characteristics of the era. Culture of European countries in the 16th - 17th centuries Watteau "The predicament"

She also tried to drag Elizabeth into Catholicism. All this strained the life of the young princess in the most decisive way. The Protestant public of the country pinned their hopes on Elizabeth, who was actually the heir to the throne. Passions sometimes flared up just on a Shakespearean scale. One day, Mary imprisoned her sister in the Tower on suspicion of participating in a conspiracy. However, she did not stay in the prison for long, and moreover, it was there that she met another “conspirator” outwardly perfect macho, but absolutely mediocre Earl of Leicester, with whom she connected her personal life for many years.
However, the personal life of Elizabeth Tudor remains a secret with seven seals so far. Historians are convinced that some physical or psychological barrier has always existed between her and men. Having favorites and being the bride of all of Europe (her fiancés included Philip II, Henry the Third, and almost Ivan the Terrible himself), Elizabeth never allowed "last intimacy." So the legend of the "virgin queen" (with so many fans!) is not a myth at all! Once she said that she would not reveal a secret to even the closest soul. And even the crafty enemies of the Spaniards did not know exactly her secret.
Like her father, red-haired Bess was a pragmatist to the core. However, to say that she possessed the super-genius mind of a statesman is a certain exaggeration. She knew how to select servants and advisers, yes! Her chancellor, Lord Burghley, and her head of foreign intelligence, Walsingham, were geniuses at their craft. But they did not receive a penny from red Bess beyond their salary! All gifts fell immoderately on Leyster and other favorites. Even the fact that Elizabeth chose Protestantism had not only (and perhaps not so much) a political reason as a purely personal one: the pope, following her real father, declared her illegitimate. Elizabeth had no choice but to break with meticulous Catholics after such a spit.
However, the Anglican Church is the least Protestant of all Protestant churches. Luxurious Catholic rituals have been almost completely preserved (Elizabeth loved the pomp), only the church came out from under the authority of the Roman high priest.
Naturally, this semi-reform did not suit the bourgeois, the Puritans grumbled. Elizabeth brought down on them persecution, which was not honored by her and the Catholics.
Elizabeth skillfully balanced between various forces. But after all, "the fate of Eugene kept." When in 1588 a storm swept away a huge Spanish fleet with an expeditionary force heading for the shores of Britain (the “Invincible Armada”), the fate of the queen and her kingdom literally hung in the balance: there were only a few thousand soldiers in the English army.

The 17th century is the initial period in the development of the bourgeois mode of production. This is a complex and controversial era in the life of European states: the era of early bourgeois revolutions (the Netherlands - 1566-1609, England - 1640-1688) and the heyday of absolutist monarchies (France, "the age of Louis XIV"); the time of the scientific revolution and the final stage of the Counter-Reformation; the era of grandiose, expressive baroque and dry, rational classicism.

In industrial terms, Europe of the 17th century. - this is the Europe of manufacture and the water wheel - the engine of manufactory production. These are larger and more productive enterprises in comparison with handicraft workshops, based on the division and cooperation of manual labor. Manufactories prevailed in the production of glass, sugar, paper, cloth, silk in the Netherlands and England, and developed in France. Water and wind remained the main sources of energy, but since the beginning of the century, the transition to the use of coal in the production has been gradually carried out. Technical inventions are being improved: in printing and making coins, for example, a screw press began to be used. Mining production and military equipment are developing. The role of mechanisms is growing; the main thing is still the clock mechanism, but improvements have also been made - spring and pendulum clocks have appeared.

Along with manufactory, European life includes stock and commodity exchanges, banks, fairs and markets. The countryside is slowly drawn into market relations (9/10 of the European population was employed in agriculture). The land becomes an object of sale. The wealth of the colonial countries is drawn into European trade. The system of colonial robbery takes on such proportions that it leads to trade wars of the 17th-18th centuries. The social structure of European society is changing. The peasants who have lost their land turn into tenants; artisans - in the workers of manufactories. Part of the nobility is becoming bourgeois. So, in England, as a result of the fencing, new nobles and farmers appear - representatives of the capitalist way of life. The bourgeois class is growing and strengthening its position in the economy and politics. The new capitalist way of life is manifested in the formation of the internal market and the development of world trade, the institutions of entrepreneurship and wage labor, the displacement of the guild system by manufacture, the formation of a new bourgeois grouping of classes.

The political life of Europe in the 17th century is complex and heterogeneous. The tone for political processes is set by the small but very rich Netherlands, where the first bourgeois revolution takes place and a bourgeois republic emerges in the seven northern provinces, the largest of which was Holland. Like all early bourgeois revolutions, this one was limited in purposes, forms and results: it proceeded under religious banners, freed only part of the country from feudal reaction, and took the form of a national liberation war against the Spanish crown. But for the first time a new class came to power - the bourgeoisie. This event qualitatively changed European life in the field of international trade and colonial policy: the power and international prestige of Spain, the queen of the 16th century, were undermined. Spain, corrupted by cheap colonial gold, exhausted by the struggle for "purity of faith", is turning into a minor European state. In Germany, the tragic outcome of the Peasant War for 100 years extended the existence of the feudal order, preserving the personal dependence of the peasants, the political fragmentation of the country.

But in the main, the political fate of Europe depended on the relationship between the two leading powers - England and France. It is difficult to overestimate the role played in the life of European society by the English bourgeois revolution (1640-1688). Revolution of 1688 led to the restoration of the monarchy, but it was already a limited monarchy with a strong parliament that passes laws that contribute to the development of the capitalist way of life. The principles of political structure and economic order proclaimed by the English Revolution had an impact on all European countries. England has become an advanced industrial and mighty colonial power.

The period of the English Revolution coincided in France with the rise of absolute monarchy. This was the age of Louis XIV (1643-1715), Louis the Great, the Sun King, as his contemporaries flatteringly called him. The Versailles Court thundered - the standard of luxury and taste throughout Europe. Balls of unheard-of splendor were given here. France replaces Spain as a trendsetter and etiquette. Although absolutism as a form of government is established in most European states, the classic model of the absolutist state for two centuries was France. "One monarch, one law, one religion" - in accordance with this principle, the French kings exercised unlimited rule. All economic, political and social life in the state were under the control of the monarch, and this situation suited all classes. The nobility could no longer do without a benefactor monarch; need drove the impoverished aristocrats under the royal banners. The court, the treasury and the army guaranteed the protection of privileges, nourished hopes for a career. The emerging bourgeoisie of France also could not do without the sovereign, who embodied the age-old struggle for the unity of the country, for the suppression of separatism. The royal government often pursued a protectionist policy towards the manufacture. So the product of the decomposition of feudalism - absolutism - to a certain extent contributed to the development of capitalist relations. A strong absolutist state, with clear national boundaries that restrained internecine wars, guaranteed a peaceful life and protection of the king to all segments of the population.

Absolutism also played a positive role in overcoming religious wars in Western Europe in the 16th and 18th centuries. (The Thirty Years' War, which delayed the development of Germany, the wars of the Calvinist-Huguenots and Catholics in France at the end of the 16th-beginning of the 17th centuries, with the massacre of Bartholomew's Night; constant clashes between the Puritans and supporters of the "high" church in English history of the 17th century). Absolutism sought to rely on the church, to strengthen religious foundations: the church proclaimed that the monarch is God's anointed, and his dominance on earth is like heavenly autocracy.

But still the role of religion in the worldview is falling. Religious wars, the split of Western Christianity as a result of the Reformation, the persecution of dissidents testified to the inability of the church to ensure public peace. The organic involvement of the Christian Church in socio-political feudal structures with their ideological and semantic center "God - the Pope - the King" undermined its authority in the era of the overthrow of the old order. Finally, the progress of science, of experimental knowledge gradually convinced of the truth of the scientific picture of the universe.

The development of the bourgeois mode of production gave rise to the need for applied sciences. Since the Renaissance, the role of natural sciences in culture has been growing. The leading place in natural science was taken by mechanics. Science ceased to be the office occupation of lone scientists. New forms of organization of research work emerged - scientific societies, academies of sciences. In 1635, the French Academy was established, and in 1660, the Royal Society of London. The scientific revolution was based on a fundamentally new assessment of the possibilities of the human mind and the sources of knowledge. Even before René Descartes (1596-1650) in his Discourse on Method declared the human mind to be the main tool for the knowledge of the world, Francis Bacon (1561-1626) proclaimed that knowledge is power, its source is experience, and not divine revelation, and the measure of value is the practical benefit brought. Experiment (Galileo, Bacon, Newton), mechanical hypothesis, mechanical model (Descartes) were declared the most important methods of scientific knowledge.

Antonio van Leeuwenhoek's microscope made it possible to study the structure of living organisms down to the smallest physiological processes. And the telescope enabled Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) and Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) to develop the heliocentric doctrine of Nicolaus Copernicus, to discover the laws of planetary motion. Using a telescope designed by him with a 30-fold increase, Galileo discovered volcanoes and craters on the Moon, and saw the satellites of Jupiter. The Milky Way appeared before him as an innumerable cluster of stars, confirming the thought of Giordano Bruno about the inexhaustibility of the worlds in the Universe. All this brought Galileo the well-deserved fame of the “Columbus of the sky” and turned the biblical picture of the universe upside down.

The development of terrestrial mechanics (Galileo, Torricelli, Boyle, Descartes, Pascal, Leibniz) showed the failure of the medieval understanding of nature, based on the physics of Aristotle. In the works of Isaac Newton (1643-1727), mathematical natural science reached its peak. Newton's discoveries in the field of optics (light dispersion) made it possible to design a more powerful reflecting telescope. Newton (simultaneously with Leibniz and independently of him) discovers differential and integral calculus. He also formulates a number of the most important laws in physics. Newton's predecessor Rene Descartes is one of the creators of mechanics, algebra and analytical geometry. He combined the genius of a naturalist and a philosopher. Fascinated by physiology, he was able to understand and appreciate the importance of blood circulation. Having deeply studied the laws of optics, he discovered the refraction of light. Blaise Pascal (1623-1662), based on the assumptions of Torricelli, firmly proved the existence of atmospheric pressure. In the works of Pascal, Fermat and Huygens, the theory of probability was developed. William Harvey (1578-1657) discovered the secret of blood circulation and the role of the heart, came close to revealing the secret of the origin of human life.

In the 17th century a huge number of discoveries and inventions were made, and this allows us to talk about the scientific revolution of the "age of geniuses", as the 17th century is sometimes called. But the main result of the scientific revolution was the creation of a new image of the universe. The geocentric cosmos collapsed, and the Earth took its true place in the picture of the universe. The world appeared as the result of the evolution of matter, controlled by mechanical laws, and not by divine providence, it ceased to be a physical emanation of God's spiritual providence.

But the scientific worldview in the XVII century. has not yet broken the ties that bind it to more ancient - esoteric and religious - ideas. The leaders of the scientific revolution were deeply religious people. Faith was the source of their creative inspiration. The laws of nature discovered by natural scientists were presented as a new acquisition of divine knowledge lost at the time of the fall. The mechanical models of the world created by scientists found a logical addition in the notions of an impersonal creator who laid the foundation for the world, gave it a finished form and harmony, and then disappeared from it. Both Descartes and Newton built their systems of the universe based on the divine principle. Newton believed that matter cannot be explained from itself, that "the most elegant combination of the Sun, Planets and comets could not have happened otherwise than by the intention and power of a powerful and wise being." The greatest harmony, coherence and beauty of the universe, - believed Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, - is a consequence of the miracle that happened during the creation of things, "it is an unceasing miracle in the same measure as many natural things." Benedict Spinoza speaks of God as the fundamental principle of being, the primary cause of all things, and also the primary cause of himself.

But despite the "assumptions" of divine intervention, the image of the Copernican-Newtonian universe was simple and easy to understand in comparison with the cumbersome Ptolemaic system.

They tried to apply the principles of knowledge of nature to the sphere of public life. This is exactly how Newton's teaching was understood by D. Locke and the French enlighteners: the outdated structures of feudalism with their class, church hierarchies must give way to the rationality of a mutually beneficial social structure and the recognition of individual rights. This is how the natural-legal theories of modern times appeared, which soon turned into a weapon in the fight against feudal estate privileges. The founders of the theories of natural law were Hugo Grotius (1583-1645), Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), John Locke (1632-1704), who made the transition to the positions of human behavior and vital interest and marked the beginning of utilitarianism and pragmatism. The abstract mind of the rationalists was transformed into the common sense of the bourgeois.

