Foreign literature of the twentieth century (L.G. Andreev) Introduction

The literary process of the XX century - the era of scientific and technological revolution, world wars, people's liberation movements. The changing picture of the world and the formation of a new artistic thinking. Literature as an aesthetic phenomenon in the context of culture and civilization of the XX century. Problems of the fate of culture in the works of philosophers and sociologists: Berdyaev, Spengler, Fromm. Literature and philosophy: Bergson's intuitionism, Freud's psychoanalysis, Jung's "collective unconscious", Heidegger's existentialist concept. The search for social and moral values ​​that oppose the culture of unbelief. Literature and science. Literature and politics. Literature and war. Avant-garde currents - the desire to update literature and the prehistory of modernism. Surrealism, Futurism, Expressionism. Modernism as a reaction to the crisis of the positivist world outlook and as a new type of creative thinking. Modernist concepts of building the universe and ideas about man. Mythologism, "stream of consciousness", emphasis on the subjectivity of perception, features of the implementation of spatio-temporal categories in the work of modernists. Modernism and classics of the XIX century.

Periodisation: Literature 1910–1945 and literature 1945–2000

Literature 1910–1945

France. Dadaism and Surrealism: Artistic Manifestos, Apollinaire's Poetry, Eluard and Aragon's Early Works. Automatic writing and the structure of the surreal image.

Proust and his "subjective epic" In Search of Lost Time. Proust and Bergson. Transfer of the psychology of perception, the work of memory, spatio-temporal representations in Proust's impressionistic prose. Art world Proust's novel.

Traditions of literary classics in the work of French writers. Barbusse and Zola. Anti-war theme and the image of the collective hero in the novel "Fire" by A. Barbusse. Documentary and publicistic nature of the novel. Epic paintings by R. Rolland ("The Enchanted Soul") and Martin du Gard ("The Thibault Family"). The meaning of Tolstoy for these writers. Mauriac's socio-psychological novels "The Clew of Serpents", "The Road to Nowhere". The theme of life "in a world without God" and ethical issues. Mauriac and Balzac.

The existentialist concept of the world and man in the work of J.-P. Sartre ("Nausea") and A. Camus ("The Outsider"). The ideological and creative evolution of Camus and Sartre during the years of war and Resistance: the rejection of the utopia of absolute freedom, the problem of choice and responsibility for the fate of people.

The system of symbols in the philosophical tale The little Prince» A. de Saint-Exupery. The problems of life and death, the eternal and the transient, the responsibility of man "for those whom he has tamed."

Great Britain. Realistic traditions and new phenomena in the work of writers of the older generation - Shaw, Wells and Galsworthy. Entry into literature of modernist writers. The theme of war in the works of "trench poets" (Brook, Sassoon, Owen). The novel "Death of a Hero" by R. Aldington.

J. Joyce is the myth-maker of the 20th century. The image of Ireland and the model of the world in the work of Joyce. Aesthetics and artistic system of Joyce-poet, short story writer, novelist. Ulysses is an encyclopedia of modernism. The structure of the novel and the "stream of consciousness" technique. Analogy with Homer's Odyssey. Bloom, Daedalus, Marion as the triune essence of humanity. W. Wolfe is a theorist of English modernism. Woolf's experimental novels "Jacob's Room" and "Mrs. Delloway". Aesthetics of creativity D. Lawrence. Traditional forms of narration and innovation in conveying the gamut of feelings. The liberation of man from the machine civilization that enslaves him is the main theme of Lawrence. The search for an ideal in the fusion of the natural and the spiritual. The novels Sons and Lovers, Lady Chatterley's Lover. T. Eliot is the master of modernist poetry. Development of the theme of the tragedy of human existence in the conditions of inhumane civilization. Poem "Bad Land" The theme of death, associativity of images, poetic reminiscences, rethinking of myths in Eliot's poem.

The dystopias of O. Huxley (“Brave New World”) and D. Orwell (“1984”) are a philosophical and artistic commentary on the socio-political situation in the contemporary world of writers. Reassessment of utopian values.

Germany, Austria. Expressionism in German-language literature, socio-historical and philosophical-aesthetic prerequisites for its emergence. Poetry (Heim, Trakl, Werfel) and dramaturgy (Kaiser, Toller) of Expressionism. Poetics of Expressionism. Evolution of I. Becher. Frank's prose ("A good man"). Creativity F. Kafka. The image of an absurd world. Alienation of man. "Transformation". "Process". Parables. The concept of "Kafkaism". Novels by E.M. Remarque, reflection of the tragedy of the “lost generation” in them. All Quiet on the Western Front novel. Novels by Kellermann ("November 9"), Deblin ("Berlin-Alexander-Platz"), Fallada ("Little Man, What's Next?"). Thomas Mann: the evolution of attitudes and creativity. Philosophy (Schopenhauer, Nietzsche), literary classics (Goethe, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky) in the perception of T. Mann. The category of time in the novels "Lotta in Weimar" and "The Magic Mountain". Philosophy and Music in Doctor Faustus. Problems of the fate of art and the responsibility of the artist. Mythology of Faust. History and modernity in the work of G. Mann, L. Feuchtwanger, S. Zweig. The ideal of spiritual freedom in the work of G. Hesse. The novel "Steppenwolf". Correlation of "poetry of being" and "prose of being". Hesse's irony and "romantic irony" in German literature of the Romantic era. Anti-war and anti-fascist theme in the works of B. Brecht. The theory of "epic theater". The plays "The Good Man from Sazuan", "Mother Courage and Her Children".

Italy. A picture of the literary life of Italy. Marinetti and Italian Futurism. Futurist Manifestos. Poetry of Hermeticism (Montale, Ungaretti). Prose and dramaturgy of Pirandello, the theater reformer. Interpretation of reality in conditionally paradoxical forms, clash of face and mask in the philosophical and intellectual plays "Six characters in search of an author", "Henry IV". The concept of man, the grotesque, the comic and the tragic in the dramaturgy of Pirandello. Literature of the Italian Resistance. Vittorino and his "Sicilian conversations", the novel "People and Inhumans".

Spain. Literature in the Conditions of the Socio-Political Situation in Spain in the 1920s–30s. Relay race of writers "Generation of 1898". The poetry of Machado and Jimenezai Ortega y Gasset's philosophical conception of the fate of culture of the 20th century ("The Revolt of the Masses", "The Dehumanization of Culture"). Federico Garcia Lorca is a poet and playwright. The connection of Lorca's poetry with folk art. Development of folklore and mythological tradition, themes of love, death, fate, nature. Merging the theme of rock with the theme of personal responsibility and a call to action. A fusion of epic, lyrical and dramatic beginnings. The poetic drama "Marianna Pineda" is a synthesis of history and legend. "Poem about Cantehondo", "Gypsy Romancero". Tragedies "Bloody Wedding", "House of Bernard Alba".

USA. American literature between the two world wars. Topic " american dream and American tragedy in the work of US writers. Creativity T. Dreiser and his novel "American Tragedy". F.S. Fitzgerald is a Jazz Age writer. The novel "The Great Gatsby": a romantic refraction of the theme of the American dream and the pragmatism that opposes it. Illusion and Reality in Fitzgerald's Novel. The originality of E. Hemingway's poetics and the theme of war in his work. Early short stories (sat. "In Our Time"). Iceberg technique. Reflection of the attitude of the "lost generation" in the novel "Fiesta". The theme of the fiesta and the theme of bullfighting. Love and war in the novel "Farewell to Arms!". Anti-fascist theme in the works of the 30-40s. The novel For Whom the Bell Tolls. Hemingway and Spain. Philosophical aspects the story "The Old Man and the Sea" (1954), a statement of the dignity and invincibility of man. The image of the American South and its history in the work of W. Faulkner. Mythologism, social concrete and eternal in the artistic world of Faulkner. "Sound and Fury" "Bear". Dol Passos and his conception of American history in the USA trilogy. The experimental character of Dos Passos' prose. Factography, film editing, "panoramic writing". Dramaturgy by O'Neill. The search for forms of modern tragedy. "Love Under the Elms". Anglo-American Imagism and Pound's Poetry. Visual concreteness, laconicism, the search for the "exact word" in Pound's poetry. Appeal to medieval European (Italy, Provence) and Chinese poetry. The satirical cycle "Hugh Selwyn Mauberly".

Literature 1945–2000

The significance of the victory over fascism in World War II. The literary process of the second world half of the XX century. Promotion of the third world countries to the world stage. The role of Latin American literature. Literature in the "post-industrial society" and postmodernism. Postmodernism as an expression of the "spirit of the times" and as a phenomenon of the era. Disputes about the essence of postmodernism (Bart, Derrida, Kristeva). Rejection of mimetic art, of conceptual structures, of the strict compositional construction of the work; the use of polyvariant interpretation of phenomena and free improvisation. Concepts and terms of postmodern aesthetics: game, irony, travesty, pastiche, intertextuality, incompleteness. Rapprochement of literary trends as a characteristic trend of the second half of the 20th century. The predominance of traditional literary forms ("neorealism") in the literature of Italy, Spain, Germany.

