island (J. de Thomon) in St. Petersburg and many others.

The peak of the architects' activity can be called the construction of the Marble Palace according to the project of A. Rinaldi, in the decoration of which natural stone was used for the first time.

No less famous is Petrodvorets (A. Schluter, V. Rastrelli), which is an example of garden and park art. Numerous buildings, fountains, sculptures, the layout itself - everything is striking in its proportionality and purity of execution.

Literary direction in Russia

The development of classicism in Russian literature deserves special attention. Its founders were V. Trediakovsky, A. Kantemir, A. Sumarokov.

However, the poet and scientist M. Lomonosov made the greatest contribution to the development of the concept of what classicism is. He developed a system of three calms, which determined the requirements for writing works of art, and created a sample of a solemn message - an ode, which was most popular in the literature of the second half of the 18th century.

The traditions of classicism were fully manifested in the plays of D. Fonvizin, especially in the comedy "Undergrowth". In addition to the mandatory observance of the three unities and the cult of reason, the following points are among the features of Russian comedy:

• a clear division of heroes into negative and positive ones and the presence of a reasoner expressing the position of the author;
• the presence of a love triangle;
• the punishment of vice and the triumph of good in the finale.

The works of the era of classicism as a whole have become the most important component in the development of world art.

Classicism (from Latin classicus - “exemplary”) is an artistic direction (flow) in art and Literature XVII- the beginning of the 19th century, which is characterized by high civil themes, strict observance of certain creative norms and rules. In the West, classicism was formed in the struggle against the magnificent baroque. Influence of classicism on artistic life Europe XVII- XVIII centuries. was wide and long-term, and in architecture it continued into the 19th century. Classicism as defined artistic direction it is common to reflect life in ideal images, gravitating towards the universal “norm”, a model. Hence the cult of antiquity in classicism: classical antiquity appears in it as an example of perfect and harmonious art.

Writers and artists often turn to the images of ancient myths (see Ancient Literature).

Classicism flourished in France in XVII century: in drama (P. Corneille, J. Racine, J. B. Molière), in poetry (J. La Fontaine), in painting (N. Poussin), in architecture. At the end of the XVII century. N. Boileau (in the poem "Poetic Art", 1674) created a detailed aesthetic theory of classicism, which had a huge impact on the formation of classicism in other countries.

The clash of personal interests and civic duty underlies the French classic tragedy, which reached ideological and artistic heights in the work of Corneille and Racine. Corneille's characters (Sid, Horace, Cinna) are courageous, stern people, driven by duty, completely subordinating themselves to serving the state interests. Showing in their heroes contradictory mental movements, Corneille and Racine made outstanding discoveries in the field of image inner peace person. Imbued with the pathos of research human soul, the tragedy contained a minimum of external action, easily fit into famous rules"three unities" - time, place and action.

According to the rules of the aesthetics of classicism, strictly adhering to the so-called hierarchy of genres, tragedy (along with the ode, epic) belonged to the “high genres” and had to develop especially important social problems, resorting to ancient and historical subjects, and reflect only the sublime heroic sides. " High genres"opposed the "low": comedy, fable, satire, etc., designed to reflect modern reality. In the genre of fable, Lafontaine became famous in France, and in the genre of comedy - Molière.

In the 17th century, permeated cutting edge ideas Enlightenment, classicism is imbued with passionate criticism of the order of the feudal world, the protection of natural human rights, and freedom-loving motives. It is also distinguished by a great attention to national historical subjects. The largest representatives enlightenment classicism are Voltaire in France, J. W. Goethe and J. F. Schiller (in the 90s) in Germany.

Russian classicism was born in the second quarter XVIII century, in the work of A. D. Kantemir, V. K. Trediakovsky, M. V. Lomonosov, and reached development in the second half of the century, in the work of A. P. Sumarokov, D. I. Fonvizin, M. M. Kheraskov , V. A. Ozerova, Ya. B. Knyazhnina, G. R. Derzhavina. It presents all major genres- from ode and epic to fable and comedy. A remarkable comedian was D. I. Fonvizin, the author of the famous satirical comedies"Brigadier" and "Undergrowth". Russian classic tragedy showed keen interest in national history(“Dimitri the Pretender” by A. P. Sumarokov, “Vadim Novgorodsky” by Ya. B. Knyazhnin, etc.).

At the end of XVIII - early XIX in. Classicism, both in Russia and throughout Europe, is in crisis. He is increasingly losing touch with life, closing in a narrow circle of conventions. At this time, classicism is exposed sharp criticism, especially from the side of romantics.