The starting point of Hobbes' natural law theory is the concept of human nature. The nature of man is evil and selfish: "Man is a wolf to man." The state of nature - the initial stage of human history - is characterized by a "war of all against all", in which a person is guided by "natural law" - the law of force. Natural law is opposed by "natural laws" - the rational and moral principles of human nature. Among them are the law of self-preservation and the law of satisfaction of needs. Since the “war of all against all” threatens a person with self-destruction, it becomes necessary to change the “state of nature” to a civil one, which people do by concluding a social contract, voluntarily ceding to the state part of their rights and freedoms and agreeing to comply with laws. The natural law of force is replaced by the harmony of natural and civil laws, which takes on real life in the state. Hobbes considers the state as the work of human hands, the most important of the artificial bodies he creates. The state is a necessary condition for culture, outside of it there is war, fear, abomination, barbarism, poverty, ignorance. In the state - peace, security, wealth, the dominion of reason, decency, knowledge. The practical basis for such ideas was the endless wars between the feudal estates and the devastation, fear for their lives and for the lives of their loved ones, which these wars carried with them. 17th century imbued with a sense of tragic loneliness in the world of man - a toy in the hands of fate. From these feelings and moods grew the idea of ​​the need for a strong state capable of protecting its citizens.

Locke believed that the truth of social life lies not in the state, but in the individual himself. People unite in society in order to guarantee the individual his natural rights. Locke considered the main natural rights not the right of force, but the right to life, liberty and property. The state, through its laws, protects the natural rights, the free private life of every person. The rights of the individual are best secured by the principle of separation of powers. The philosopher considered it necessary to assign legislative power to the parliament, federal (relations with other states) - to the king and ministers, and executive power - to the court and the army.

The theory of natural law had an anti-theological and anti-feudal orientation. Emphasizing the "naturalness" of the origin of law, she opposed the theory of "divine" law, which turned God into the source of the laws of the feudal-absolutist state. Insisting on the inalienability of the most important "natural rights" of the individual, this theory also opposed the practice of their constant violation in feudal society, being an instrument of its criticism.

17th century rich in utopias, in which criticism of the foundations of feudal absolutism is combined with the development of projects for a perfect society. Thus, Cyrano de Bergerac, an admirer of the philosophy of Descartes, developed the ideas of progress in his fantasy novels. Heaping ridicule on contemporary society, he enriched the traditions of Rabelais's humanism. Set out in the form of travel novels, the utopian programs of the Italian Campanella (“City of the Sun”) and the French author Denis Veras (“The History of the Sevarambs”) oriented the public consciousness towards the search for a harmonious social order. Utopians discovered it on distant islands, other planets, or attributed it to the distant future, not seeing the possibilities to change the state of things in their contemporary world.

Francis Bacon's New Atlantis differs from these utopias in its techno- and sci-tech orientation, which absorbed the spirit of the times of the scientific revolution. The wise men who sit in the "House of Solomon" - scientists, high priests, politicians - know very well that "knowledge is power." Scientific and technical achievements are regarded as the main wealth of the nation, their secrets are carefully guarded. The Bensalemians can desalinate and condition the air, regulate the weather and simulate human behavior, produce synthetic food, and know the secret of eternal life. Similar ideas in Europe in the 17th century. hovered in the air (for example, the dream of a collective organization of the activities of scientists, which soon came true in the activities of the Royal Society of London, the Paris Academy, etc.) In part, these fantasies can also be regarded as a kind of mind game: in the culture of this serious game component. As I. Huizinga notes, the 17th century is fascinated by the play of baroque forms.

Culture of the 17th century created the necessary prerequisites for the cultures of subsequent eras. The 17th century is the beginning of the formation of a bourgeois society, the development of a new bourgeois worldview, the foundation of which was Newtonian-Cartesian cosmology. The earth ceased to be the center of the universe and became one of the planets moving around the sun, which in turn became just one of a great many stars. The Universe acquired the appearance of a complex system consisting of material particles, subject to mechanical laws. Public life has also become an integral part of this system; the spread of Newtonian-Cartesian conclusions to it gave rise to the natural-legal theories of the new time. The role of God in this world view was still essential: since the world is like a giant clockwork, it must have its Master. The Creator, who created the world and then retired from it, appeared in the images of the Divine Architect, Mathematician and Clockmaker.

The power of man lies in the fact that by the power of his Mind he can penetrate into the heart of the universal order and then turn the received knowledge to his own benefit. Realizing himself as a cognizing subject and creator of culture, a person masters the role of the ruler of the world. Reason became the slogan of the new world (just as God was the slogan of the old world). Rationalism has become the dominant culture; science - the main tool of the Mind - acquired a worldview status, knowledge - a social orientation.

University: VZFEI

Year and city: Vladimir 2009

Option 15

Introduction

1. The development of science and philosophy in Europe in the 17th century. The beginning of the 1st stage of the scientific and technological revolution.

2. The development of painting in the Netherlands. Decoration of art schools

Baroque style.

3.Culture of France in the 17th century. Decoration in classic style.

4. English culture of the 17th century.

Conclusion

Bibliography.

Introduction

The 17th century is a turning point in the development of human society: the Middle Ages ends and the New Age begins. The central events of this century are the final stage of the Great geographical discoveries, the first scientific revolution, as well as the social, bourgeois revolution in England. The result of these accomplishments was the formation of a world market, when regular economic ties are established between all continents, and capitalist relations are established in Europe.

Naturally, these processes influenced the development in the 17th century. European culture.

The development of science and philosophy in Europe in the 17th century. The beginning of the 1st stage of the scientific and technological revolution.

Among the various types of spiritual culture, a special place in the XVII century. occupied fat, which not only received development, but made a breakthrough, called the first fat revolution in the history of mankind. Its result was the formation of modern science.

The most important stage in the development of science was the New Age - XVI-XVII centuries. Here, the needs of emerging capitalism played a decisive role. During this period, the dominance of religious thinking was undermined, and experiment (experiment) was established as the leading research method, which, along with observation, radically expanded the scope of cognizable reality. At this time, theoretical reasoning began to be combined with the practical exploration of nature, which dramatically increased the cognitive capabilities of science. This profound transformation of science, which took place in the 16th-17th centuries, is considered the first scientific revolution that gave the world such names as I. Copernicus, G. Galileo, J. Bruno, I. Kepler, W. Garvey, R. Descartes, X. Huygens, I. Newton and others.

Economic needs, the expansion of the manufacturing industry, trade contributed to the rapid rise of the exact and natural sciences. In the 17th century completed the transition from a poetic-holistic perception of the world to proper scientific methods of cognition of reality. The motto of the era can be called the words of Giordano Bruno, said on its threshold: “The only authority should be reason and free research. This was the time of the great discoveries of Galileo, Kepler, Newton, Leibniz, Huygens in mathematics, astronomy and various fields of physics, remarkable achievements of scientific thought, laid the foundations for the subsequent development of these branches of knowledge
Galileo Galilei(1564-1642), Italian scientist, one of the founders of exact natural science, considered experience to be the basis of knowledge. He refuted the erroneous positions of Aristotle and laid the foundations of modern mechanics: he put forward the idea of ​​the relativity of motion, established the laws of inertia, free fall and motion of bodies on an inclined plane, and the addition of motions. He was engaged in structural mechanics, built a telescope with a 32-fold increase, thanks to which he made a number of astronomical discoveries, defended the heliocentric system of the world, for which he was subjected to the court of the Inquisition (1633) and spent the end of his life in exile.
Johannes Kepler(1871-1630), German astronomer, one of the founders of modern astronomy. He discovered the laws of planetary motion, compiled planetary tables, laid the foundations for the theory of eclipses, invented a new telescope with binocular lenses.
Isaac Newton(1643-1727), English mathematician, mechanic, astronomer and physicist, creator of classical mechanics. He discovered the dispersion of light, chromatic aberration, developed a theory of light that combined corpuscular and wave representations. He discovered the law of universal gravitation and created the foundations of celestial mechanics.
Gottfried Leibniz(1646-1716), German mathematician, physicist, philosopher, linguist. One of the creators of differential calculus, anticipated the principles of modern mathematical logic. In the spirit of rationalism, he developed the doctrine of the innate ability of the mind to cognize the higher categories of being and the universal necessary truths of logic and mathematics.
Christian Huygens(1629 - 1695) - Dutch scientist, invented a pendulum clock with an escapement, established the laws of oscillation of a physical pendulum. He created the wave theory of light. Together with R. Hooke, he established the constant points of the thermometer. Improved the telescope (Huygens eyepiece), discovered the ring of Saturn. The author of one of the first treatises on the theory of probability.
Scientists such as Harvey, Malpighi, Leeuwenhoek contributed to many branches of biology.
William Harvey(1576-1637), English physician, founder of modern physiology and embryology. He described the large and small circles of blood circulation, for the first time expressed the idea of ​​​​the origin of "all living things from the egg."
Marcello Malpighi(1628-1694), Italian biologist and physician, one of the founders of microanatomy, discovered the capillary circulation.
Anton Leeuwenhoek(1632-1723), Dutch naturalist, one of the founders of scientific microscopy. He made lenses with 150-300-fold magnification, which made it possible to study microbes, blood cells, etc.
Thus, the works of scientists-researchers of the XVII century. created the basis for technological progress.

Philosophy
The development of the exact and natural sciences directly served as an impetus for a powerful leap in philosophical thought. Philosophy developed in close connection with the sciences. The views of Bacon, Hobbes, Locke in England, Descartes in France, Spinoza in Holland were of great importance in the establishment of materialism and the formation of advanced social ideas, in the struggle against idealistic currents and church reaction.
Francis Bacon(1561 - 1626), an English philosopher, the founder of English materialism, was Lord Chancellor under King James I. In his treatise "New Organon" (1620), he proclaimed the goal of science to increase the power of man over nature and proposed a reform of the scientific method of cognition, the basis of which he considered appeal to experience and its processing through induction. Bacon wrote the utopia "New Atlantis", in which he outlined the project of the state organization of science.
The philosophy of Bacon, which took shape in the atmosphere of the scientific and cultural upsurge of Europe on the eve of the bourgeois revolutions, had an enormous influence on a whole era of philosophical and scientific development; the classification of knowledge proposed by him was accepted by the French encyclopedists. His teaching laid down the materialistic tradition in the philosophy of modern times, and his inductive methodology became the basis for the development of inductive logic.

Thomas Hobbes(1568-1679) continued the line of Bacon, considered knowledge as a power and recognized its practical use as the ultimate task of philosophy. Hobbes created the first system of mechanistic materialism in the history of philosophy. The social doctrine of Hobbes about the state and the role of state power had a significant impact on the development of European social thought.
The ideas of Francis Bacon are also developed by John Locke (1632-1704), an English philosopher-enlightener and political thinker. He developed the empirical theory of knowledge and the ideological and political doctrine of liberalism. According to Marx, Locke was "... the classic exponent of the legal ideas of bourgeois society as opposed to feudal society." Locke's ideas played a huge role in the history of the philosophical and socio-political thought of the European Enlightenment.
The most prominent representative of the French philosophy of the XVII century. rightly believe Rene Descartes(1596-1650). A philosopher, mathematician, physicist and physiologist, he was a universal revivalist type of personality living in the 17th century. and reflecting in scientific and philosophical works the complexity and inconsistency of its turbulent time. He laid the foundations of analytical geometry, formulated laws and concepts from the field of mechanics, created a theory of the formation and movement of celestial bodies due to the vortex motion of matter particles. But a special contribution to world culture belongs to Descartes the philosopher. Descartes is the author of the famous saying: "I think, therefore I am." Descartes is a representative of the philosophy of dualism. According to Descartes, the common cause of motion is God, who created matter, motion and rest. Man is a lifeless bodily mechanism plus a soul with thinking and will. The immediate certainty of consciousness underlies all knowledge. Descartes tried to prove the existence of God and the reality of the external world. The main works of Descartes are "Geometry" (1637), "Discourse on the Method ..." (1637), "Principles of Philosophy" (1644).
Benedict Spinoza(1632-1677), Dutch materialist philosopher, pantheist, like many of his contemporaries, transferred mathematical laws to philosophy. He believed that the world is a natural system that can be known by the mathematical method. Nature, according to Spinoza, is God, a single, eternal, infinite substance. Thinking and attraction are its inalienable properties, while things and ideas are single phenomena (modes). Man is a part of nature, his soul is a mode of thinking, his body is a mode of extension. Will and mind are one, all human actions are included in the chain of world universal determination. Spinoza's teaching had a great influence on the development of atheism and materialism.

Scientific revolution of the 17th century. connected with the revolution in natural science. The development of productive forces required the creation of new machines, the introduction of chemical processes, knowledge of the laws of mechanics, and precise instruments for astronomical observations.