Germany. Military theme in literature. Reassessment of the heritage of the past, national self-criticism, understanding of the new reality in German literature. W. Borchert and the theme of the "returned generation". Stories and play by Borchert "On the street in front of the door". The theme of "the unconquered past" in the work of G. Bell. War and post-war Germany in Belle's novels and stories ("Where have you been, Adam?", "Through the eyes of a clown", "And you didn't say a single word"). G. Grass: moral and political problems of his work. The novel "The Tin Drum" as a variant of the "novel of education". Parody and grotesque, farce techniques in creating the image of the past and present in the novel "Dog Years". Lenz, his stories, the novel "German Lesson". Anti-fascist theme in the works of Lenz. Appeal to the historical theme in the work of P. Suskind. The novel "Perfumer" as a phenomenon of German postmodernism. The story of the dove. Intertextuality of Suskind's prose.

Switzerland. Dramaturgy of F. Durrenmat and M. Frisch in the context of the literary process of the second half of the 20th century. Tragicomedy Dürrenmatt "Physicists". The theme of the scientist's responsibility. An absurd world model. Appeal to the traditions of Pirandello (reception of "face and mask"). Frisch's work. The problem of identity, the desire of heroes for self-knowledge (the novel "But"). Drama "Don Juan, or the Love of Geometry": the conflict of rationalism and passion.

Great Britain. Historical and cultural situation in post-war years. Creativity G. Green. Social and moral issues, acuteness of psychological conflicts, a combination of satire and tragedy in the novels "The Heart of the Matter", "Power and Glory", "The Quiet American". Green Catholic and Green Realist. Themes of responsibility and personal choice. The Quiet American is one of the most significant works of anti-colonial literature. The peculiarity of the composition of the novel. The tragedy of circumstances and the political sharpness of the sound of the novel. Snow's Alien Brothers novel cycle. The concept of "epic cycle" and the implementation of its principles in the work of Snow. Variety of themes and images, genre modifications (biographical, political, psychological, family, social and political novels). Snow's work "Two Cultures" and its significance in the convergence of technocrats and humanitarians. Creativity of "angry young writers": Osborne ("Look back in anger!"), Amis ("Lucky Jim"), Wayne ("Hurry down"). Modernization of the historical theme in the plays of Bolt ("A Man of All Times"), Osborne ("Luther"). Philosophical and allegorical novels by W. Golding "Lord of the Flies", "The Spire". Golding and existentialism. Philosophical and psychological novels A. Murdoch. The evolution of existentialism to neoplatonism. "Under the Net", "Bruno's Dream". Problems of art in the novel "The Black Prince". Creativity J. Fowles. Adherence to the classics and artistic experiments of Fowles. "Collector". The poetics of Fowles' postmodern novel The French Lieutenant's Woman. Outline of the Victorian novel, intertextuality, open ending. Postmodern novels by Barnes (A History of the World in Ten and a Half Chapters), Ackroyd (Oscar Wilde's Testament). Creativity of Swift (the novel "Water Earth", the story "Chemistry").

France. Literary process in post-war France. Bazin's work. Ethical problems of family psychological novels by Bazin. "Snake in the Fist", "Married Life". Literature and "consumer society". "Things" Perek. The theme of the formation of fascism in Merle's novel "Death is my trade". Merle's allegorical novel The Island. Appeal to the social conflicts of our time in Merle's documentary novel Behind the Glass. Image of student life and youth struggle for their rights. Philosophy and aesthetics of the literature of the absurd. Anti-drama and anti-romance. Grotesque and parody of social reality in the plays of Ionesco. "Bald Singer". "Rhinos". Beckett Theatre. Development of the philosophical ideas of Kierkegaard and Heidegger, apprenticeship with Joyce. Aesthetics of inaction and silence. Beckett's anti-drama "Waiting for Godot". Absurdity and grotesque in Beckett's work. Robbe-Grillet, Nathalie Sarraute and the "new novel" in French literature. Article by Robbe-Grillet "On some obsolete concepts". His novel "In the Labyrinth", the use of "schizism" to convey the "new reality". Poetics of Sarraute's novel The Golden Fruits. The concept of "tropism". Polyphonism of the novel and its appeal to the problems of perception of a literary text. Spatio-temporal coordinates in Butor's novel "Change". Myth and history in the works of Yursenar. The problem of the destiny of man in the novel "Memoirs of Hadrian". Documentary and creative imagination.

Italy. Neorealism in Italian Literature. Pratolini and his novel "The Tale of the Poor Lovers". The theme of the anti-fascist struggle in the novel; image everyday life Florentine poor during the Black Terror. A collective image of the inhabitants of Via del Corno. The inclusion of their destinies in the life of Italy in the 1929s. Creativity A. Moravia. "Roman Tales" and the novel "Chochara". Postmodern aesthetics and creativity U. Eco. The novel "The Name of the Rose" and the creation of a cosmological structure of being in it. Game, numerical symbolism, labyrinth theme and their functions in Eco's novel.

USA. Ways of development of American literature in the second half of the XX century. Late works of W. Faulkner, E. Hemingway. Ideological and aesthetic searches of new generations of writers. Beat movement and youth "counterculture". Ginsberg's poem "Scream" is a manifesto of beatniks. The cult of freedom from social conventions. Appeal to Christianity and Eastern philosophy. J. Kerouac is one of the founders of the beat movement. The novel "On the Road" is a rebellion against conformism, an expression of the mood of the youth of the 50s. Spontaneous style, improvisation techniques. D. Salinger's work in the context of "counterculture". Stories (cycle about Glasses) and the novel "The Catcher in the Rye". Teenager in a modern city. Condemnation of "window dressing" and "linden". Overcoming loneliness, finding your "I" in helping children. "New journalism" and documentary genres. The work of Capote. Novels by J. Updike ("Centaur"). Mythologizing the ordinary. The problem of progress and morality in the satirical works of K. Vonnegut ("Cat's Cradle"). Heller's metaphor novel Catch-22. Poetry: Frost, Sandburg, Hughes.

Latin American Literature. Artistic searches and discoveries of Marquez. "One Hundred Years of Solitude" The concept of magical realism. Realization of "magical realism" and "neo-baroque" in the works of Marquez and Carpentier (the story "The Kingdom of the Earth"). Past and present in Fuentes' novel The Death of Artemio Cruz. Fantasy and mysticism in the work of Cortazar. The category of play in Cortazar's novel The Hopscotch Game. Collage and happening. Philosophical stories and essays by Borges. The image of the paradoxical world and the search for metaphors of reality. "Narrative Art and Magic". Borges Essays on Writers.

Japan. The problem of interaction between cultures of East and West. Japanese literature in the context of the world literary process of the XX century. National traditions. Connection with the literature of the West. Kawabata Yasunari is "an exponent of the essence of Japanese thinking." Connection with the course of "neosensualism". Reflection of the worldview of the Japanese in the story "The Thousand-winged Crane" and "The Groan of the Mountain". Art by Kobo Abe. The novel "The Woman in the Sands": existential motives, the socio-metaphysical meaning of the novel. Symbolism of sand and water. Man and society in the novels "An Alien Face", "Man-Box". The mask as a cover for the essence of man.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

State educational institution higher professional education

"Nizhny Novgorod State Pedagogical University"

Faculty of Philology

APPROVE

And about. Rector of NSPU

________________

"_____" __________________ 20___

Work program of the discipline

History of foreign literature

Direction of training

050100 Pedagogical education

Training Profile

Russian language and literature

Qualification (degree) of the graduate

Bachelor

Form of study

full-time

Nizhny Novgorod

1. The goals of mastering the discipline

The purpose of mastering the discipline "History of Foreign Literature" is to form students:

1) knowledge of the laws of the literary process;

2) understanding artistic value a literary work in the context of history and culture and taking into account the main methodological directions;

3) readiness for philological interpretation and analysis of literary works in the context of culture and socio-historical experience, taking into account the evolution of artistic consciousness and the specifics of the creative process.

2. The place of the discipline in the structure of the BEP of the bachelor's degree

The discipline "History of Foreign Literature" refers to the variable part of the professional cycle of disciplines.

To master the discipline "History of Foreign Literature", students use the knowledge, skills and abilities formed in the course of studying the discipline "Theory of Literature".

The study of the discipline "History of Foreign Literature" is necessary basis for the subsequent study of the disciplines of the variable part of the professional cycle. The discipline "History of foreign literature" is logically connected with the discipline "History of Russian literature" and allows you to form an idea of common features literary process, the connection of the history of Russian literature with the literature of other countries.