The scientific revolution went through several stages, and its formation took a century and a half. Its beginning was laid by N. Copernicus (1473-1543) and his followers Bruno, Galileo, Kepler. In 1543, the Polish scientist N. Copernicus published the book “On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres”, in which he approved the idea that the Earth, like other planets of the Solar System, revolves around the Sun, which is the central body of the Solar System. Copernicus established that the Earth is not an exclusive celestial body. This was a blow to anthropocentrism and religious legends, according to which the Earth allegedly occupies a central position in the universe. The geocentric system of Ptolemy, accepted for many centuries, was rejected. But the work of Copernicus from 1616 to 1828 was banned by the Catholic Church.

Developed the teachings of Copernicus in the XVI century. the Italian thinker J. Bruno (1548-1600), the author of the works, innovative for his time, On Infinity, the Universe and the Worlds, On Cause, Beginning and One. He believed that the Universe is infinite and measureless, that it represents an innumerable number of stars, each of which is similar to our Sun and around which their planets revolve. Bruno's opinion is now fully confirmed by science. And then, in the Middle Ages, for these bold views, J. Bruno was accused of heresy and burned by the Inquisition.

Galileo (1564-1642) owns the largest achievements in the field of physics and the development of the most fundamental problem - movement; his achievements in astronomy are enormous: the justification and approval of the heliocentric system, the discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter out of 13 currently known; the discovery of the phases of Venus, the extraordinary appearance of the planet Saturn, now known to be created by rings representing a collection of solid bodies; a huge number of stars that are not visible to the naked eye. Galileo was successful in scientific achievements to a large extent because he recognized observations and experience as the starting point for the knowledge of nature.

Galileo was the first to observe the sky through a telescope (a telescope with 32x magnification was built by the scientist himself). The main works of Galileo are the Starry Herald, Dialogues on the Two Systems of the World.

One of the creators of modern astronomy was I. Kepler (1571-1630), who discovered the laws of planetary motion, which are named after him (Kepler's laws). He compiled the so-called Rudolf planetary tables. To his credit laying the foundations of the theory of eclipses, he invented a telescope with biconvex lenses. He published his theories in the books New Astronomy and Brief Review of Copernican Astronomy. The English physician W. Harvey (1578-1657) is considered the founder of modern physiology and embryology. His main work is An Anatomical Study on the Movement of the Heart and Blood in Animals. He described the large and small circles of blood circulation. His teaching refuted the halo of the previously existing Ideas set forth by the ancient Roman physician Golen (c.130-c.200). Harvey was the first to state that "everything that lives comes from an egg". However, the question remained open how the blood coming from the heart through the veins returns to it through the arteries. His assumptions about the existence of tiny connecting vessels were proven in 1661 by the Italian researcher M. Molpigi (1628-1694), who discovered capillaries connecting veins and arteries under a microscope.

Among the merits of R. Descartes (1596-1650) - a French scientist (mathematician, physicist, philologist, philosopher) - the introduction of the coordinate axis, which contributed to the unification of algebra and geometry. He introduced the concept of a variable, which formed the basis of the differential and integral calculus of Newton and Leibnitz. The philosophical positions of Descartes are dualistic, he recognized the soul and the body, of which the soul is a “thinking” substance, and the body is an “extended” substance. He believed that God exists, that God created matter, movement and rest. The main works of Descartes are "Geometry", "Discourse on Method", "Principles of Philosophy".

The Dutch scientist X. Huygens (1629-1695) invented the pendulum clock, established the laws of pendulum motion, laid the foundations for the theory of impact, the wave theory of light, and explained birefringence. He was engaged in astronomy - he discovered the ring of Saturn and its satellite Titan. He prepared one of the first works on the theory of probability.

One of the greatest scientists in the history of mankind is the Englishman I. Newton (1643-1727). He wrote a huge number of scientific works in various fields of science ("Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy", "Optics", etc.). The most important stages in the development of optics, astronomy, and mathematics are associated with his name. Newton created the foundations of mechanics, discovered the law of universal gravitation and developed on its basis the theory of motion of celestial bodies. This scientific discovery glorified Newton forever. He owns such discoveries in the field of mechanics as the concepts of force, energy, the formulation of the three laws of mechanics; in the field of optics, the discovery of refraction, dispersion, interference, and diffraction of light; in the field of mathematics - algebra, geometry, interpolation, differential and integral calculus.

In the XVIII century. revolutionary discoveries were made in astronomy by I. Kant and P. Laplace, as well as in chemistry - its beginning is associated with the name AL. Lavoisier.

The German philosopher, the founder of German classical philosophy, I. Kant (1724-1804), developed the cosmogonic hypothesis of the origin of the solar system from the original nebula (treatise "General Natural History and Theory of the Sky").

P. Laplace (1749-1827) - French astronomer, mathematician, physicist, author of a classic work on probability theory and celestial mechanics (considered the dynamics of the solar system as a whole and its stability). Laplace wrote a Treatise on Celestial Mechanics and an Analytical Theory of Probability. Just like Kant, he proposed a cosmogonic hypothesis, it was named after him (Laplace's hypothesis).

French chemist A.L. Lavoisier (1743-1794) is considered one of the
him from the founders of modern chemistry. In research
he used quantitative methods. Explain the role of oxygen in
processes of combustion, roasting of metals and respiration. One of the founders of thermochemistry. The author of the classic course "Initial textbook
Chemistry", as well as the essay "Methods for naming chemical elements".

Development of painting in the Netherlands. Decoration of art schools

Baroque style.

The 17th century was a golden age for Dutch painting: national art schools did not know court art, did not interfere in the work of painters and the church. Flemish art developed in somewhat different ways. After the division of the Netherlands into Holland and Flanders, the main customers for works of art in Flanders were the nobility, the higher burghers and the Catholic Church. The social order predetermined the purpose of artistic creativity - to decorate castles, patriciate houses and places of worship. Therefore, the predominant genre of secular painting were portraits of noble and wealthy customers, hunting scenes, huge still lifes.

The outstanding Flanders artists of this time are Rubens, Van Dyck, Jordanes and Snyders.

Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640) had a universal talent. The subjects of his canvases are varied (religious, mythological, allegorical, landscapes, scenes of peasant life, portraits), but all of them are imbued with a huge life-affirming beginning. The master is characterized by a combination of realistic observations and sensual beauty of images, drama. In the paintings, made in the Baroque style, elation, pathos, stormy movement. The canvases are full of decorative brilliance and color. The most famous paintings by Rubens are "Exaltation of the Cross", "Descent from the Cross", "Perseus and Andromeda", "History of Mary Medici", "Return of the Reapers", "Bathsheba", portraits - "Maid Lady", "Fur Coat", self-portraits .

Rubens created his own world - the world of gods and heroes to match the hyperbolic images of "Gargantua and Pantagruel" by F. Rabelais. The color of his canvases is built on the contrast of the tones of the naked body with bright robes and a noble restrained tone.

The most famous student of Rubens, the brilliant portrait painter Antonio van Dyck (1599-1641), entered the history of fine art. He is the author of ceremonial portraits of aristocrats, politicians, church prelates, wealthy burghers, local beauties, fellow artists. He painted many portraits and members of the royal family. Despite the splendor of the portraits, the artist manages to capture individual features in each

models and show brilliant craftsmanship. His characters are effortless and graceful, and their surroundings are emphatically decorative. Van Dyck has paintings on mythological and Christian subjects imbued with lyricism (“Susanna and the Elders”, “St. Jerome”, “Madonna with Partridges”).

One of the outstanding artists of Flanders is Jacob Jordan (1593-1678). His large-scale canvases depict mythological, allegorical scenes from peasant life. My favorite genre is everyday paintings (“The Bean King”, “Adoration of the Shepherds”, “Satire Visiting the Peasant”). Jordane most fully expressed the national flavor and national type.

Frans Snyders (1579-1657) became famous for his still lifes and hunting scenes. His still lifes are monumental, decorative, colorful. Snyders superbly painted the gifts of nature - fish, meat, fruits (series "Shops"), furs, feathers, animal fights.

Baroque style.

Artistic The dominant artistic styles of the 17th century of this century were Baroque and Classicism. century Baroque style, baroque, existed in Europe from 1600 to 1750. It is characterized by expressiveness, splendor, dynamics. Aimed at supporting the Catholic Church in its struggle against the Reformation, Baroque art sought to directly affect the feelings of the audience. An example of the highest expression of feelings is the sculpture of Bernina “The Ecstasy of St. Teresa." Painting, sculpture, decor, architecture create a holistic dramatic effect. The style that originally emerged in Roman churches conquers all of Europe, while acquiring new features.

Baroque art developed in the feudal-absolutist states under the strong influence of Catholicism (Italy, Spain, Flanders). The visual art of the Baroque cannot be understood apart from its connection with architecture. Architecture, which combines utilitarian and artistic factors to a greater extent than other types of art, is associated with material progress and is more dependent on the dominant ideology (temple architecture and urban planning is carried out with the money of the church and rich people, but at the same time it serves society as a whole). In baroque cult buildings, all the richest possibilities for the synthesis of architecture, sculpture, decorative art and painting are designed to strike the imagination of the viewer, imbued with a religious feeling. In the same Italy, secular structures are erected, representing an important stage in the development of world architecture. Techniques of urban planning, an integral urban ensemble are being developed, palace and park complexes are being built, in which new principles of the connection between architecture and the natural environment are being discovered.
Baroque is characterized by great emotional elation and pathetic nature of images, which is achieved due to the scale of buildings, exaggerated monumentalization of forms, dynamics of spatial construction, and increased plastic expressiveness of volumes. Hence the curvilinear plans, the curves of the walls, on which, as it were, grow cornices, pediments, pilasters; small forms of architectural decoration abound: windows are decorated with various architraves, niches - with statues. The general impression of rapid movement and wealth is complemented by sculpture, murals, stucco, colored marbles and bronzes. Add to this picturesque contrasts of chiaroscuro, perspective and illusionistic effects.
Religious, palace buildings, sculpture, fountains (Rome) are combined into an integral artistic image. The same can be said about the palace and park complexes of other regions of Italy of the Baroque era, distinguished by their exceptionally masterful use of complex terrain, rich southern vegetation, water cascades in combination with small forms - pavilions, fences, fountains, statues and sculptural groups.
Most clearly, the features of the Baroque were embodied in monumental sculpture, in the work of Lorenzo Bernini (the ideas of the triumph of mysticism over reality, the ecstatic expressiveness of images, the stormy dynamics of odds).
In painting, the contribution to the art of the Baroque was made by the Bologna academic brothers Carracci, Guido, Reni, Gvercino. The baroque concept reaches its full development with Pietro da Norton, Bacciccio and others. In their multi-figure compositions saturated with strong movement, the characters seem to be carried away somewhere by an unknown force. In baroque painting, monumental and decorative paintings dominated, mainly plafonds, altar paintings depicting the apotheoses of saints, scenes of miracles, martyrdom, huge historical and allegorical compositions, folk portrait (large style). In Baroque art, in particular in the monumental sculpture of Bernini, not only religious ideas were reflected, but also an acute crisis and irreconcilable contradictions in Italy in the 17th century.
The baroque art of Flanders has its own specifics. In Rubens, Jordans and other masters, the antithesis of the earthly and the mystical, the real and the illusory, which is characteristic of the Baroque concept, is expressed more externally, without turning into a tragic dissonance. In Rubens, in many altar compositions, as well as in paintings on the themes of ancient mythology, man and real life are glorified.
Spain in the 17th century. the baroque developed in original national forms in architecture, sculpture, and painting with a pronounced polarization.
In France, the Baroque style did not occupy a leading position, but France in the 17th century. - This is the historical arena of the development of classicism.

French culture in the 17th century. Decoration in classic style.

Classicism has been recognized as the official trend in French literature since the formation in 1635 of the Academy of Literature in Paris.

In the 17th century, when the unlimited power of the monarch was established in France, which reached its apogee under Louis XIV, a classicist trend was formed that embraced all types of artistic creativity - classicism. Classicism, based on following the principles of ancient art: rationalism, symmetry, purposefulness, restraint and strict compliance of the content of the work with its form, sought to express the sublime, heroic and moral ideals, to create clear, organic images. At the same time, classicism carried the features of utopianism, idealization, abstraction, academicism, which grew during its crisis.

Classicism established a hierarchy of artistic genres - high and low. So, in painting, historical paintings, mythical, religious, were recognized as high genres. Landscape, portrait, still life belonged to the low ones, the same subordination of genres was observed in literature. Tragedy, epic, ode were considered high, and comedy, satire, fable were considered low. A clear demarcation of plans and smoothness of forms were established for works of sculpture and painting. If there was movement in the figures, then it did not disturb their calm statuary ha, plastic isolation. For a clear selection of objects, a local color was used: for the near - brown, for the middle - green, for the distant plan - blue.

The ancestor of classicism in literature was Pierre Corneille (1606-1684), the author of the tragedies Sid, Horace, Cinna, Polyeuct, Oedipus, and others, glorifying the power of will, controlled by reason. Corneille is considered the founder of the French theater. The core of Corneille's plays is the tragic conflict of passion and duty, heroic characters act in them, the great poet denounces despotism.

The works of Francois de La Rochefoucauld (1613-1680) and Marie Madeleine de Lafayette (1634-1693) became the model for French prose. In the collection of aphorisms and maxims "Reflections, or Moral Sayings", containing brief, sharp and cynical observations of life and people, La Rochefoucauld criticizes the aristocratic society of his day. Marc Lafayette is the author of the first psychological novel in France, The Princess of Cleves, which was a huge success with readers. All the characters in the novel are real people, but bred under different names.

Nicolas Boileau (1636-1711) was the theoretician of classicism. The rules and norms of classicism are set forth by him in the treatise "Poetic Art" (in the form of a poem). He is the author of the witty Satyrs, in which he ridiculed religion and statesmen. His poetic talent was highly appreciated by A.S. Pushkin.

The greatest playwright of France is Jean Racine (1639-1699), the author of the tragedies Andromache, Britannia, Berenice, Mithridates, Iphi-Genius, Phaedra, Afapia, etc. Racine borrowed plots from Greek mythology and created his works according to all the canons of classical Greek drama. In his plays, with the exceptional musicality and harmony of the verse, the balance of the external form, sharply dramatic conflicts are depicted, the spiritual tragedy of people forced to sacrifice their feelings to the demands of public duty.

The development of world dramaturgy was greatly influenced by the work of Molière (nast, name Jean-Baptiste Poquelin, 1622-1673), a stage art reformer, comedian, and actor. The most important source of inspiration for him is farcical dramaturgy. On the basis of a combination of classicism and the traditions of the folk theater, Moliere created the genre of social comedy. In his works "Tartuffe, or the Deceiver", "The tradesman in the nobility", "The Misanthrope", "The Imaginary Sick", "Funny Cossacks", "A Lesson for Wives", "Marriage involuntarily", "The Miser" are denounced, as Balzac wrote , treachery, shameful love of old people, misanthropy, slander, foppishness, unequal marriages, avarice, venality, debauchery of judges, vanity.

Satire acquired great emotionality, social sharpness and realistic concreteness in the fables of the largest poetic talent of France - Jean La Fontaine (1621-1695), in his work based on ancient samples and folk traditions (Aesop's fables), the so-called animal epic. In his works, absolute monarchy and aristocratic society are compared with the kingdom of bloodthirsty and predatory animals; the church is condemned, religion is skeptically evaluated and at the same time the true humanity of people from the people is revealed (“Shoemaker and farmer”, “Peasant from the Danube”, “Merchant, nobleman, shepherd and son of the king”, etc.).

In the second half of the XVII century. Antoine Furetier (1620-1688) was the foremost representative of French literature. His main work, The Bourgeois Novel, is an important step in the development of realism.

Charles Perrault (1628-1703) lived and wrote his famous fairy tales at this time. His collection Tales of Mother Goose includes the tales Sleeping Beauty, Little Red Riding Hood, Cinderella, Puss in Boots, etc. In some of them, the writer used European folk stories (for example, the plot of Cinderella has about 700 options).

The founder of classicism in painting is Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665), who painted pictures on mythological and literary themes. The strict balance of the compositions, the cult of nature and the worship of antiquity are the characteristic features of the artist’s work (“The Death of Germanicus”, “Tancred and Erminia”, “Sleeping Venus”, “Landscape with Polyphemus”, the cycle “The Seasons”, “The Arcadian Shepherds” ). Poussin made small wax figures for his paintings, experimenting with different compositions and lighting.

The master of the lyrical landscape was the painter Claude Lorrain (1600-1682). His clear light painting in the classical style had a strong influence on the tastes of the XVII-XVIII centuries. The characters in his paintings (usually mythological or historical) are most often lost in the setting of a poetic landscape (“The Enchanted Castle”). With subtle lighting effects, Lorrain was able to express a different feeling of nature depending on the time of day (series "Seasons of Day").

Although elements of Gothic and Renaissance still remained in architecture, elements of classicism had already appeared, for example, the facade of the building of the Luxembourg Palace (architect S. de Bros) was divided by an order that would become mandatory for this style; the colonnade of the eastern facade of the Louvre (architect Perrault) is characterized by the simplicity of the order, the balance of masses, static, which achieves a sense of peace and grandeur.

The largest palace architectural structure of the 17th century. is Versailles. Here harmony and proportionality of the entire grandiose ensemble as a whole has been achieved. The palace was built by the architects L. Levo (1612-1670) and J. Hardouin-Mansart (1646-1708). Hardouin-Mansart also erected majestic ceremonial buildings: the Grand Trianon Palace, Les Invalides, Place Vendôme, and Levo designed the Tuileries Palace.

The creator of the parks of Versailles and the Tuileries is the architect, master of landscape art Andre Le Nôtre (1613-1700). The park in Versailles perfectly combined with the architecture of the facade of the palace facing the park, the symmetry of the facade, as it were, continues in the spacious “parterres” (gardens, flower beds and paths of which make up the pattern), radially diverging alleys, open perspectives.

In the 17th century in France, secular music comes to the fore, it begins to prevail over the spiritual. Opera and ballet are developing. The first national operas are Triumph of Love, Past Toral. The founder of the national opera school is composer and dancer Zh.B. Lully (1632-1687), author of the operas Alceste, Theseus, as well as opera overture, music for Molière's performances.

Instrumental schools also developed at this time - lute, harpsichord, viol.

English culture of the 17th century.

The English philosopher Thomas Hobbes (1588 - culture 1679) is considered the creator of the first complete system of mechanistic materialism. Hobbes is one of the representatives of the theory of the emergence of the state by a social contract, or the contract theory of the state. According to this theory, the state is the result of a kind of contract concluded by a sovereign ruler and subjects. According to Hobbes, the motivation for concluding such an agreement was fear of aggression from other people, fear for one's life, freedom and property. The emergence of the state put an end to the natural state of "war of all against all", which, according to Hobbes, took place in the pre-state period. Hobbes was the first to speak out against the divine origin of royal power. He outlined his theory in the main pro-product "Leviathan". His philosophical works are "Fundamentals of Philosophy" ("Hotel", "Oman", "Citizen").

The greatest English poet of this time was John Milton (1608-1674). In the poems "Paradise Lost" and "Paradise Regained" in biblical allegorical images, he reflected the events of the English Revolution. Milton is the author of the poem "History of Britain" and the impressive but inconvenient tragedy "Samson the Fighter" for staging, in which he touched on the problem of tyranny.

Milton - a progressive public figure, a brilliant publicist - defended the sovereignty of the English Republic, defended the freedom of the revolutionary press (the pamphlet "Protection of the English People", "Areopagitica").

After the restoration of the Stuart dynasty in England, secular art was revived, attempts were made to establish the canons of classicism in the English theater and literature, but it was not possible to create a tragic style here. Of the comedians, William Utherley (1640-1716) and William Congreve (1670-1729) stood out. Congreve's comedies "Double Game", "Love for Love" and others make fun of secular pretense, they are distinguished by elegant humor and puns, intricacy of intrigue.

In the 17th century musical theater is emerging in England. The greatest English composer of the century is H. Purcell (c. 1659-1695), author of the first English operas Dido and Aeneas and King Arthur. In his music, high technicality is combined with restrained expressiveness of the melody.

Conclusion:

In the era of modern times, the idea of ​​law as the initial governing force in nature and society was established. Science is called upon to know and formulate the laws of nature. Science as a public institution, a community of world scientists who jointly form systematic, verifiable and provable knowledge that has a universal meaning - first emerged in the era of modern times. Art (painting, theater, literature, music) in the era of modern times for the first time freed itself from the embodiment of established religious ideas and became an independent means of cognition and figurative embodiment of the prevailing social laws, a means of educating people in moral norms, which was recognized as “natural”, inherent in human nature itself. . In the era of the New Age, a socially significant system of education and upbringing was developed for the first time. Textbooks on the main branches of knowledge are also an innovation of this era. Political forms, tested in the era of modern times, partly survived to this day. The most valuable legacy of the Modern Age is the then developed idea of ​​a person as a self-responsible figure (monarch, nobleman, politician, scientist, owner, etc.), whose freedom is limited only by natural moral law.

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16th century passed under the sign humanism, which covered Italy, R.V., Germany, Hungary, France, England, Spain, Portugal, Poland, partly Scandinavia. There were various currents of humanism, from the epicurean-hedonistic to the civil. The centers of Renaissance culture, along with the burgher-patrician cities, became the courts of nobles, sovereigns, nobles, where refined artistic creativity was encouraged, which often gave the culture features of elitism. The role of philanthropy increased, the social status of artists and scientists changed, they were forced to work on orders from the nobility, getting places at the courts. Prices for works of art in Italy of the 15th century. - life size marble statue - 100-120 florins; a bronze statue of the Apostle Matthew - 945 florins + 93 for the architectural design of the niche; marble bas-relief - 30-50 florins; Michelangelo - for "Pieta" - 150 Roman ducats; Donatello for the monument to Gattamelatta - 1650 crown. Lear; curtain painting - 1.25 florins; altarpiece of the Siena family - 120 florins; the altar of Benozzo Gozzoli - 75 florins; in papal Rome for every fresco in the Sistine Chapel at the end of the 15th century. the masters were paid 250 florins each, and the authors of the works were Botticelli, Rosselino, Perugino, Pinturicchio, Ghirlandaio, in general, the painting of the walls cost Sixtus IV 3,000 florins. For comparison - an ordinary house cost - 100-200 florins; "improved planning" - 300-400 florins (with 3 floors, but not a palazzo); Donatello paid 14-15 florins a year for the rent of the house; but it was possible to rent a house for a smaller amount from 6 to 35 florins. Rent of land stayors (43.6 m 2) - 3-4 florins; a pair of oxen - 25-27 florins; horse - 70-85 florins; cow - 15-20 florins; the cost of a minimum set of products (bread, meat, olive oil, wine, vegetables, fruits) for a family of 4 in the first quarter of the 15th century. = 30 florins per year. A visiting maid (helped with housework) received 7-8 florins a year; decent outerwear - 4-7 florins; but the rich dressed well, so Pitti mentions a caftan worth 100 florins; women's dress - 75 florins. The price of a work of art included the cost of the material, which in marble things = 1/3, in bronze - ½ of the amount paid by the customer, i.e. fee = ½ of the total amount. The masters demanded an advance. Mantegna at the court of Gonzaga received 50 ducats (600 per year) monthly, + housing, grain, firewood, + gifts and bonuses. When Leonardo da Vinci left for Milan in 1482, he was promised 2,000 ducats a year; but this is with an income of Lodovico Moro of 650. 000 Milanese ducats, Leonardo was not only an artist, but also a general military engineer. True, it is not known whether da Vinci received the promised amount.

The Reformation, and then the Counter-Reformation, led to a crisis of humanism, hitting the cheerful Renaissance worldview, leading to its weakening (40s of the 16th century), calling into question the feasibility of many of its ideals and emphasizing their illusory nature.

In the XVI-XVII centuries. made great strides natural science in Western Europe. This was associated with a radical change in the development of science, the rise of production and material culture in general. The development of industry, numerous inventions gave impetus to the theoretical development of many scientific issues. The increasing use of certain mechanisms (water, wheel) - expands the range of phenomena available to study from the field of mechanics and requires the solution of some problems of mechanics and mathematics. For example, the practical needs of art required the determination of the flight trajectory of a cannonball, which led to the study of the laws of falling and the movement of bodies in general, etc. The rise of material production armed the natural scientist with new tools and means of scientific work. The development of handicraft technology prepared inventions in the 16th-17th centuries. many essential precision instruments for the development of the sciences. More perfect clocks, microscopes, a telescope, a thermometer, a hygrometer, a mercury barometer appear. Parchment was replaced by paper in the 15th century. the development of the printing press.