3. Competencies of the student, formed as a result of mastering the discipline "History of Foreign Literature".

· is able to analyze ideological, socially and personally significant philosophical problems (OK-2);

· able to understand the meaning of culture as a form of human existence and be guided in their activities by modern principles of tolerance, dialogue and cooperation (OK-3);

ready for a tolerant perception of social and cultural differences, respectful and careful attitude to historical heritage and cultural traditions (OK-14);

· able to use systematized theoretical and practical knowledge of the humanities, social and economic sciences in solving social and professional problems (OPK-2);

· capable of using domestic and foreign experience in organizing cultural and educational activities (PC-10);

· ready to analyze the world literary process in the context of history and culture and taking into account the main methodological directions (SK-2);

ready for philological interpretation and analysis of literary works in the context of culture and socio-historical experience, taking into account the evolution of artistic consciousness and the specifics of the creative process (SK-3);

· has knowledge of the history and principles of literary criticism (SC-4);

· owns the techniques of textual analysis (SK-5).

As a result of mastering the discipline, the student must:

Know

Stages of the historical and literary process;

Be able to

Analyze a literary work as an artistic and aesthetic phenomenon;

Own

Skills in the analysis of literary text.

4. The structure and content of the discipline (module) "History of foreign literature"

The total labor intensity of the discipline is ______ credit units _______ hours.

Abstract on the subject "History of foreign literature" was prepared by Anokhina M.V., 5th year student of the SCS

Ural State University A.M. Gorky

Faculty of Art History and Cultural Studies

Department of Cultural Studies

Yekaterinburg 2005

Introduction

The scientific and artistic values ​​accumulated by mankind over 2000 years are enormous. The culture of Ancient Greece - the creation of its thinkers, poets, sculptors and architects - is a necessary part of the great heritage on which we, the builders of a new society, rely. The Middle Ages and the Renaissance, the epochs of great geographical discoveries, the times of transformation and flourishing of art with a series of amazing genres and names - Leonardo, Dante, Shakespeare ... Needless to say, the subsequent centuries that formed the basis of modern education and the entire social structure.

From time immemorial, literature has played a significant role in the development of society, being at the intersection of art and science. Works of foreign literature called to life and supported many currents of art, influenced political changes and, thanks to their greatness, have not lost their relevance to this day. The leading place in its history, of course, is occupied by the literature of Europe: in ancient times - the literature of Greece and Rome, in all subsequent times - Germany, England and France. It was these countries that were the bosom of classicism with its heroism, humanism with a sudden outbreak of love for a person, the contemplation of neorealism shimmering in acid-neon colors ... New literary styles helped a person fit into a new reality, literary works often outpaced events - we are now, reading the works of a thousand years ago, we can be surprised to note that nothing has changed, to state the cyclical nature of history.

The purpose of my essay was to trace the history of the development of foreign literature at its most significant frontiers by examining the most important literary names. In the fascinating process of studying world literature, I once again realized how great its significance is.

1. Ancient literature

Ancient literature - the literature of ancient Greece and Rome - originated several millennia ago. It is considered the earliest literature in Europe. Written monuments of Greek literature, which arose in the 8th century. BC, preceded by a huge oral creativity Greek people developed over millennia. The first monuments known to us are the poems of Homer "Iliad" and "Odyssey".

The first literary monuments in Rome date back to the 3rd century BC. BC, the heyday was the 1st century BC, its history ends with the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD. Thus, what is called ancient literature, covers a huge period of time of 1200 years, starting in the 7th century. BC, ending with the 5th c. AD Ancient literature, like the entire culture of Greece, is still a classic, in a sense, a model - the culture of Ancient Greece is recognized as the "childhood of mankind."

The main areas that characterize ancient literature are mythology, the Homeric epic and ancient dramaturgy. In general, ancient literature is filled with heroism and realism. Its main object - as in all culture ancient greece- a real, developed, courageous person, full of dignity. Even the Greek gods have human qualities - they quarrel, flirt, fall in love, slander ... famous heroes Greek epic are Prometheus and Hercules - helpers and protectors of people. The gods dwell on the snow-covered Mount Olympus, headed by Zeus, the father and ruler of the universe. The palaces on Olympus were built by the god Hephaestus, the god of arts and sciences Apollo performs at the feasts, nine sister muses sing to his lyre. Sitting next to him is his wife, the formidable and jealous Hera, and his daughter Pallas Athena, a warlike goddess, always ready for battle.

The Greek poet Hesiod (8th century BC) has a poem "Theogony", or "The Origin of the Gods", which vividly depicts a grandiose battle between the Titans and Zeus, which personifies the heroism and anthropomorphism of mythology, beauty and majesty.

All stages of mythology are presented in the heroic songs of the Greeks - the so-called Homeric epic. Epos means nothing more than a word about exploits, to the accompaniment of their lyre, an aed sang - a songwriter or a rhapsodist - a performer and collector of heroic tales. Tradition considers the creator of the ancient Greek epic Homer, a blind wandering aed, a beggar singer. Two are associated with his name. greatest poems The Odyssey and the Iliad, which are part of the Trojan mythological cycle, which combines a number of myths that reflect the struggle of the Greeks for the mastery of the Asia Minor city of Ilion or Troy. The Iliad depicts several episodes from the tenth year of the siege of Troy; "Odyssey" - the return to the homeland of one of the Achaean heroes, Odysseus. The Homeric epic is rightfully considered an encyclopedia of ancient life, reflecting in artistic images the fall of the communal-tribal formation and the emergence of a class slave-owning society.

The era of the general rise of Greece includes the work of Aeschylus, a native of Athens, a participant in the Greco-Persian wars - this is the time of the Greek theater. Of the several hundred tragedies written by the Greeks, only 32 have come down to us. The plays were cheerful or sad (tragedies or comedies). The tragedies of Aeschylus "Persians", "Bound Prometheus" were very popular, the tragedy of Sophocles "Antigone" was very popular. BUT famous author comedies in the middle of the 5th century BC was the Athenian Aristophanes (play "Birds").

Rome, having conquered little Greece, adopted the entire pantheon of Greek gods, all art and culture, and therefore the images of Roman literature practically do not differ from the original. The distinguishing feature of literature in comparison with Greek is that it is a much later literature and therefore much more mature. Roman literature appears on the world stage 400-500 years later than Greek. Rome could take advantage of the ready-made results of the centuries-old development of Greek literature, assimilate them quite quickly and thoroughly, and create on this basis its own, much more mature and developed literature. From the very beginning of the development of Roman literature, a strong Greek influence is felt.

Another feature of Roman literature is that it arises and flourishes in that period of the history of antiquity, which for Greece was already a time of decline. This was the Hellenistic period. Roman literature is predominantly Hellenistic literature.

In addition, Roman literature reproduced Hellenism extremely intensively, on a large and large scale, and in much more dramatic, hot and sharp forms. Nowhere in ancient literature was there such a sober analysis of reality as in Roman naturalism or among Roman satirists, although naturalism and satire are also characteristic of Greek literature; but both of these features of Roman literature - naturalism and satirical image lives are so great here that naturalistic satire may well be considered a specific Roman literary genre.

If we carry out the periodization of ancient literature, we can note that the first period, which can be called pre-classical, or archaic, covers a long series of centuries of oral folk art and ends during the first third of the 1st millennium BC. This work has not reached us, and we have some idea about it on the basis of later ancient literature. Only two monuments of Greek literature, recorded in the 7th century BC, have come down to us in their entirety. BC, but undoubtedly developed over many centuries, are the heroic poems "Iliad" and "Odyssey" by Homer.

The second period of ancient literature is the formation and flourishing of Greek classical slavery, which occupies the 7th-9th centuries. BC. This period is commonly referred to as the classical period. In connection with the development of personality, numerous forms of lyricism and drama appear, as well as a rich prose literature, consisting of the works of Greek philosophers, historians and orators.

The third period of ancient literature, usually referred to as Hellenistic, arises at a new stage of ancient slavery, namely large-scale slaveholding. Instead of small city states classical period In the so-called policies, huge military-monarchist organizations arise, and at the same time, a great differentiation of the subjective life of a person appears, which differs sharply from the simplicity, immediacy and rigor of the classical period. As a result, the Hellenistic period is often interpreted as a period of degradation classical literature, although it must be remembered that this process lasted a very long time, until the end of the ancient world. Consequently, this post-classical period occupies a huge period of time - from the 3rd century BC. BC. up to 5 c. AD Roman literature also belongs to this third period of ancient literature, which is why it is often called the Elienistic-Roman period. Arising in the 3rd c. BC. Roman literature experiences its archaic period in the first two centuries of its existence. 1 in. BC. usually considered the heyday of Roman literature, namely the 1st-5th centuries. AD, are called the postclassic period.

In connection with the death of the slave-owning formation and the onset of medieval feudalism in the 6th century. AD can be considered the line between ancient and medieval literature.

2.1. Literature of the Middle Ages

The Middle Ages cover a huge period of time from the fall of the Roman Empire (5th century AD) to the beginning of world revolutions (17th century). In the history of Western European literature, a distinction is made between the actual medieval era (5th-15th centuries) - the birth, development and flourishing of the feudal system and its culture - and the Renaissance (15th-17th centuries), associated with the formation of bourgeois relations, the development of cities, the creation of a new culture.

The most significant and valuable legacy of medieval literature is the epic - poems about warrior heroes created by the people and expressing their ideals. The famous French poem The Song of Roland (1170), which reflects the religious ideology and political vicissitudes that filled feudal society, is imbued with heroism. Patriotic pathos also sounds in the Spanish epic, the content of which is mainly connected with the reconquista - the struggle of the Spanish people for the liberation of their country from the Arabs who captured it. So, a great poem of the 12th century. "Song of Side" sings of feats legendary hero of this war, Ruy Diaz, whom the Arabs defeated by him called Sid, i.e. master.

A vivid picture of the manners of the beginning of the second millennium with bloody feuds over love, wealth and military rivalry is depicted in the German epic Nibelungenlied, a manuscript of which dates back to about 1200.

Period 12-15 centuries. is a period of chivalrous and courtly literature, distinguished by artificiality, far-fetchedness. However, themes from folk poetry also penetrate into it - an example of this is the poetic novel about Tristan and Isolde. In England, a cycle of folk songs-ballads dedicated to the legendary robber Robin Hood, the beloved hero of the English people, is remarkable.

At the end of the 13th and beginning of the 14th centuries. performing in Italy great poet- Dante Alighieri, who became famous thanks to the greatest work "The Divine Comedy", depicting the transition in the afterlife through the circles of hell. Dante's work is called the true Iliad of the Middle Ages.

The struggle for the transition of literature from Latin, incomprehensible to the people, to the newly formed national languages, was widely developed in the Renaissance.

2.2. Renaissance literature

The literature of the Renaissance is characterized by the strengthening of the ideas of humanism, where the main content is a person, his earthly life, the struggle for happiness. The outstanding writers of the Renaissance are Francois Rabelais, William Shakespeare, Francesco Petrarch, Giovanni Boccaccio, Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra.

The culture of renaissance was first born in Italy, which, earlier than others, embarked on the path of bourgeois development. Here, already in the 15th century, great works of humanistic literature were created. Italian humanism is notable for its particular joie de vivre. Petrarch's collection of poems, dedicated to his beloved Laura, is the first example of humanistic poetry that reveals the subtlest experiences of a lover.

Giovanni Boccaccio creates a realistic prose of humanism, captured in his most famous work - the collection of short stories "Decamerone", which constitutes a realistic picture of the era. The Decameron or Ten Days begins with a description of the plague epidemic in Florence and includes one hundred short stories, which are told over the course of ten days by ten young men and women who left the plague-ridden city.

The pinnacle of humanistic literature in France was filled with pedagogical ideas François Rabelais' novel "Gargantua and Pentagruel", consisting of five books. The plot basis of the novel - the tale of the giant kings - is closely connected with French folk art.

the greatest humanist playwright England was Shakespeare. The work of the playwright is the pinnacle of Renaissance literature. Shakespeare's creative path is divided into three periods, differing from each other in content and style of works. In the first period - in the 90s of the 16th century and until 1612. It is divided into three periods, differing from each other in content and style of works in connection with the development of social life. In the first period - the 90s of the 16th century. - Shakespeare creates the most cheerful comedies, "historical chronicles" (plays from English history), as well as the tragedy "Romeo and Juliet". At the same time, epic poems were written, and, apparently, sonnets published later. By the second period - 1601-1608. - include the most famous tragedies of Shakespeare ("Hamlet", "Othello", "King Lear", "Macbeth"). In the third period - from 1608 to 1612 - Shakespeare wrote several plays, the action of which was transferred to an unusual, sometimes fabulous setting ("The Tempest"); Shakespeare himself and his contemporaries called them comedies. Shakespeare's language is extremely expressive. The speech of his characters is saturated with imagery - personifications and metaphors. The peculiarity of the artistic method lies in the fact that Shakespeare depicts all life phenomena and human characters from all sides, and, moreover, not frozen, but changing. Shakespeare depicts life in contrasts, boldly alternating the depiction of tragic and sublime moments with purely everyday, even comic scenes, sometimes rude.

2.3. 17th century literature

In Western European literature of the 17th century, the works of French writers played the most significant role; the largest of them adjoined the trend called "classicism", which took shape during the heyday of the absolute monarchy in France. The great playwrights Corneille, Racine, Moliere, the fabulist Lafontaine were not singers of absolutism. In the brilliant tragedies of Corneille and Racine, rationalism is a triumph of thought, high moral pathos - in their work, classicism reflected its development, which took place in two stages. Corneille's best creation is his early play Sid, a tragicomedy. Impressed by the criticism of The Cid, Corneille wrote several successive plays. The play "Horace" above all puts patriotic valor.

Racine's work belongs to a different period - French absolutism finally established itself and completely became a stronghold of reaction. Jean Racine portrays the unbridled passions of those in power in his early tragedy Andromache. With great psychological acting, subtly and sincerely, the writer reveals the struggle of passions, the contradictions of mutilated love in an atmosphere of court intrigues in a number of images of the tragedy "Phaedra". In the tragedy "Antalya" (or "Gofoliya") Racine comes out with a sharp condemnation of despotism, anticipating the later tyrannical ideas of the enlighteners of the 18th century.

The greatest writer who worked more boldly than others in the era of classicism was Molière (Jean-Baptiste Poquelin), the creator of French comedy, one of the founders of the French theater. The three greatest comedies he created in the mid-60s - Tartuffe, Don Juan, Misanthrope - illuminate the ideals of materialistic philosophy. In the comedy The Philistine in the Nobility, Moliere gave the Saami a satirical image of the wealthy bourgeois Jourdain, who bows to the nobility and dreams of penetrating into the aristocratic environment. Moliere proved to be a master of comedic intrigue, providing rich opportunities for creating a picturesque performance.

2.4. Literature of the Enlightenment

The Age of Enlightenment is one of the remarkable pages in the history of Western European cultures. Enlighteners are called ideologists of the 18th century, philosophers and writers who boldly criticized the political order, which became possible in the conditions of the growing crisis of the feudal formation. In England, as early as the 17th century, a revolution took place, towards the revolution of 1789-94. France also aspired. In other countries, there was no less need for social change. Secular art was similar to the mannered and refined style in the art of Rococo and Baroque, the features of which were especially noticeable in the lyrics. (great frankness of love adventures). Classicism has not lost its significance either - here the great merit belongs to Goethe ("Faust") and Voltaire ("Zaire", "Zadig", "Simple"), defending the forces of humanism over the barbarism of civilization. outstanding achievement 18th century is the formation of enlightenment realism - where the novel of the 18th century became innovative. The role of the English writers Defoe ("Robinson Crusoe"), Richardson, Fielding, Smollett is especially great.

Along with the novel, a new realistic genre in dramaturgy is emerging - petty-bourgeois drama, depicting events in the environment of the third estate. In the petty-bourgeois drama, one can note the features of sentimentalism - the artistic direction of the second half of the 18th century. At the same time, the boundaries between sentimentalism and realism are not always clear.

Earlier than in other countries, education develops in England, J. Swift (“Gulliver's Travels”), an outstanding satirist of world literature, speaks here. In France, the work of Voltaire is significant. In Gerani, the literature of the Enlightenment is only taking its first steps.

By the middle of the century, the educational movement in the countries of Western Europe was gaining enormous scope. The year 1751 becomes a historical date, when the first volume of the Encyclopedia is published in France. The publication was truly a feat to which the outstanding thinker and writer Denis Diderot gave 20 years of his life. Thus, the enlightenment movement has ceased to be a matter of loners - a united front of adherents of progress is being created. Diderot in France, Lessing in Germany come forward with criticism of classicism, a new direction is added to the former - sentimentalism, the initiator of which is the English writer Lorenz Stern. Sentimentalisms, unlike the enlighteners, declare that the main criterion is not reason, but feeling.

more popular humanistic ideas developed in the context of Sturm und Drang, a literary movement in Germany in the 1970s and 1980s. 18th century, the main theorist of which was I. Herder. Having accepted the humanistic pathos of the Enlightenment, rejecting the normative aesthetics of classicism, the representatives of Storm and Onslaught defended the national identity, the nationality of art, demanded the depiction of strong passions, heroic deeds, characters that were not broken by a despotic regime. Adherents - playwrights and poets: J. W. Goethe and F. Schiller, J. M. R. Lenz, F. M. Klinger

Jean-Jacques Rousseau creates his famous works "Confession", "Public Contract", "New Eloise", Pierre Augustin Beaumarchais (Caron) is famous for "The Barber of Seville", "The Marriage of Figaro", in which he professes the principle of social sharpness combined with comedy - "amuse by teaching." Robert Burns, an English poet, expresses deep feelings filled with philosophical meaning in images accessible to any person.

Friedrich Schiller (Deceit and Love, William Tell, Mary Stuart, The Maid of Orleans) and Johann Wolfgang Goethe occupy a special place in the literature of this time, revealing the ideas of duty and moral perfection in the light of new historical changes.