The first branch of natural science in which the new scientific spirit manifested itself was astronomy , where the geocentric theory was replaced by the heliocentric one. The foundations of the geocentric system were substantiated by Aristotle, mathematically developed by Hipparchus (II century BC), Ptolemy (II century AD), adopted by the Catholic Church. The author of the heliocentric system was Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543), who suggested that the Earth revolves around the Sun (in 1507). He devoted the rest of his life to the development of this doctrine. He created the work “On the Revolution of Heavenly Circles”, published in the year of death (shortly) in 1543. The first copy was received by him on the day of death. The Catholic Church stepped up. Luther: "As scripture indicates, Joshua commanded the sun to stop, not the earth." The ideas of Copernicus were continued in the works of Giordano Bruno (1548-1600) (burnt in Rome in the Square of Flowers in 1600), who created a picture of the universe, the world is endless and filled with many celestial bodies, and the Sun is one of the stars. These sun-stars have planets revolving around them, similar to the Earth and even inhabited by living beings. For which Bruno became a heretic and, after 8 years of imprisonment, torture, was burned. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) (Pisan), lived in Florence, taught at the universities of Pisa, Padua, in 1610 in Florence, where he became "the first philosopher and mathematician" of the Duke of Tuscany. Galileo invented (used) the telescope, in 1608 in Holland what he saw through the telescope he published in the Star Messenger (1610). In 1632, Galileo published "Dialogue on the two main systems of the world, Ptolemaic and Copernican." In 1633, Galileo was summoned to court in Rome (the Inquisition), where he renounced his views (“Ah, after all, she is spinning!”). He was found guilty of having supported doctrines "false and contrary to holy and divine scripture" and sentenced to imprisonment, commuted to a place assigned to him. Until his death, Galileo remained under the supervision of the Inquisition and was deprived of the right to publish his works. In 1638, in Holland, he managed to publish the book "Conversations and Mathematical Proofs Concerning Two New Branches of Science Relating to Mechanics and Local Motion", which summed up the results of his researchers in the field of mechanics. The final point in the victory of the heliocentric theory was put by Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) (he made horoscopes for Wallenstein), studied in Tübingen, lived in Graz, Prague, Linz, Regensburg. Studying Tycho Brahe's observations of the motion of the planet Mars, Kepler came to the conclusion that the planets move in ellipses, in one of the foci of which the Sun is located (Kepler's 1st law), and that the speed of the planets increases with approach to the Sun (2- and Kepler's law). First, these laws were established for Mars, later for other planets. Kepler's discoveries were published in 1609 in New Astronomy, Causally Based, or Celestial Physics, Set forth in Research on the Motions of the Star Mars, According to the Observations of the Noble Husband Tycho Brahe. In the work "The Harmony of the World" (1619), Kepler formulated the 3rd law, establishing a relationship between the periods of revolution of the planets and their distance from the Sun. In 1627, Kepler published new, more accurate tables of planetary motions ("Rudolf Tables").

Break in development physics came later than in astronomy. Throughout the 16th century separate studies appear that reveal an approach alien to scholasticism to the study of the surrounding person to the study of the surrounding material world. These are the studies of Leonardo da Vinci, the Dutch engineer Stevin, who developed some problems of hydrostatistics (“Principles of Equilibrium” (1586), the English scientist William Herbert (1540-1603), who in his work “On the Magnet”, gave a description of the phenomena magnetism and electrical phenomena.

Leonardo was the first to propose the use of a cylinder with a piston, using air as the driving force. And he made a working model of a wind weapon that fired at a distance of 800 meters. He expected to fly from Monte Ceceri (Swan Mountains). The lifebuoy invented by Leonardo was indeed a necessary invention. It is not known what material Leonardo intended to use, but the twin of his invention later became a traditional accessory to the ship and took on the appearance of a cortical circle covered with canvas.

A turning point in physics came in the 17th century. and was associated with the activities of Galileo, his physics was based on experience and the application of precise mathematical methods for analysis and generalizes the data of experience. Galileo - conducted a series of experiments and proved that all bodies under the influence of gravity fall with the same acceleration. To do this, he dropped balls of different weights from the Leaning Tower of Pisa, formulated (not in its final form) the law of inertia, the law of independence of the action of forces, derived the equation for uniform accelerated motion, determined the trajectory of the thrown body, began studying the oscillations of the pendulum, etc. Everything, this gives reason to consider Galileo the founder - kinematics, dynamics. Pupil Torricelli (1608-1647) developed some questions of hydrodynamics, began to study atmospheric pressure and created a mercury barometer. Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) continued the study of atmospheric pressure, proved that the column of mercury in the barometer is supported precisely by atmospheric pressure. He also discovered the law on the transfer of pressure in liquids and gases. Optics is evolving. In addition to the invention of the telescope, the microscope, there is a development of theoretical optics (the law of refraction of light).

At this time, the foundations of modern algebra. Several Italian mathematicians, including Girolamo Cardano (1501-1576), by the middle of the 16th century. develop a method for solving equations of the 3rd degree (Cardano's formula). One of Cardano's students discovers a way to solve equations of the 4th degree. At the beginning of the XVII century. logarithms are invented, the first tables of which (Nepera) were published in 1614. A system of mathematical symbols is developed for recording algebraic expressions (signs of addition, subtraction, exponentiation, root extraction, equality, brackets, etc.), this was especially evident in the works René Descartes, who gave them an almost modern look. Trigonometry develops. Rene Descartes created analytic geometry.

In the area of botany and zoology multi-volume descriptions of plants and animals supplied with sketches are created. For example, the work of the Swiss botanist, zoologist, philologist Konrad Gesner (1516-1565) "The History of Animals". Organized botanical gardens, first in Italy, then in other European countries. In the XV-XVI centuries. a passion for gardens comes, in Rome - with the popes, in Florence - with the Medici, with d'Este - in Tivoli (outskirts of Rome), where there were 100 fountains, alleys, a garden of sculptures, stairs, trees and grass grew. The architects who were engaged in gardens - Pirro Ligorio (1500-1583), he liked to arrange secret gardens, something resembling a "green office"; Giacomo da Vignola, who built the Villa Giulia (Rome), Villa Lante. They arranged labyrinths from trees, which were in demand in England, labyrinths were carved from grass. This was done by Leonardo under Francis I. The height of the labyrinths was up to the knee, in the 17th century. became higher. There were also comic fountains (traps). But in 1543 there were no flowers in the gardens, only trees grew - beech, yew, forms made of stone and marble. As interest in botany grew, gardens consisting of ornamental grasses began to appear. The first was defeated in 1543 in Pisa, then in Padua (1545), in Florence (1550). Humanists began to observe the growth of plants, established their geographical origin. There were lovers, for example, Michele Antonio, a Venetian patrician, collected herbariums, and then transferred his treasures to the Marciana library. Palladio created gardens at Brenta that were an extension of architecture. Many Italian masters of landscape gardening worked at that time throughout Europe. King Charles VIII and his army were amazed at the villas and gardens of the kingdom of Naples, which they captured in 1495. Artisans who followed them on their return to France in the same year contributed to the widespread dissemination of these ideas. None other than the French Huguenot Salomon de Caus (circa 1576-1626) became the link between the horticultural tradition of Italy and the rest of Europe. He traveled in 1605 in Italy before going to Brussels to create a garden for the Archduke Albert. After 1610, Cows went to England, where he worked for the royal family - Prince Henry in Richmond, the Queen at Somerset House and Greenwich, and also at Hatfield House. In 1613, Kaus will follow Princess Elisabeth, who was married to Frederick V, to Heidelberg. There, the master will design the magnificent gardens of Hortus Palatinus, unfortunately not preserved.

For the first time, herbaria began to be compiled. The first natural science museums appear. Successes also appear in the study human body. Doctor Paracelsus (1493-1541), Girolamo Fracastoro (1480-1559), his work on infectious diseases was a milestone in epidemiology. Systematic and meticulous anatomical dissections begin. The forerunner of these ideas was Andrea Vesalius (1513-1564), the son of a Brussels pharmacist, court physician and surgeon, from 1527 professor of anatomy in Padua, Pisa, Bologna, Basel; since 1543 the first surgeon at the court of Charles V, then - Philip II. Accused of allegedly dissecting the body of a Spanish hidalgo, not dead, but only in a lethargic state. For this, he fell into the hands of the Inquisition, in the form of repentance he had to go to Jerusalem, pray for his sin - on the back of his hand, the ship was wrecked by a storm near Zant in 1564. Vesalius published the work “On the Structure of the Human Body”. The foundations of the correct theory of blood circulation in humans are being created. This discovery was laid down by the works of Miguel Servet, continued in the writings of the English physician William Harvey (1578-1657). A famous surgeon was Ambroise Pare, who put an end to the terrible torment of patients who had to endure the pain of cauterization with a red-hot iron after amputation, with the help of a simple dressing invented by him. He came up with prostheses and tried them on soldiers. He discovered that gunshot wounds were not poisonous and therefore did not need to be treated with boiling oil, as was then widely practiced. Pain is best relieved with healing ointments and balms. He also advocated the need, in exceptional cases, to turn the baby in the womb before taking delivery. In England, Thomas Gale wrote a book on the treatment of gunshot wounds, John Woodwall dealt with the problem of amputation. In 1602, John Harvey began his practice, in 1628 he published a treatise on the activity of the heart and blood circulation. He was one of the founders of embryology. He suggested that animals in the period of embryonic development go through the stages of development of the animal world. One of the founders of microscopic anatomy was the Italian Marcello Malpighi. Complementing Harvey, he completed the development of a scientific theory of blood circulation.

At the beginning of the XVI century. to replace, and sometimes in addition to medieval alchemy, iatrochemistry comes, i.e. medical chemistry. One of its founders was the physician and naturalist Theophrastus von Hohenheim (Paracelsus). Iatrochemists, believing that the processes occurring in a living organism are, in fact, chemical processes, were engaged in the search for new chemical preparations suitable for the treatment of various diseases. In questions of chemical theory, iatrochemists have advanced little in comparison with their predecessors. As before, in their writings, the elements of all substances were called according to the ancient 4 elements (fire, air, water, earth), alchemically - "sulphur", "mercury" (in the 16th century - "salt" was added). In the second half of the XVII-beginning of the XVIII centuries. some new substances have been discovered. So, in 1669, the Hamburg amateur alchemist Brand discovered phosphorus (in 1680, R. Boyle independently obtained it).

The founders of the new chemical science are scientists of the 17th century. Holland Ya.B. Van Helmont and R. Boyle. Helmont was the first to correctly explain a number of chemical reactions of combination, decomposition, substitution, discovered carbon dioxide, calling it "forest gas" and introduced into scientific circulation the very concept of "gas" from the Greek. haos.

Typography. In the XVI century. printing possibilities began to be widely used. In 1518, Luther's letter against Eck, with a circulation of 1,400 copies, sold out in 2 days at the Frankfurt Fair. W. von Hutten's and Müntzer's works were popular. In 1525, the peasants distributed "12 articles", which went through 25 editions. From 1522 to 1534 Luther's translation of the New Testament went through 85 editions. In total, during the life of Luther, his translation of the Bible, in whole or in parts, was published 430 times. The growth dynamics of book production can be traced according to the following data: if before 1500, books of 35-45,000 titles were published in various countries of the world, then in the 16th century. - more than 242.000; in the 17th century - 972.300. From the invention of printing to 1700, 1,245,000 titles were published, and circulation increased from 300-350 in the 15th century. to 1000-1200 in the 17th century. Printing is firmly established throughout the world. In 1503, the first printing house appeared in Constantinople, then in Poland, Edinburgh (1508), Targovishte (1508). In 1512, a book was published in Venice in Armenian, in 1513 in Rome - in Ethiopian, etc. Until 1500, about 77% of books were published in Latin, only in England and Spain at the beginning of the 16th century. more books were published in local languages ​​than in Latin. Half a century later, the situation changed, in 1541-1550. of the 86 books in Spain, 14 were in Latin. An example of a large publishing manufactory can be called the enterprises of Anton Koberger. By the beginning of the XVI century. he became a prominent bookseller and publisher, and his business in Nuremberg grew enormously. Large enterprises in the XVI-XVII centuries. there were few, dominated by small or medium-sized workshops, often family-owned. Their products are cheap prayer books, alphabet books, etc. Book fairs began to take shape - Lyon, Amsterdam, Frankfurt am Main (2 times a year - at Easter and on St. Michael's Day), catalogs of books began to be compiled, the initiator was Georg Viller. Later, the book trade center from the second half of the 16th century. becomes Leipzig. Gradually, book publishing in Germany began to lag behind Italian, French, and Dutch. In Basel in 1491, Johann Froben founded a printing house, and he was the first to pay royalties to authors. A special place in the XVI century. occupied by 4 entrepreneurs - Ald Manutsy, Henri Etienne, Christophe Plantin, Lodewijk Elsevier.