The era of enlightenment ends with the French Revolution (1789-1794), which influenced the flourishing of the genres of songs and ballads. In the last years of the 18th century, romanticism was formed in the countries of Western Europe - an excited, full of contradictions response to the entire ideology of enlightenment.

3. Literature of the New Age

The romantics had different philosophical beliefs and political cuses - passionately loving and passionately hating, they created different images that expressively contrasted with the world - it could be a legendary figure (Byron's Cain, Shelley's Prometheus, Mickiewicz's Grazhin, Longfellow's Hiawatha), or a lonely sufferer challenging society (the hero of Byron's Oriental Om, or an enthusiastic artist defending his high calling (in Hoffmann). Arnie, Brentano, Eichendorff sympathetically depicted the past - German writers who occupied conservative positions.

Outstanding scientists for their time were the German storytellers Brothers Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm (Children's and family tales - "Golden Goose", "Puss in Boots"), who owned works on history German language, works on the culture and traditions of the ancient Germans.

George Gordon Byron, English Romantic poet; member of the House of Lords, in the poem "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage", oriental poems (including "Gyaur", "Lara", "Corsair"), philosophical and symbolic dramatic poems - mysteries "Manfred and Cain", a cycle of love-meditative poems on biblical motifs "Jewish Melodies" expresses a keen sense of the catastrophic nature of historical and personal existence, the loss of ideals in modern society, the universality of disappointment in reality (the motives of world sorrow are cosmic pessimism). The protest against the evil of the world, the upholding of the rights of the individual acquires an ironic and satirical coloring (the poem " Bronze Age"). He also combined bizarre fantasy, subtle philosophical irony, reaching the mystical grotesque with a critical perception of reality. German writer-romantic, composer, artist - Theodore Amadeus Hoffmann ("Devil's Elixir", "Golden Pot", "Little Tsakhes", "Lord of the Fleas").

The English writer Walter Scott, the founder of the English realistic novel, made a huge contribution to the history of foreign literature thanks to novels written on the material of European (including Scottish) history at its turning points - “Songs of the Scottish Border”, “Song of the Last Minstrel”, “ The Maiden of Waverley Lake, The Puritans, Rob Roy, Ivanhoe, Quentin Dorward.

Another English writer, Charles Dickens, deliberately refuses to depict social evil in the reconstruction of human life. Humorous moralistic "Essays of Boz" are dedicated to the inhabitants of various strata of London society, in the sentimental novel "Posthumous Pickwick Papers" (with a naive and touching eccentric hero) the idyllic Katrina of English society is conditioned by belief in good start person. The pathos of compassion for the humiliated (especially for the experiences of a child's soul), the rejection of all forms of social injustice are imbued with adventure-adventure novels "The Adventures of Oliver Twist", "Nicholas Nickleby", "Martin Chuzzlewit". Dickens's social optimism (the novels The Curiosity Shop, The Christmas Tales) came into conflict with the grotesquely realistic depiction of the pernicious psychology of possessiveness and pragmatism: the upbringing novels Dombey and Son and David Copperfield, with autobiographical features, the novel Bleak House ”, a detective novel “The Mystery of Edwin Drood”.

Victor Hugo, a French romantic writer, created in 1827 a preface to the drama Cromwell, which became the manifesto of the French romantics. The plays "Hernani", "Marion Delorme", "Ruy Blas" are Hugo's embodiment of rebellious ideas. In the historical novel Notre Dame Cathedral (1831), anti-clerical tendencies are strong. After the coup d'état, the great writer published the political pamphlet "Napoleon the Small" and the collection of satirical poems "Retribution", the novels "Les Miserables", "Toilers of the Sea", "The Man Who Laughs", depicting the life of different layers of French society, are imbued with democratic, humanistic ideals. The French poet Pierre-Jean Beranger shared the ideas of utopian socialism ("Mad Men") and gained fame with a similar satire on the Napoleonic regime ("King Yveto"). Beranger's songs, imbued with a revolutionary spirit, humor, optimism, plebeian frankness, gained wide popularity. ("Prince of Navarre", "White cockade").

The French writer Frederic Stendhal, in his book "Racine and Shakespeare" (1823-25), created the first manifesto of the realist school. The mastery of psychological analysis, the realistic depiction of social contradictions marked the novels: "Red and Black" about the tragic career of a plebeian, experiencing a conflict of ambition and honor; "Parma Convent", full of poeticization of free feelings, denunciation of political reaction after the Napoleonic wars. The political life of French society is no less comprehensively reflected in the works of Honore de Balzac, French writer. epic " human comedy” of 90 novels and short stories is connected by a common idea and many characters: the novel “Unknown Masterpiece”, “Shagreen Skin”, “Eugenia Grande”, “Father Goriot”, “Caesar Birotto”, “Lost Illusions”, “Cousin Beta”, which says that the epic is a realistic picture of French society, grandiose in scope.

Polish literature was also distinguished by a rich centuries-old tradition. In the second half of the 18th century, she promoted major masters of Enlightenment classicism, but Polish Romanism was awarded world fame. Romanism is associated with the work of composers Chopin and Moniuszko, poet and playwright Yuri Slovatsky, and the most remarkable in this galaxy - the great Polish poet Adam Mickieich ("Poetry", "Grazyna", "Dzyady", "Konrad Wallenrod"). The latter, among other things, acted as an activist in the national liberation movement.

James Fenimore Cooper, an American writer, combined elements of enlightenment and romanticism. His historical and adventure novels about the War of Independence in the North. America, the era of the frontier, sea voyages ("The Spy", "The Last of the Mohicans", "St. in which the struggle for life full of dangers, the picturesque depiction of landscapes, anxiety for the fate of the country brought world fame to the writer. Another American novelist and poet, Henry Longfellow, epic poems, ballads, lyrics, often aphoristic-didactic, sentimental (according to mood), combining both song and folklore and book traditions, turned to the heroic past of the United States, medieval legends, and Christian themes. ("Psalm of Life", "Song of Hiawatha").

A very significant contribution to world literature introduced Denmark in the person of Hans Christian Anderson, storyteller and philosopher. World fame was brought to him by works in the oldest literary genre - fairy tales, which combine romance and realism, fantasy and humor, a satirical beginning with irony. Based on folklore ("The Flint"), imbued with humanism, lyricism and humor ("The Steadfast Tin Soldier", "The Ugly Duckling", "The Little Mermaid", "The Snow Queen"), fairy tales condemn social inequality

Reflection of the big historical period works of the German poet and publicist Heinrich Heine. The romantic irony of the hero suffering from imperfection and the prose of the hero’s life, sarcasm and lyricism, the daring challenge of self-satisfied vulgarity in the Book of Songs (1827), imbued with folk-melodic elements, and the Romacero collection (1851), where skepticism and notes of despair do not suppress the courage to confront fate (with 1848 Heine is bedridden). Biting political poems (including the poems "Atta Troll" and "Germany. Winter's Tale"), denouncing modern feudal-monarchist and philistine Germany.

New time is a period complex processes in the social life of Europe and an ambiguous period in the history of the whole world, carried away by revolutions, upheavals and reforms. That is why the 20th century, not only in literature, but also in all genres of art and social formations, was a completely new, advanced and tougher era.

4. Literature of the 20th century

The literature of the 20th century, in its stylistic and ideological diversity, is incomparable with the literature of the early 19th century, where only three or four leading trends could be distinguished. At the same time, modern literature has produced no more great talents than the literature of the last century. European fiction 20th century remains faithful to the classical traditions. At the turn of the two centuries, a constellation of writers is noticeable whose work did not yet express the aspirations and innovative searches of the 20th century: the English novelist John Galsworthy, who created social and everyday novels (the Forsyte Saga trilogy), the German writers Thomas Mann, who wrote philosophical novels " magic mountain" and "Doctor Faustus", revealing the moral, spiritual and intellectual quest of a European intellectual, and Heinrich Belle, who combined in his novels and short stories social criticism with elements of the grotesque and deep psychological analysis, the French Anatole France, who gave a satirical review of France at the end of the 19th century, Romain Rolland, who depicted the spiritual quest and throwing of a brilliant musician in the epic novel Jean Christophe, and others.

In the same time European literature experienced the influence of modernism, which is primarily manifested in poetry. Thus, the French poets P. Eluard and L. Aragon were the leading figures of surrealism. However, the most significant in the Art Nouveau style was not poetry, but prose - the novels of M. Proust ("In Search of Lost Time"), J. Joyce ("Ulysses"), f. Kafka ("Castle"). These novels were a response to the events of the First World War, which gave birth to a generation that received the name "lost" in literature. They analyze the spiritual, mental, pathological manifestations of a person. Common to them is a methodological technique - the use of an open French philosopher, a representative of intuitionism and the "philosophy of life" Anri Bergson of the method of analysis "stream of consciousness", which consists in describing the continuous flow of thoughts, impressions and feelings of a person. He described human consciousness as a continuously changing creative reality, as a stream in which thinking is only a surface layer, subject to the needs of practice and social life. In its deepest layers, consciousness can be comprehended only by the effort of self-observation (introspection) and intuition. The basis of knowledge is pure perception, and matter and consciousness are phenomena reconstructed by the mind from the facts of direct experience. His main work, Creative Evolution, brought Bergson fame not only as a philosopher, but also as a writer (he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1927). Bergson also showed himself in the diplomatic and pedagogical fields. They say that the recognition of Bergson's oratory talent, which conquered his compatriots with his magnificent French, in 1928 forced the French Parliament to specifically consider the issue of transferring his lectures from the assembly hall of the College de France, which did not accommodate everyone, to the building of the Paris Opera and stopping the movement for the duration of the lecture. along the surrounding streets.