Ald Pius Manutius(1446-1515) - "prince of printers", the head of a whole generation of printers. Born in Bassano, studied here, then in Ferrara. Having studied the Greek language, he founded a printing house in 1488 in Venice. He was killed here in 1515. He used antiqua fonts, invented Italian cursive - Aldino (Italic). Aldus Manutius arrived in Venice either in 1488 or in 1489, after finishing his studies in Rome and Ferrara. Under the influence of the ideas of humanism, he had a burning desire to revive ancient antiquity by publishing the works of the Greek classics in the original language. In those days, many Greeks lived in Venice, who fled there from the Ottoman invasion. That is why it was there that Ald took up the implementation of his plans and created a kind of printing and publishing complex in the very center of the city. The first book published in this printing house is Musey's poem about Hero and Leander. (1494). It was followed by Erotemata (1495) - a Greek grammar that became a guide for several generations of students and scholars.

The most significant act of Alda Manutius was the release of the works of Aristotle in five volumes (1495-1498) and other Greek classics - Plato, Thucydides, Hesiod, Aristophanes, Herodotus, Xenophon, Euripides, Sophocles, Demosthenes. These publications created great fame for Aldu Manutia. They have been scientifically edited and tastefully designed. Following the example of the Platonic Academy and the Florentine Academy, founded by the Medici, the publisher rallied a circle of highly educated people around him, calling it the New Aldo Academy. The circle assisted the enlightened entrepreneur in the preparation of manuscripts.

For the publication of Roman authors, Ald decided to use the original font - italics, which was made for Ald by the Bolognese carver Francesco Raibolini, who was then living in Venice, from the famous Griffo family of jewelers. The Italians called this font aldino, and the French called italica.

In November 1502, the Venetian Senate by a special decree recognized Ald's exclusive right to use his new fonts. An attempt on this patent threatened with a fine and confiscation of the printing house. He was perhaps the first publisher who dared to publish books with a circulation of up to 1000 copies. Being also a practical person, Ald did not want the books he published to serve only as an amusement for the educated rich, but sought to ensure that the books he published were in wide demand. To this end, he tried to reduce the cost of the book itself by reducing the costs incurred. The path to this lay through the creation of small-format volumes, typed in tight font. A typical aldina (every major library has and is proud of such publications, at least in a small amount) is a small convenient volume bound in wood covered with leather. Going to the carriage, the owner could put a dozen of these books into the saddle sum.

Despite all efforts to make the book accessible to a wide range of readers, its distribution ran into significant difficulties. In Venice alone in 1481-1501. there were about a hundred printing houses, the total production of which amounted to about 2 million copies. A scarce commodity before the invention of printing, books, as a result of the widespread use of new technology, were thrown onto the market in larger quantities than they could be bought up. Not only Ald suffered at that time from overproduction. This became a common scourge of printers and publishers.

After the death of Alda in 1515 and until the moment when his son Paolo entered the age and could already manage affairs, the company was run by the closest relatives - Azolano. With great ambitions, but lacking sufficient education, they took over editing by firing the best editors. The affairs of the publishing house deteriorated sharply, and in 1529 it generally suspended work for four years. The activity of the publishing house resumed only in 1533, when Paolo Manuzio decided to restore the prestige of his father's enterprise. In the same year, he published about ten books and maintained this level until 1539. The treasury of Greek literature was almost exhausted by Ald himself, and therefore his son directed all his attention to the Roman classics. A huge contribution to science was the editions of the writings and letters of Cicero, carefully edited by him.

In 1540, Paolo Manuzio separated from the Azolano family and began to conduct publishing business on his own. Then the activity of the firm was continued by his son Ald the Younger; after his death in 1597, the publishing house existed for some time by inertia, and then fell into decline and died out. The sign of this illustrious firm - a dolphin and an anchor - was sometimes used later by other publishers.

Ald Manutius the Elder was a man of humanistic views and tried to keep himself independent of political and religious influences. His son and grandson were not so principled and willingly offered their services to the Roman curia. Pope Pius IV, aware of the financial difficulties of Paolo Manuzio, in 1561 invited him as a technical adviser to the Vatican printing house, which he intended to make the center of Catholic propaganda. Paolo did not have the talent of an organizer, and under his leadership the papal printing house operated at first without much success. Only thanks to the perseverance of Pope Sixtus V, she avoided complete collapse. After the death of Paolo, Aldo Manuzio the Younger was brought in to lead it. The books that came out of the Alda printing house were called Aldina.

Henri Etienne(Stefanus) in 1504 or 1505 in Paris, not far from the university, he opened a printing house, where he began printing philosophical and theological treatises Étienne was a supporter of the new Renaissance style of book design, as evidenced in his editions of the frontispieces and initials, which are independent works of art. In 1520, the company was headed by Simon de Colin, since the children of Etienne are small, having married Etienne's widow. Since 1522, Simon de Colin's printed editions have featured J. Tory's finely crafted framing of the frontispiece and pages, as well as initials. Especially remarkable are the initials with floral ornaments - they were in the 16th century. copied by many printers. Books designed by Tories have a sign - a double Lorraine cross.

In 1524, the publishing house of de Colin and Tory undertook the publication of a series of Books of Hours. These elegant prayer books, decorated with great taste, represent the highest achievement of the book art of that time.

In 1529, Tori published a peculiar book in which he considers the problems of type and writing, it is called "Blossoming Meadow". Despite its allegorical and obscure mode of presentation, this book, richly decorated with woodcuts, was a huge success. King Francis I in 1530 awarded the author with the title of royal printer. However, Tory did not enjoy the honorary title for long: in 1533 he died.

In 1525, Simon de Colin transferred the printing house to Henri Etienne's son, Robert, and thanks to his energetic efforts, he made the printing house flourish in a short time. An excellent punch carver Claude Garamont played a significant role in this - a great connoisseur, like his teacher Tori, of all kinds of antiqua. The graceful Romanesque font he developed on the basis of the Alde antiqua quickly surpassed those used in Venice. Punch makers all over Europe have been willingly using it for at least 150 years.

Garamont also developed a Greek font, called royal, since it was made in 1540 by order of King Francis I. The Parisian school of printing characters enjoyed such prestige that in 1529 the king issued a decree separating this craft from the printers' shop. However, despite all his merits, Garamont died in 1561 in dire poverty. Thanks to the efforts of Garamon, the antiqua replaced the Gothic font in Western Europe and dominated for almost two centuries. Of course, this happened gradually and not so easily, since a kind of Gothic type, a bastard, in France produced luxuriously illustrated and highly readable chivalric novels. The Gothic type lasted the longest in Germany.

Another prominent punch maker and printer, Robert Granjon, who provided the Lyon printing houses with original typefaces, unsuccessfully tried to create a national French type based on Gothic italic with some elements of italic Italic. But publishing houses in France refused this typeface.

Henri Etienne had three sons: Francois, Robert and Charles. Everyone devoted themselves to the printed book and printed art, but the most fruitful was the activity of the middle one - Robert. He was 21 years old when he headed the family business, and, like his father, Robert was not an ordinary craftsman-typographer. He was distinguished by the breadth of educational interests and was especially fond of classical philology. His main work was a large etymological dictionary of the Latin language, published in 1532, which subsequently came out in several more editions and improved each time. Robert Etienne considered his main task to be the publication of carefully verified and well-formed works of the classics of antiquity. He began with Apuleius and Cicero. For publications in Greek, he used the already mentioned royal type, he printed in 1550 a luxurious folio containing the New Testament. The Greek font of Garamond and Etienne caused surprise and admiration in those days.

Robert Etienne published the Bible more than once in Latin, in ancient Greek and Hebrew. In addition, he dared to use the critical method and comments of Erasmus of Rotterdam and other humanists in restoring texts and clarifying obscure passages in the Bible. This provoked the wrath of theologians from the Sorbonne, who immediately accused the publisher of heresy. Fearing persecution, Etienne fled to Geneva in 1550, where many scientists from Catholic countries found shelter. There he founded a new printing house and worked in it until his death in 1559. In total, Robert published 600 books - much more than his father. He also introduced a new sign of the company - a philosopher under the tree of wisdom with falling dried branches - and the motto "Do not be wise, but be afraid." Various versions of this sign were also used by other printers and publishers. The fate of the rest of the offspring of the Etienne dynasty was not so glorious. Of the sons of Robert Etienne, the eldest, named after his grandfather Henri, was the most active. But after the death of his father, he inherited his enterprise in Geneva and set about publishing Greek books, editing them himself. Some of these texts were also discovered by him. In 1556 he published an anthology of Greek poetry, Greek Poets. Major Heroic Songs", which was praised as an example of scientific editing and excellent design.

In 1575, Henri Etienne the Younger published a huge etymological dictionary of the Greek language "Thesaurus linguae Graecae", which has not lost its scientific value to this day. For preparation it took many years of work. Being a man of broad views, an alien fanaticism and hypocrisy, Henri Etienne soon fell out of favor with the consistory of the local Calvinist church and was forced to return to France, where King Henry III, seeking reconciliation with the Huguenots, provided them with tolerable living conditions. There is almost nothing to tell about the further fate of the descendants of the Etiennes. None of the heirs of this dynasty played a significant role in the history of the book.

One of the most prominent printers of that time was Christophe Plantin(1514-1589). He was born in France in the village of Saint-Aventin near Tours in a poor family, he studied printing and bookbinding in Caen, from where he moved to Paris to open an independent business. According to his religious beliefs, C. Plantin was close to the Huguenots, which forced him in 1548 to leave for Antwerp. Perhaps the last impetus for this was the burning at the stake of the free-thinking printer Etienne - Dole. In Antwerp, in 1555, Plantin opened a printing house and a shop, but after his apprentice printed a Protestant prayer book without the knowledge of the master, and at that time religious intolerance reigned in Antwerp. Timely warned of the reprisals that threatened him, Plantin considered it good to hide in Paris and spend more than a year and a half there. Returning to Antwerp, he learned that his workshop was destroyed, and his property was sold under the hammer. Everything had to start over. Plantin set to work with zeal, and in a few years outperformed all competitors. The success of his publications was ensured primarily by exemplary design. Typefaces Plantin ordered from the best specialists of that time in this part - Garamont, Granjon, and later from Guillaume Le Baie. The prestige of Plantin was unusually high. In 1570, King Philip II of Spain (Flanders at the time belonged to the Spanish crown) honored him with the title of chief royal printer with the right to oversee all the printing houses of Flanders and the Netherlands. Thanks to Philip, who also had influence in the Roman Curia, Plantin received from the pope a monopoly on the printing of liturgical books in the possessions of the Spanish monarch. For editions in the Flemish language, instead of the usual Gothic, he used a new civil type developed by Granjon. A 1557 book of type samples shows how well Plantin's printing house was equipped with types and equipment.

Plantin's extensive publishing program covered a wide variety of genres. From the very first experiments, Plantin specialized in the production of illustrated books. In the first decade of his work, he published many books richly decorated with woodcuts. His editions are characterized by a luxurious frontispiece in the Renaissance style. The greatest merit of his publishing house is also the use of engravings on copper and the spread of this method in Holland and other European countries. Copper engraving has been known in Italy since the 1950s. 16th century In particular, in 1556, Juan de Valverde's "Anatomy of the Human Body" was published in Rome, richly supplied with engravings on copper. But Plantin's engravings were better.

Plantin continuously expanded the scope of his activities. In 1567, he opened in Paris, which already three years later brought in thousands of florins. Another branch - in Salamanca (Spain) annually sold plantin editions for 5-15 thousand florins. In 1579, Plantin sent 67 titles to the Frankfurt Fair and sold 5,212 copies there. In terms of production and trade, he surpassed all known publishing firms, including the famous Etienne enterprise.

The French king called him to Paris, the Duke of Savoy offered the privilege of opening a printing house in Turin. However, Plantin did his best to expand the Antwerp enterprise, striving to make it the largest publishing house in Europe. For this, the entire Plantin family was mobilized. Eyewitnesses claim that even his 12-year-old daughter also read the rules for proofreading, often these were books in foreign languages. Already by 1570, Plantin achieved his goal, and his printing house became a model for all European enterprises of this type. It had 25 printing presses and 150 employees working without interruption. Every day the owner paid the workers 2200 crowns. The manufactory no longer fit in four buildings, and Plantin had to buy another house in the neighborhood (by the way, it has survived to this day).

However, on the very rise, Plantin's enterprise was destined to survive a new catastrophe. During the Dutch uprising against Spanish absolutism, Atwerp experienced a long siege and destruction. The printing house did not stop working during the siege, but at the end only one printing press remained in operation. And again, Plantin had to restore everything, which, thanks to his indefatigable energy and the help of friends, he eventually succeeded.

Plantin himself considered the Multilingual Bible (Biblia Poliglotta) a source of pride and the pinnacle of his activity, where the text ran in parallel in four languages ​​- Latin, Greek, Hebrew and Aramaic, and the New Testament was also in Syriac. The book was carefully edited and richly illustrated with magnificent engravings on copper, which belonged to the chisel of the greatest masters of that time. It was published in separate volumes in 1568-1573, its total circulation was 1212 copies. Twelve of them, printed on parchment, were intended as a gift to the Spanish king, ten more copies on excellent Italian paper - to other patrons and patrons of Plantin. One set of the Bible on the best Italian paper cost Plantin 200 florins, on Lyon paper - 100 florins, on trois paper - 70 florins. For those times, these were significant sums, and therefore the publication of the Multilingual Bible exhausted the material resources of the publisher. In order to replenish funds for the implementation of this large-scale plan sooner, Plantin began to produce prayer books in large quantities, also beautifully illustrated.

The difficulties with the publication of the Bible were not only of a material nature: the king allowed this edition to be distributed before he received permission from the pope, but the pope did not give such permission. The matter was settled only with the accession to the papal throne of a more indulgent spiritual ruler. And yet the clergy continued to be suspicious of this book, and one learned theologian even declared it heretical, the final permission to distribute the book was received only in 1580. All this red tape put Plantin on the verge of bankruptcy, and until his death he could not get out from financial difficulties.

Plantin's trademark is a hand lowered from the clouds, holding a compass, and the inscription "Constantia et labore" ("Constancy and labor"). This inscription in its own way characterizes the personality of the publisher, who was not an enlightening scientist, but a typical entrepreneur of the era of manufacturing capitalism. Plantin published at least 981 books (that's the number of registered titles). Some believe that the actual number of his editions exceeds 1000.

Plantin's death in 1589 left his printing presses in Antwerp and Leiden with 14 presses, 103 sets of matrices, 48,647 pounds of type, 2,302 copper engravings, and 7,493 woodcuts, not counting a huge stock of initials carved on wood and copper.

Plantin's work was continued by members of his family, Plantin's son-in-law Baltazar Moret became the head of the enterprise, the publishing house produced mainly Catholic religious literature. The great Peter Paul Rubens provided this enterprise with engravings on copper. It flourished for more than three centuries - until 1871, and in 1876 the city authorities of Antwerp bought it together with inventory for 1 million 200 thousand francs in order to open one of the most interesting museums of books and printing in Europe - the Plantin Museum.

Plantin's ledgers mention the name of a bookbinder Lodewijk Elsevier from Louvain. Subsequently, this bookbinder, who studied printing under Plantin, became the ancestor of the venerable publishing dynasty of the Elseviers. Lodewijk Elsevier was born about 1546 in Louvain in the family of a printer. Fate brought him to Antwerp, where he opened a bookbinding workshop. When Spanish troops under the command of the Duke of Alba captured Antwerp, many of the Protestant residents were forced to flee. Lodewijk Elsevier also fled. However, when the situation in the northern Netherlands turned in favor of Protestantism, he moved to Leiden, an ancient city founded by the Romans. Gradually Leiden became an important trading center. A university was founded here, which soon became one of the leading educational institutions in Europe. All this opened up wide opportunities for organizing a large book publishing enterprise, when Elsevier settled in Leiden, there were many publishers and booksellers there, so the competition was very serious. Lacking the means to set up a publishing house, Lodewijk Elsevier decided first to accumulate large capital in the book trade, and, being a man on a grand scale, he took up not petty trading, but wholesale brokerage. He was one of the first organizers of book auctions in Europe. In 1604, Elsevier began to buy books by entire libraries and sell them publicly under the hammer. Book collection auctions have been the specialty of the Elsevier firm for over a century. Success in trading operations soon allowed Lodewijk to move on to publishing. At first he published one book a year, and by the end of his life, 10 books with his trademark appeared on the market annually. Proximity to enlightened circles was reflected in the fact that L. Elsevier published special literature for scientists and students. Most of its publications were written in the language of science - Latin by the then most prominent professors at Leiden and some other universities.

In 1617, Elsevier died, leaving his sons a financially secure and prestigious publishing and bookselling enterprise.

The eldest son of Lodewijk Matthias (1565-1640) and the youngest son Bonaventure (1583-1652) helped his father to expand the Leiden enterprise, but it was not them, but Matthias's son Isaac (1596-1651) who gave it a special brilliance. Having married a bride with a large dowry, he bought a large printing house with the blessing of his grandfather. When, after the death of their father, Matthias and Bonaventure inherited his enterprise, it turned out to be very convenient for them to print all the books in the printing house of Isaac Elsevier. This printing house has become famous for the speed and impeccable quality of order fulfillment. In 1620, Isaac Elsevier received the title of university printer, but five years later, for reasons unknown to us, he sold his flourishing printing house to his uncle Bonaventure and older brother Abraham (1592-1652). Bonaventure took over the sale of the products of the printing house, and Abraham - the printing business. This partnership continued for twenty-seven years. They published about 18 books a year. At the beginning of their activity, Bonaventure and Abraham were mainly engaged in the publication of scientific literature and the works of the Roman classics. Then they began to publish books in French, Dutch, and on the history of Holland. It is difficult to determine in which area of ​​book production the contribution of the Elseviers was the most significant. These were publishers, and printers, booksellers, and even book dealers. Constant and close contacts with the book market and readers brought them considerable benefits: they knew better than others the needs of the market, the purchasing power clientele, felt the intellectual demand of the era.

And yet their main merit is the distribution of excellent and relatively cheap books. The Elseviers can rightfully be considered "pioneers in the popularization of the book." They tried to give the reader a well-edited book, but since neither they nor most of their proofreaders and the editors were not scientists, there were editions edited carelessly. However, this did not harm the prestige of the Elzevirs - the then scientists and writers considered it an honor for themselves if the company undertook to publish their works; many authors were proud of their personal acquaintance with the Elseviers. Publishers also "discovered" such luminaries of science and literature as Rabelais, Calvin, Bacon, Descartes, Gassendi, Pascal, Milton, Racine, Corneille, Moliere. The Elseviers published books in various formats, and a series of classic literature was published in the in-quarto format. They also took on folios, but mostly small-format books in the twelfth or twenty-fourth part of a sheet are associated with the name of the Elseviers, printed in a clear, delicately thin, but sometimes monotonous type and decorated with excellent copper engraving with a frontispiece, intricate vignettes and initials. It was the Elseviers who established the small format on the book market and thus gave book publishing and the book trade a powerful new impetus that made the book accessible to the general population.

In the XVI-XVII centuries. is experiencing success cartography. In the first half of the XVI century. the centers of cartography were the cities of Italy - Venice, Genoa, Florence, Rome. From the middle of the XVI century. the center for the development of cartography moves from Italy to RV, Flanders. Prominent cartographers are Gerard Mercator, Abraham Ortelius and Willem Janszoon Blau, and the Frenchman Nicola Sanson. Mercator coined the term "atlas" - a collection of maps (1585). Mercator's friend and rival Aram Ortelius (1527-1598) in 1564 published a map of the world, and then the "Theater of the Circle of the Earth", where for the first time references were made to the geographers whose works he used. The first attempt at compiling a work on general geography was undertaken by the Dutchman B. Varenius in 1650. If Varenius focused on physical geography, the Frenchman Davinius in his book The World (1660) was the first to give economic information about European states.

Until the beginning of the XVI century. urban libraries did not have. They began to emerge through the Reformation. These were urban, school, university. Good libraries were in the Jesuit schools, as well as in the Sorbonne, Oxford, Cambridge, in 1638-1639. John Harvard founded the first college in North America and had a research library. The library of Uppsala University was replenished in the 17th century. trophies from Germany (XXX war), so the Bible of Ulfila got here. Know also collected books. It was a prestigious hobby. For example, Philip II collected books, but did not allow anyone to the treasures of Escorial. To which the Archbishop of Tarragona wrote to his correspondent: "So many good books are collected there, and to make them inaccessible means to do more harm than good." ("book cemetery"). The monarchs of the 16th-17th centuries, following the spirit of the times, opened the doors of museums and book collections to scientists. In Germany, the library in Heidelberg ("princely") was popular - "the mother of all libraries in Germany." In 1622, during the XXX War, the troops of the Catholic League under the command of Tilly stormed Heidelberg, the entire library fell into the hands of Maximilian of Bavaria, who decided to give it to the pope. The richest libraries were those of the French king and the library of Mazarin. The Royal Library was founded in 1518 by Francis I. In the 17th century. it contained about 16,000 handwritten and 1,000 printed books, at the beginning of the 18th century. - 70,000 printed and 15,000 manuscripts. Then in Paris it was decided to create a public library, the idea belonged to Richelieu, and was embodied by Mazarin. Librarian (fanatic) Gabriel Naudet (1600-1653). In January 1652, the library was confiscated from Mazarin, Node was in a deep depression, he was invited by Queen Christina to Sweden to be with her library. After Mazarin again came to power in 1653, Naudet returned to France, but died as soon as he entered French soil. Dad had a good library. In 1690, it was replenished with the book treasure of Christina, who moved to Rome. In the XVI-XVII centuries. the deception of vigilant censorship has become a kind of art. Anonymous publications, fictitious addresses, pseudonyms were used, the year of publication was changed. So, "Letters of dark people", published in Germany, were provided with references to Ald. In 1616, Theodore Agrippa d'Aubigne anonymously printed Tragic Poems in his own printing house and indicated the place of publication of In the Desert under an empty cartouche instead of a publisher's mark.

Realm of everyday existence always attracted the attention of scientists. Until recently, attention was paid mainly to the living conditions and life of the higher social strata, modern science strives to reconstruct the mass structures of everyday life. Although now the life of the city is better known than the countryside, the way of life of the rich is better than the social lower classes, some regions are more fully studied than others. But in the XVI-XVII centuries. in everyday life there is much in common with the Middle Ages proper. Nutrition is due to the natural seasonal rhythm, depending on the climate. XVI-XVII centuries - the time of a sharp increase in the quality of life, but the needs of people, the nature of their consumption was largely determined by climatic conditions. Life was easier, cheaper in the mild climate areas (Mediterranean) than north of the Alps, not to mention the northern and eastern regions of Europe. It was harder to live in the mountainous regions than in the valley and on the plain. The principle of self-sufficiency still prevailed. The influence of the market was stronger where it was about luxury goods, overseas rarities, providing export crafts with raw materials, etc. It was more tangible in Western and Central Europe, where the centers of the economic and political life of the European world moved. In the crafts associated with the production of food products, basic necessities, small traditional forms of organization were especially stable. The workshops of bakers and butchers were small, but specialized (baking white, black, gray bread, confectioners, pastries). Where there was demand, there was a large-scale production of food and beverages (for example, Lisbon, where there were bakeries that made sea rusks). At this time, the vast majority of the population, more than half of what it produced or earned, consumed or spent on food. So, E. Chollier, who studied the standard of living in Antwerp in the 15th-16th centuries (high in Europe at that time), provides data on the distribution of expenses of a bricklayer family of 5 people: for food - 78.5% (of which - for " bread" - 49.4%); for housing, lighting, fuel - 11.4%; clothes and other - 10.1%.

The most important food for the general population were cereals - rye, barley, millet, oats, wheat (Mediterranean), in the XVI century. - rice, maize, buckwheat (in Northern Europe). They cooked soups, cereals, bread. Then came the beans. There were "seasonal supplements" - vegetables and greens: spinach, lettuce, parsley, garlic, pumpkin, carrots, turnips, cabbage, nuts, berries, fruits.

Addition to plant foods was fish and seafood (especially in seaside and coastal areas). The fish were bred in special ponds, kept in cages. Trade in sea fish (herring, cod, sardines, etc.) live, salted, smoked, dried, acquired the character of entrepreneurial activity. Fish was eaten on fasting days (166 (or more, according to other sources) days a year). The church forbade the eating of meat and animal fats for more than 150 "fast" days a year.

On the same days, the trade in meat, butter, eggs was banned, an exception was made for the sick and Jews. The ban was violated. Meat is an important component of nutrition in many areas and countries of Europe at the beginning of modern times. Pork, beef, but sheep and goats were also bred for meat, lamb was appreciated in England. Game and poultry were consumed more in the cities than in the countryside.

The daily diet included intoxicating drinks: beer, wine, "honey", kvass (in Eastern Europe). From the 16th century beer was used more than honey. Beer was produced in households, but there were also professional brewers. Some regions turned into areas where beer was produced for export (Central Europe, RV, England). Moreover, each region specialized in a special kind of beer. From the 16th century Commodity production of strong alcoholic beverages - "hot wine" - began. Its centers were Southern France (Bordeaux, Cognac), Andalusia, Catalonia. In R.V., Northern Germany, schnapps was made by distilling grain. In Germany, aquavita was driven in Schleswig-Holstein, Westphalia, in Denmark - in Aalborg. New varieties of grape wines appeared - Alsatian, Neckar, Mainz, Moselle, Rhine, Osterwein, Tokay. In the 17th century - champagne. Their drinks were in the areas of fruit gardening - from apples - apfelmost - in Swabia; cider - in Brittany, Normandy, Galicia; from pears - Birnenmost (Bavaria), from cherries - in Hildesheim, etc. Wine and intoxicating drinks still perform various functions in everyday life: just drinking, components of culinary recipes, medicines. As a means of communication - in feasts and official ceremonies. Wine consumption was high: in Provence - in the XV century. - 1 to 2 liters per person per day; in the army of Charles VII - 2 l, in Narbonne - at the beginning of the 16th century. - 1.7 l. Contemporaries believed that the XVI century. in Germany - "a century of drunkenness". In the 17th century Europe starts drinking chocolate, coffee and tea.