Bergson's philosophy had a significant impact on the intellectual atmosphere of Europe, including literature. For many writers of the first half of the 20th century, the “stream of consciousness” turned from a philosophical method of cognition into a spectacular artistic device.

Philosophical ideas of Bergson formed the basis of the famous novel by the French writer Marcel Proust "In Search of Lost Time" (in 14 volumes). The work, which is a cycle of novels, serves as an expression of his childhood memories, emerging from the subconscious. Recreating the past time of people, the subtlest overflows of feelings and moods, the material world, the writer saturates the narrative fabric of the work with bizarre associations and phenomena of involuntary memory. Proust's experience of portraying the inner life of a person as a "stream of consciousness" was of great importance to many writers of the 20th century.

A prominent Irish writer, a representative of modernist and postmodernist prose James Joyce, relying on the Bergsonian technique, discovered a new way of writing, in which the art form takes the place of content, encoding ideological, psychological and other dimensions. In the artistic work of Joyce, not only the "stream of consciousness" is used, but also parodies, stylizations, comic devices, mythological and symbolic layers of meanings. The analytical decomposition of language and text is accompanied by the decomposition of the image of man, a new anthropology close to structuralist and characterized by the almost complete exclusion of social aspects. Inner speech as a form of being of a literary work entered the active circulation of writers of the 20th century.

The works of the outstanding Austrian writer Franz Kafka during his lifetime did not arouse much interest among readers. Despite this, he is considered one of the most famous prose writers of the 20th century. In the novels "Trial", "Castle" and stories in a grotesque and parable form, he showed the tragic impotence of a person in his collision with absurdity modern world. Kafka, with amazing force, showed the inability of people to mutual contacts, the powerlessness of the individual in front of complex mechanisms of power inaccessible to the human mind, showed the vain efforts that people-pawns made in order to protect themselves from pressure on them by forces alien to them. The analysis of "boundary situations" (situations of fear, despair, anguish, etc.) brings Kafka closer to the existentialists.

The Austrian poet and prose writer Rainer Maria Rilke, who created a cycle of melodic poems in line with the Symbolist and Impressionist tradition of the first decades of the 20th century, moved along a similar but peculiar path to the search for a new language and new poetic content. In them, the poet reflects on the existential problems of man, his tragic duality striving for mutual understanding and love.

Among the writers who played a role in the history of literature of the last century, several prominent names can be distinguished. Namely: Emile Zola, Mark Twain, Jack London, Romain Rolland, Thomas Anna and others. The main work of the French writer Emile Zola is the 20-volume series of novels "Rougon-Macquart" - the story of one family in the era of the Second Empire. In the novels of the series "The Belly of Paris", "The Trap", "Germinal", "Money", "The Rout", social contradictions are depicted with great realistic force. Zola is a supporter of the principles of naturalism ("Experimental Novel"). He protested against the Dreyfus case (pamphlet "I accuse").

In the novels of the French writer, laureate Nobel Prize Anatole France (“The Crime of Sylvester Bonnard”, “The Judgments of Mr. Jerome Coignard”) expresses skeptical irony in relation to modern reality, the criticism of which deepens in the series of novels “Modern History” - a satirical review of France by con. 19th century In the grotesque fantasy novel "Penguin Island" and "Rise of the Angels" - anti-religious and political satire.

Romain Rolland, in the epic novel "Jean Christophe", reflects the spiritual quest and throwing of a brilliant musician against the backdrop of a picture of the decline of European culture on the eve of the 1st World War. In the center of the story, Cola Breugnon is the image of a freedom-loving, never discouraged craftsman era of the French Renaissance. In the anti-war journalism of the French writer, sympathy for socialist ideas is felt, a speech in defense of the USSR (despite the fact that Rolland rejected all forms of revolutionary violence), which for a long time he saw as a bulwark of social justice.

Among French poetry, the most interesting is Paul Eluard, a member of the Resistance Movement, who joined in the 20-30s. to surrealism. His poetry is dominated by bold imagery, unconventional metrics and stanzas in intimate and philosophical lyrics (collections City of Sorrow, Love is Poetry, Life Itself, Rose for All).

Mark Twain, American writer. Stories from the 60s and 70s - a comic, sometimes grotesque description of provincial America (the collection The Famous Jumping Frog from Calaveras, the satirical novel The Gilded Age about financial and political corruption, the lyrical-biographical book Life on the Mississippi). Twain's novel "The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn" marks a mature social criticism, the discovery of that America, in which the poetic (vital fortress, daring humor, spiritual responsiveness) coexists with inhuman utilitarianism and cruelty. The world of social hierarchy is rejected in the fantasy story A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court. Later works imbued with sarcasm and skepticism, and works about boys (including The Adventures of Tom Sawyer) have become classics of children's literature.

Jack London is one of the greatest writers of American writers of the 20th century, his books are popular all over the world. The best works London is attracted by its life-affirming pathos, glorifying the love of life and the will of man in the fight against harsh nature. about life at sea (the novel "Sea Wolf") combine the poetry of harsh nature, disinterested courage with the image of severe physical and moral trials taken for the sake of enrichment. The utopian novel The Iron Heel reflected his passion for the ideas of socialism.

Among the artists of the 20th century, Antoine de Saint-Exupery stands out as the most direct and artless, and first of all with the philosophical tale "The Little Prince" - the most poetic expression of the writer's ideas. The little prince personifies in the fairy tale all those human qualities that give meaning and content to human life. Exupery's work is deeply optimistic, despite the fact that it is abstract.

Outward simplicity, strict objectivity, restrained lyricism, substantive subtext distinguishes the prose of the American writer Ernest Hemingway, who reflected the mindset of the lost generation (“Fiesta”, “Farewell to Arms!”) and enriched the genre of the short story (“In Our Time” collection). In the novel For Whom the Bell Tolls, the Spanish Civil War of 1936-39 appears as a national and universal tragedy caused by a chain reaction of violence. The story-parable "The Old Man and the Sea" is dedicated to the author's cherished idea - tragic stoicism: in the face of the purposeless cruelty of the world, a person, even losing, is obliged to maintain courage and dignity.

Thomas Mann, German writer, brother of Heinrich Mann. In the family chronicle of a bourgeois family, the novel Buddenbrooks, philosophical novel"Magic Mountain", "Doctor Faustus", tetralogy on the biblical story "Joseph and his brothers", numerous short stories showed the crisis state of the world and man of the 20th century, reflected the moral, spiritual and intellectual quest of the European intellectual, the more complex individualistic consciousness (with a complex of Nietzschean problems).

Diaries and memoirs, original documents, ingenuous testimonies of those who had endured many trials took a large place in literature after the Second World War. The echo of the war touched most of German literature to a greater or lesser extent - the German writer and statesman Johannes Becher, Minister of Culture of the German Democratic Republic, founder and president of the Kulturbund, president of the Academy of Arts of the German Democratic Republic, was one of the organizers of the German anti-fascist literary movement. The anti-war novel Lewisite, the poetry collections The Seeker of Happiness, The Mid-Century Step, the novel Farewell (on an autobiographical basis), the tetralogy Experiments on Cultural Problems, the writer emphasizes the ongoing changes and the guilt of the German society for the mistakes and deeds of political rulers.

German writer, playwright, director Bechtold Brecht went down in history as a sharp polemicist and art theorist. In philosophical and satirical plays on modern, historical and mythological subjects: "The Threepenny Opera", "Mother Courage and Her Children", "The Life of Galileo", " kind person from Sesuan", "Caucasian Chalk Circle" demonstrates the bright principles of fidelity to realism and commitment to socialism, for which he received great recognition in the light of the socialist sentiments of a number of countries.

As well as Anna Segers, a German writer who affirms the moral victory of the anti-fascist fighters, faith in the future of the German people ("The Seventh Cross"). a cycle of socio-psychological novels "The Dead Stay Young", "Decision", "Trust", short stories (collection "The Power of the Weak"), short stories ("Strange Encounters"), as well as literary critical works.