In the XVI-XVII centuries. increased consumption of sugar. Sugarcane plantations and processing plants are expanding. Along with the traditional centers of sugar production - Genoa, Venice, Barcelona, ​​Valencia - sugar factories after 1500 appear in Lisbon, Seville, Antwerp.

The structure of nutrition continued to vary by region and social class. Johann Boemus (beginning of the 16th century) in his “Eating Habits in Germany” wrote that “the nobility has expensive food, the burghers live in moderation. Workers eat 4 times a day, idle - 2. Peasant food - bread, oatmeal, boiled beans, drink - water or whey. In Saxony they bake white bread, drink beer, their food is heavy. Westphalians eat brown bread, drink beer. Wine is consumed only by the rich, as it is brought from the Rhine, and it is very expensive.”

Culinary literature begins to be in demand, where there was a strong Slavic and Italian influence. In 1530, a cookbook by the Italian humanist Platinum (XV century) was published in Augsburg. There are also manuals for housewives, which talk about how to store the strategic stocks of the family. Caloric content of the daily diet: in the XIV-XV centuries. - from 2500 to 6000-7000 calories for the rich. In general, researchers note that for the broad masses of the population of Central and Western Europe, it is declining compared to the end of the 15th century. - consumption of meat and a diet of the type is established - porridge-slurry (mousse-bray). The imbalance in nutrition is especially noticeable during the years of hunger strikes.

Such frequent periods of famine led to the fact that the people had a dream of a country where there is no place for hunger and problems (the most important thing is that you do not need to work). The popular utopia has many names, it appears under different images. The British have the country of Cokaine, the French have Kokan, the Italians have Kukanya, the Germans have Schlarafenland, as well as the Country of Youth, Luberland, the Paradise of the poor, Candy Mountain. Brueghel depicted her with characteristic features - roofs of pies; a roast pig running away with a knife in his side; dumpling mountain; people lounging in comfortable positions waiting for the tidbits to fall into their mouths. The gingerbread house found in the forest by Hans and Gretchen also belongs to utopia. This is the abbey of Tellem Rabelais, with the motto: "Do what you want." The country of Kokayne is in the west: "In the sea to the west of the country of Spain, / There is an island that people call Kokayne", according to Celtic mythology, paradise is in the west, but the Christian church has always taught that paradise is in the east. A. Morton suggests that the dream of Cockayne led to the search for a way to America.

Costume. In 1614, a pamphlet appeared in France condemning the luxury of the nobility, written by a prominent Huguenot. There have always been prohibitions to wear the bourgeois what the nobility wears. Clothing was strictly social in nature. Royal ordinances on this subject were known from the end of the 15th-16th-17th centuries, then they fade away. There were prohibitions on wearing precious stones on clothes, on fingers, various jewelry, and it was also prescribed what should be worn and what should not be worn. This existed until the revolution. It was assumed that there were no restrictions on dress for kings and (almost) for courtiers. They were allowed to wear clothes made of silk, linen, wool. Usually the kings wore a woolen drape with a pattern, taffeta, velor, camlot, more often these were fabrics brought from England, China, Holland, and India. But the need for good fabrics led to the encouragement of their own textile production. Color regulation was preserved - for the upper classes - black, red, blue, purple, pink gray, blue, drape scarlet - bright red. In the XV century. white comes into use, at first rarely, then more and more used in clothing, but these fabrics and drapes were forbidden to the bourgeoisie. The bans were not enforced. Although wearing ties, embroideries, jewelry was considered a privilege of the nobility.

It was fashionable to wear furs. Ermine fur is a sign of royalty. The width of the fur was recognized by the social status. The furs of squirrels, martens, beavers, muskrats, foxes, sheepskins, red squirrels could be worn by the bourgeoisie.

Precious and semi-precious stones - diamond, ruby, carnelian, coral, sapphire, emerald, agate - the privilege of the nobility. Stones were also worn because they were given a magical meaning. Buttons at first performed a purely decorative function, it was fashionable to sew on bells. Cuffs, scarves, gloves, collars were made from lace. They still wore several dresses at the same time. The nobles, in addition to the dress, wore a cloak, a mantle made of silk, wool, decorated with embroidery, draped. For a simple nobleman, a short cloak was supposed, a sign - of special dignity - a long cloak dragging along the floor.

Headdress - military - helmet - the king has either gold or gilded, princes of the blood, dukes - silver, commoners - iron; in ordinary times - they wore a mortier - a small short cap worn by the king, his retinue, princes of the blood, the chancellor, peers, the president of parliament, he had a mortier with two rows of galloons; the king's mortier was trimmed with ermine. By the beginning of the XVIII century. goes out of fashion, worn only on solemn occasions, during the exit of the king, queen, mortier put on weapons. A cap - bonnet - of a small volume was worn by barons, decorated with pearls, in addition, they wore baret and current. The nobles wore hats that were trimmed with galloons, precious stones, ostrich feathers. The custom of taking off the headgear appears at the end of the 17th century. in all cases indoors, an exception was made for the king. The right to sit in the presence of the king had 12 dukes on stools, the rest were standing. (right stool).

Shoes. The nobles wore shoes, boots, in the XV-XVI centuries. they wore shoes with long toes, and the length of the toes of the shoe was determined in the ordinances - for the nobles 24-25 inches, 14 inches was supposed to be for the townspeople. Secular and military boots differed, secular ones had bells, ribbons, lace; shoes at the knees were tied with bows. There were several pairs of socks, fashionistas had woolen, silk ones.

An indispensable accessory of the costume were gloves - leather with decorations, with lace, patterns, impregnated with perfume. Marie de Medici bought expensive gloves that cost several villages. While Italian and Oriental perfumes were used, French ones appeared at the end of the 16th century. A man from high society - associated with gloves.

Collars of the 16th century - flat cutters. Skirts - puffy, made on a frame, reached several meters in diameter. It was necessary to be able to wear them, a long train was supposed to be attached to the skirt - manto-de-cours. But not every noblewoman could afford a long train. In 1710, it was said that the queen has a train of 11 cubits, for her daughter - 9, granddaughter - 7, princess - 5, duchess - 3. The high hat - ennen was replaced in the 16th century. small, in the XVI-XVII centuries. walked with an open head, but with complex hairstyles. Shoes made of velvet and brocade, clothes were complemented by a muff and a fan, a small mirror.

Rapid change of fashion in the XVI-XVII centuries. was explained by the fact that the ruling class sought to withdraw into its own circle, since the bourgeoisie tried to penetrate into the higher nobility by buying estates and annobling.

From the end of the 16th century with the advent of mercantilism, the state forbade spending on a suit, the church also advocated this. The pope himself issues a series of bulls threatening women of fashion with excommunication. They were followed by royal prescriptions. Thus, ordinances against luxury were issued in 1613, 1624, 1634, 1636, 1639, 1644, 1656, 1660, 1679. It was forbidden for all subjects to wear imported things, except public women and swindlers who did not comply with the order were fined, sometimes their clothes were confiscated.

The Huguenot costume was strict, dark in color, without decorations. Sully's costume was made of magnificent drape, velour, velvet. From the end of the 17th century fashion was dictated by the king's court. With the strengthening of the bourgeoisie, the adherence of the nobles to fashion begins to be ridiculed. Fashionable clothes = idleness. "A nobleman carries all his income on his shoulders."

The highest clergy used the most expensive fabrics for their robes. Cardinals and bishops had the most luxurious vestments, their clothes were decorated with embroidery, precious stones, and furs. Cardinals wore a red robe, white or lilac for bishops, and their hair was cut short. Each order had its own costume, members of the monastic orders were recognizable by their hooded robes, sandals on thick clothes and differed in color - Franciscans - brown, Dominicans - white, Jesuits, Capuchins could wear secular dress. From 1549, a royal ordinance ordered the clergy to dress modestly, not to wear an arquebus, not to go where it was not supposed to, i.b. in taverns, etc.

From the middle of the XV century. a bourgeois estate is formed, its costume differs from that of the nobility until the bourgeoisie has realized itself as a class. The nobility of the mantle, the bourgeois, who acquired fief, wore a robe (roben). In 1614, in the States General, it was forbidden, under a fine of 1,000 ecu, to wear bourgeois noble clothes. From the end of the 17th century the bourgeois, who wore noble attire, aroused ridicule. See plays by Molière. Bourgeois dress - from inexpensive fabrics, linen, dark colors. Bourgeois women wore dresses made of grisette fabric (gray) (grisette = poor bourgeois), no decorations, except for lace - guez. On the head is a chaperon - a cap or mantilla, the neck was covered with scarves. Puffy skirts, (several), the top one is the most expensive to keep, it was pinned up and everyone else was visible. Footwear - leather shoes.

The peasant suit is functional. To make it convenient to work. The fabrics that went to the costume were canvas, homespun linen, artisans used drape for tailoring. Colors - soft, gray, blue. Festive clothes were sewn from velor and silk. The wedding dress was extremely good, which was sewn from expensive fabric and passed down from generation to generation. The chest of the woman was described, the wedding suit was included in the inventory. A wedding cap - chapeau de roses was given by the father, moreover, it was a must. In some provinces, girls did not receive land, but received chapeau de roses. Men wore short pants, a linen shirt, women wore short dresses. The headdress for men is a felt hat, for ladies - a cap. For winter clothes, rabbit, sheep, and dog fur was used. Shoes - bare feet, clogs, rope shoes, rough leather shoes. (See Le Nain brothers). Engravings by Callot - give an idea of ​​the clothes of the urban poor.

There were livery costumes - the people of the king, duke, prince, baron are dressed in the same costumes, often from the master's shoulder. On the occasion of church holidays, the clientele is usually presented with cloth or dresses. Members of the royal, city council, pages, officials of the state apparatus also had the same costume. The king and his relatives had a suit of silk or velor in black or red. The courtiers wore a gray suit. An official suit appears - for everyday wear - black, for holidays - red. All black dressed judges, lawyers, doctors, scientists. The king's advisers have a black bottom robe, a red top. The president of the royal council wore a black jacket, a long black cloak. Members of the city municipality dressed in city colors. For France - red-white, blue. Parisian echevins wore black robes, scarlet robes, white collars. The Dijon municipality preferred clothes with a predominant lilac color - the color of Burgundy.

The rector of the University of Paris wore a blue cape trimmed with ermine. Deans - red, with expensive fur, masters - black capes. Doctors of theology put on a cap - baret (bone). Students wore a black jacket, purple pants, but they could dress differently. Students of senior faculties wore a bone′ caret - a 4-coal cap.

Color was still of great importance. The preferred layers are red, as well as black combined with red. The colors of infamy are green and yellow. A green headdress distinguished the debtor. Yellow color - meant belonging to the Jews, who were ordered to wear circles on their sleeves from the age of 12, for women - on the head of yellow - a coral. Only Jewish doctors were not required to wear these badges. Courtesans wore black gloves, a white ribbon or a circle of other fabric on their sleeves. They were not allowed to wear collared dresses, veils and furs. But of course this is all in theory...

Since the 17th century fashion itself appears, since 1672, when the first fashion magazine was published. Moreover, to be dressed like a king means to express your loyalty.

From the middle of the XV-XVI centuries. there is an increase begging, vagrancy. There was a hierarchy among the poor and beggars - the privileged, the domestic poor, the inhabitants of shelters, hospitals, conventions. Then came those who had privileges to collect alms - pilgrims, monks of mendicant orders, guild students, schoolchildren, students, vagabonds were landsknechts returning from service, from Turkish captivity. The most cohesive organization was the blind, who had their own "king". Alms were collected on the streets, at the temple, in the temple itself, and "at the door." The process of pauperization, the growth of begging, vagrancy led to the fact that the authorities considered vagrants as a dangerous element that needed to be fought: control of the poor, limiting the influx of newcomers, a charity system.

Holidays. Religious. winter cycle. Pre-Christmas - November 11 - St. Martina (Martynov goose), 25.12. - Christmas - Christmas time, processions, mysteries, games; 2.

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