Notable is Pablo Neruda, a Chilean poet - his lyric book "Twenty Love Poems and One Song of Despair", anti-fascist, civil and social poems: the collection "Spain in the Heart", two "Songs of Love to Stalingrad", an epic about the fate of Latin America "Universal Song ”, lyrical-philosophical “Odes to Primordial Things”, autobiographical poem “Memorial of the Black Island”, book of memoirs “I confess: I lived open” from new sides literary genres 20th century - realism, expressionism, the so-called "stream of consciousness".

In general, the literature of the 20th century has witnessed numerous revolutions and wars, regime changes and the achievements of scientific and technological progress, and continues to discover new outstanding authors.

Conclusion

Nowadays, literature, having passed the path from rock writing through openness to the elite to universal accessibility, without social division, at the same time has somewhat lost its significance. Literature has ceased to influence state processes, as the information and entertainment genre has receded into the background and third plan, giving way to the flow of media, the Internet and computer technology. That is why the heroes of new generations today are increasingly being TV presenters and music stars, while Romeo and Ivanhoe remain in obscurity.

Nevertheless, as long as we have the opportunity to watch adaptations of Homer, hear songs based on Burns's poems, and distinguish Balzac's sayings from those of Romain Rolland, nothing threatens literature. Only development.

Bibliography

Foreign literature. Allowance for extracurricular activities Art. classes cf. schools. Ed. 2nd, rev. - M .: Education, 1975. - 320 p., ill.

Shestakov S. On the Origin of Homer's Poems. - Kazan. - 1982.

Bakhtin M. Time and space in literature//Questions of Literature. - M., 1974. - No. 3.

The turn of the 18th-19th centuries was a socio-political turning point unprecedented in European history. A new worldview born under the sign french revolution, was first embodied in the artistic system of romanticism.

It is necessary to understand the specifics of the romantic vision of the world as a stream of spiritualized life, to realize the infinity of man and the world in their constant transformation. One should understand the nature of romantic dualism, the universalism of romantic artistic thinking, and the peculiarities of romantic historicism.

Having studied the works of E.T. Hoffman, J. Byron, V. Hugo, A. Mitskevich, E. Poe, evaluate romanticism as an essential stage in the development of the spiritual culture of mankind.

Turning to the study of realism, it is important to understand the socio-historical reasons that determined the features of the critical worldview and objective narration.

Pay special attention to the flourishing of the socio-psychological novel in the works of Stendhal, Balzac, Flaubert, Dickens, Thackeray.

Among a number of different trends and schools of the last quarter of the 19th century, it is advisable to single out the concepts of naturalism: society as an organism, a biological model of the world, character as a result of the interaction of heredity and environment. Pay attention to the complex interaction of the socio-cultural and artistic principles of naturalism and the traditions of classical realism in the work of E. Zola.

The 20th century is interpreted as the era of socio-political and scientific and technological revolutions, as the era of the formation of a "consumer society". It is necessary to understand the dynamism, inconsistency, diversity and complexity of the overall picture of the literary development of the 20th century, the struggle of trends and the unity of the historical and literary process; to study the concept of the world and man in the literature of modernism, to understand the features of the aesthetics of modernity on the example of the works of O. Wilde, to have an idea about existentialism in philosophy and literature. Particular attention should be paid to the study of the family chronicles of T. Mann and D. Galsworthy, the problems of the literature of the “lost generation” by E. M. Remarque and E. Hemingway.

History of Foreign Literature Ed. N. A. Solovieva, - M., 2000.

Foreign literature of the XX century. Textbook / Ed. L.G. Andreeva.-M., 1999.

Theme No. 1. Grotesque and duality in the story of E.T.A. Hoffmann "Little Tsakhes"

Text: Hoffman E.T.A. Little Tsakhes, nicknamed Zinnober (any edition)

Bibliographic list

Karelsky A.V. Drama of German Romanticism. - M., 1992.

Karelsky A.V. Ernst Theodor Amadeus Hoffmann / Hoffmann E.T.A. Sobr. Cit.: In 6 vols., Vol. 1. - M., 1991.

Safransky R. Hoffman (ZhZL). - M., 2005.

Pronin V.A. Ernst Theodor Amadeus Hoffmann / Pronin V.A. History of German Literature. - M., 2007. p. 189-203.

Fedorov F.P. The Artistic World of German Romanticism. Structure and semantics. - M., 2004.

Irony and grotesque in the work of German romantics occupied an important place in depicting the confrontation between the real and the symbolic world. contrasts real world are enlarged, the incredible reveals the ridiculousness, sometimes the ugliness of reality. Analyze Hoffmann's tale in this direction, find in it the features of a romantic grotesque. Why does the insignificant and ugly Zinnober reach the rank of minister, what is the “genius” of his behavior? It is known that A.A. Akhmatova compared Tsakhes with Stalin, why can the hero of P. Suskind's novel "Perfumer" be compared with this literary character? On the example of which heroes of the fairy tale is the romantic duality most clearly felt? Why is the happiness of Balthazar and Candida utopian? For what reasons did Hoffmann's parody sound so topical in contemporary Germany and does not lose its relevance today?

Topic number 2. Comparative analysis romantic ballads Byron's Vision of Belshazzar and Heine's Belshazzar

Text: Byron J. The Vision of Belshazzar (translated by V. Bethaki). Heine G. Balthasar (Translated by M. Mikhailov)

Bibliographic list

Gijeu S. Lyric by Heinrich Heine. - M., 1963. .

Deutsch A. The poetic world of Heinrich Heine. - M., 1963.

Dyakonova N.Ya. Byron's lyric poetry. - M., 1975.

Zhirmunsky V.M. Byron and Pushkin. - M., 1978.

Pronin V.A. "The Vision of Belshazzar" by Byron and "Belshazzar" by Heine. / In the book: Analysis of a literary work: Textbook.-M., 1995.

Aeolian harp. Ballad anthology. - M., 1989.

The ballad is a favorite genre of romantic lyrics. It is not uncommon for different poets to address the same plot, creating ballads that are similar in subject matter, but differ in a different way her permission. Condemning the autocracy of the tyrant, Byron and after him Heine created ballads, using the biblical story. After carefully reading both ballads, as well as comments on them and a fragment from the Bible (the fifth chapter of the Book of the Prophet Daniel), answer the following questions. What dictated the appeal of romantic poets to biblical legends? What are the similarities and differences in the interpretation of the biblical tradition by the two poets? Consider: Was Heine's appeal to Belshazzar influenced by the Byron ballad, or did it happen independently of Byron? Analyzing the text of two ballads, reveal their genre features. Use examples from both works to show how the increase in drama is conveyed. In conclusion, the meaning of the fulfilled prophecy should be revealed.

Topic No. 3. Why did F. Stendhal call his novel "Red and Black"?

Text: Stendhal F. Red and Black (any edition).

Bibliographic list

Andrie R. Stendhal, or Masquerade Ball. - M., 1985.

Balzac O. Study of Bale (any edition).

Vinogradov A.K. Three colors of time (any edition).

Zola E. Stendhal//Sobr. Cit.: In 25 tit. T. 25. - M., 1966.

Morua A Literary portraits. - M, 1970. (section on Stendhal).

EhrenburgI. Lessons from Stendhal (any edition).

Reizov B.G. Stendhal / Reizov B.G. French novel of the nineteenth century. M., 1997.

The title of Stendhal's novel is undoubtedly symbolic. Denoting the title with a contrasting combination of colors, the author thereby announced the contradictions in the public life of France, the various possibilities for the hero to realize the talents and abilities inherent in him by nature. Probably, the title reflected the risky game that the hero is forced to play; you can see in the title and a reflection of the polar opposite features inherent in the nature of the hero. Literary critics and readers have long been arguing about the symbolism of the name. What is your opinion about the meaning of the title of this novel? Justify your point of view with examples from the text.

Topic No. 4 The function of portrait characteristics in Balzac's story "Gobsek"

Text: Honore Balzac. Gobsek (any edition).

Bibliographic list

Balzac in the memoirs of contemporaries. - M., 1986.

Griftsov BL. Balzac/Griftsov B.A. Psychology of the writer. - M., 1988. S. 129-156.

MoruaA. Prometheus, or the Life of Balzac (any edition).

Honore de Balzac: dandy and creator. Research and materials. - M., 1997.

Zweig Stefan, Balzac (any edition).

Chicherin A.V. The works of O. Balzac "Gobsek" and "Lost Illusions" .- M., 1982.

EpsteinM. Poetics of disharmony (Stendhal and Balzac) / M. Ep-stein. paradoxes of novelty. - M., 1988. S. 12 - 41.

Balzac's story "Gobsek" gives a vivid idea of ​​the specifics of Balzac's realism, of his position as a "secretary of society" and a visionary. The study of the function of Gobseck's portrait characteristics helps to comprehend the originality of Balzac's artistic manner.

Analyzing portrait sketches, pay attention to the function of numerous comparisons, the principle of their injection, hyperbolization, sharpening. What is the role of comparing the image of Gobseck with inanimate objects? Analyze how the moneylender becomes in a fantastic way without ceasing to be a real figure. By what artistic means is the typical character of the usurer of the last years of the Restoration created? What patterns of social development does Balzac see through in the image of Gobseck?

Summarizing everything studied, reveal the features of Balzac realism.

Topic No. 5. The plot and composition of the novel by Postav Flaubert "Madame Bovary"

Text: Flaubert G. Madame Bovary (any edition).

Bibliographic list

Zenkin S. Works on French Literature. Yekaterinburg, 1999.

Merezhkovsky D. Ibsen. Flaubert/Merezhkovsky D. Eternal Companions. - M, 1995.

Nabokov V. Lectures on foreign literature. - M, 1998.

Maugham S. Flaubert and "Mayate Voyagu" / Maugham S. Art of the word. - M., 1989.

Why did G. Flaubert dream of writing a book “about nothing”? How was the author's anti-romantic position reflected in the choice of plot? What do you see as entertaining and natural storytelling? Pay attention when the reader first meets Madame Bovary and when he learns about how the formation of Emma's personality took place. Highlight the key moments of the action. What is the author's attitude towards the heroine? Note in the compositional construction the alternation of lyrical episodes and mass scenes. Why does the novel not end with the death of the heroine, but continues with the story of the characters with whom Madame Bovary was connected? Describe in conclusion the innovative, narrative techniques in the novel.

Topic No. 6. O. Wilde's one-man theater in his novel The Picture of Dorian Gray

Text: Wilde O. The Picture of Dorian Gray (any edition)

Bibliographic list

Ackroyd P. The Last Testament of Oscar Wilde. - M., 1993.

Langland J. de Oscar Wilde, or the Truth of Masks (ZhZL). - M., 1999.

Urnov M.V. At the Turn of the Century: Essays in English Literature. - M., 1970.

Holland W. Son of Oscar Wilde. - M., 2006.

Holland M. The Irish Peacock and the Crimson Marquis. The original materials of the trial of Oscar Wilde. - M., 2006.

Written on a bet in a few days, O. Wilde's novel became central work English aestheticism, where Paradox and duality were the most important semantic elements. What main symbols does the author use to reflect the life of Dorian Gray and to motivate his own aesthetic program? Why did K. Balmont compare Wilde's life and his work with a beautiful but poisonous orchid? What is the moral crisis of the hero? How and in what, according to Wilde, is manifested true value art? What comparisons and reminiscences show the extravagance of the author's style in the novel?

Topic number 7. Images of children and the theme of childhood in the works of Charles Dickens

Texts: Charles Dickens. The Adventures of Oliver Twist, The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby, Dombey and Son, Bleak House, Little Dorrit, Antiquities Shop (any novel or multiple novels of your choice)

Bibliographic list

Katarsky I.M. Dickens and his time. M., 1966.

Mikhalskaya N.P. Charles Dickens: Biography of a writer, M., 1987.

Nabokov V. Charles Dickens / Nabokov V. Lectures on foreign literature. M., 1988.

Pearson H. Dickens. M., 1973.

Silman T.I. Dickens: An Essay on Creativity. L., 1970.

Wilson E. The World of Charles Dickens. M., 1975.

Urnov M.V. The inimitable Dickens. M., 1990.

Chesterton G. Charles Dickens. M., 2002.

After reading the novels by Charles Dickens you have chosen, try to understand and explain why the theme of childhood is so characteristic of the writer's work? Why are various variations of this theme constantly present in the most famous novels of the writer? Acquaintance with the biography of Charles Dickens will help you to see autobiographical motives in the depiction of childhood, child labor, child suffering. Is it only autobiographical motives that determine the theme of long-suffering childhood, so organic for the entire work of the writer? Think about how this theme is related to the general concept of a person in Dickens's work (the type of "eccentric", "child", "little man", opposing social evil); with the amazing ability of the writer to see the ideal and beautiful in the terrible conditions of real life, in ordinary people ?

Turning to the text of a particular novel, analyze artistic means incarnations of children's images; how psychological characteristics are created, what is the role of contrasts, symbolism, the function of leitmotifs, etc. Pay attention to the fact that the purity and innocence of children is emphasized by the gloomy atmosphere of dens, "workhouses", "cold houses" in which they suffer (There are about 30 images of children in the novel "Bleak House!"), And the cruelty and callousness of businessmen and other The kind of moral freaks in Dickens' novels is most clearly revealed in their attitude towards children.

Explain, analyzing any novel, how the theme of childhood is connected with the moral and ethical ideal of the writer, "the punisher of lies and hypocrisy" (N.G. Chernyshevsky), a person who "perfectly comprehended the difficult art of loving people" (M. Gorky), with the Dickensian belief in the inevitability of the triumph of good, in the real power of the union of "little people". What is the function of obligatory happy endings in the writer's novels? Does the truth win? Fairy tale logic? Humanism Dickens?

Topic No. 8. Franz Kafka's short story "Transformation" as a metaphor for loneliness and rejection

Text: Kafka F. Transformation (any edition).

Bibliographic list

AdornoT. Notes on Kafka//3vezda, 1996.№2.S. 120-139.

Ford Max. About Franz Kafka. - St. Petersburg, 2000.

Dolgikh E. The Temptation of Kafka, - St. Petersburg, 1998.

Zusman V.G. The artistic world of Franz Kafka: short prose. - Nizhny Novgorod, 1996.

Karelsky A. V. Lecture on the work of Franz Kafka / Foreign Literature. 1995. No. 8.

Nabokov V. Franz Kafka/Vladimir Nabokov. Lectures on foreign literature. - M, 1998.

Mann Yu. Meeting in the labyrinth (Franz Kafka and Nikolai Gogol)//Questions of Literature. 1999. Issue. 2. S. 162-185.

Parfenov A.T. "Transformation" by Franz Kafka / In the book: Analysis of a literary work. - M, 1995.

Before proceeding to the analysis of F. Kafka's short story "The Metamorphosis", get acquainted with the biography of the writer, the features of his personality, the originality of his worldview. To do this, you can use the textbook or read the introductory article to the publication of the works of F. Kafka. It would be useful to read the Letter to the Father, in which the writer revealed the essence family drama. Further, it is advisable to reflect on how the personal circumstances of the writer's life were reflected in the plot of the short story "The Metamorphosis". Consider whether there is closeness between central character and the author. However, the pathos and meaning of the short story is in its universal human content. Try to pick up a few realistic motivations for the fantastic metamorphosis that has taken place, that is, give an internal explanation for external unreal events.

The short story "Transformation" is a parable. What did the Austrian writer want to evoke in his readers: fear or compassion? Finally, try to answer the question: "Why did the dying Franz Kafka ask to destroy and never publish his works?"

AT foreign 19th century literature There are two main currents: romanticism and realism. Since these currents developed almost simultaneously, they left a noticeable imprint on each other. This applies especially to literature 1st half 19th century: the work of many romantic writers (, Hugo, George Sand) has a number of realistic features, while the work of realist writers (Stendhal, Balzac, Mérimée) is often colored with romanticism. It is not always easy to determine where the work of a particular writer should be attributed - to romanticism or realism. Only in the second half of the 19th century did romanticism finally give way to realism.

Romanticism is associated with the French bourgeois revolution of 1789, with the ideas of this revolution. At first, the romantics accepted the revolution enthusiastically and placed very high hopes on the new bourgeois society. Hence the dreaminess and enthusiasm characteristic of the works of romantics. However, it soon became obvious that the revolution did not justify the hopes placed on it. People have not received either freedom or equality. Money began to play a huge role in the fate of people, which, in essence, enslaved them. For the one who was rich, all the ways were opened, the lot of the poor still remained sad. A terrible struggle for money, a thirst for profit began. All this caused severe disappointment among the romantics. They began to look for new ideals - some of them turned to the past, began to idealize it, others, the most progressive, rushed into the future, which they often pictured vaguely and indefinitely. Dissatisfaction with the present, expectation of something new, desire to show the ideal relationship between people, strong characters- this is typical for romantic writers. Not knowing the ways in which humanity can build a better society, the Romantics often turned to fairy tales (Anderson), were keenly interested in folk art and often imitated it (Longfellow, Mitskevich). The best representatives of romanticism, such as Byron, for example, called for the continuation of the struggle, and a new revolution.

Realism, in contrast to romanticism, was primarily interested in the present day. In an effort to reflect reality as fully as possible in their works, realist writers created large works (their favorite genre was the novel) with many events and heroes. They sought to reflect in their works the events characteristic of the era. If the romantics depicted heroes endowed with some sharply individual traits, heroes who were sharply different from the people around them, then the realists, on the contrary, sought to endow their heroes with features typical of many people who belonged to one class or another, to one social group or another. . " Realism suggests- wrote F. Engels, - in addition to the truthfulness of details, the fidelity of the transfer of typical characters in typical circumstances«

The realists did not call for the destruction of bourgeois society, but they depicted it with merciless truthfulness, sharply criticizing its vices, which is why the realism of the 19th century is usually called critical realism.

This is a short overview foreign literature of the 19th century

Good reading for you!