History of ancient Greece. In ancient Greek society, active, active people were valued

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In the era of archaic, the main features of the ethics of ancient Greek society are formed. Its distinctive feature was the combination of the emerging sense of collectivism and the agony (competitive) beginning, which was associated with the formation of a special type state structure in Greece - a policy, a civil community with a republican, in contrast to the countries of the Ancient East, a form of government. A polis is a city-state in which all citizens have certain rules and duties. The polis ideology and its system of values ​​were also relevant: the highest value was the community itself and its benefits, ensuring the benefit of every citizen. The polis morality was basically collectivist, since the existence of an individual outside the polis was impossible. the polis system brought up a special worldview among the Greeks. He taught them to appreciate the real abilities and possibilities of a person - a citizen. It was they who were elevated to the highest artistic principle, into the aesthetic ideal of Ancient Greece. Democracy and humanism are the main ideas underlying ancient Greek culture and civilization. Games Distinctive feature the ancient Greeks had an agon, i.e. a competitive beginning. Noble aristocrats in Homer's poems compete in strength, dexterity and perseverance, and victory in these competitions can only bring glory, not material wealth. Gradually, in Greek society, the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bwinning the competition as highest value glorifying the winner and bringing him honor and respect in society. The formation of ideas about the agon gave rise to various games that were of an aristocratic nature. The oldest and most important games were held for the first time in 776 BC. in honor of Olympian Zeus and since then repeated every four years. They lasted five days, during which time the sacred peace was proclaimed throughout Greece. The only reward for the winner was an olive branch. An athlete who won the games three times (“olympionist”) received the right to install his statue in sacred grove Temple of Olympian Zeus. Athletes competed in running, fisticuffs, chariot races. Later to Olympic Games the Pythian games in Delphi (in honor of Apollo) were added - the winner was a laurel wreath, the Isthmian (in honor of the god Poseidon) on the Isthmus of Corinth, where the reward was a wreath of pine branches, and, finally, the Nemean games (in honor of Zeus). Participants of all games performed naked, so women are under fear death penalty it was forbidden to attend the games, but the beautiful naked body of an athlete became one of the most common motifs of ancient Greek art. Writing and literature One of the most important factors of Greek culture VIII - VI centuries. BC. is rightfully considered new system writing. Through the Phoenicians, the Greeks adopted the Semitic alphabet, improving it by adding a few signs to represent vowels. The alphabetic writing was more convenient than the ancient syllabary of the Mycenaean era: it consisted of only 24 characters. The Greek alphabet had a number of variants, the most common of which was Ionian, adopted, in particular, in Attica (Athens). In the archaic period, a new trend was formed in Greek literature. The age of the Greeks has gone with Homer; now the attention of poets is attracted not by the heroic deeds of past centuries, but by today's life, feelings and experiences of an individual. This genre is called lyrics. The emergence and development of lyric poetry is associated with the name of Archilochus from Fr. Paros (VI century BC). With unprecedented strength, he conveyed in his poems both impulses of passion, and offended pride, and a desire for revenge, and a willingness to endure the vicissitudes of fate. Instead of the hexameter, Archilochus introduced new sizes into literature - iambic and trocheus. Another Ionian, Anacreon from Fr. Theos (VI century BC) remained in the memory of mankind as a singer of friendly feasts and love, who had many followers and imitators in later centuries. It was the lyrics of Anacreon that created the well-known image of cheerful, joyfully and serenely feasting Greeks. Archaic lyrics found their best representatives on about. Lesbos at the turn of the 7th-6th centuries. BC. This poet Alkey and the poetess of the finest lyrical talent Sappho, known as the author of love poems and epitalam (wedding songs). Ancient Sparta became the center of the development of choral lyrics, one of the most common forms of which was the dithyramb - a song in honor of the god Dionysus. Throughout the Greek world, fame spread about the poet Pindar (VI-V centuries BC), who sang the highest virtue - arete - an innate property of an aristocrat, which meant valor, physical perfection, nobility and dignity. Hexameter is a meter characteristic of Homeric poems and other epic works. Ionia in ancient Greece was called the western coast of Asia Minor, as well as some of the islands of the Aegean Sea. Architecture In the era of the archaic, the main types and forms of Greek art had already arisen, which would then be developed in classical period. All the achievements of Greek architecture of that time, both constructive and decorative, are associated with the construction of temples. In the 7th century BC. there was a system of orders, i.e. a special ratio of load-bearing and carried parts of the building in a beam-rack structure. Decided artistic features two main architectural orders: Doric and Ionic. The Doric order, distributed mainly in southern Greece, was distinguished by the heaviness and massiveness of the columns, simple and strict capitals, the desire for monumentality, masculinity, and perfection of proportions. In the Ionic order, on the contrary, lightness, grace, whimsical lines were valued, the capital had a characteristic shape similar to the horns of a ram. A little later, in the 5th c. BC, the Corinthian order appears in Greece - magnificent, spectacular, with a complex capital, similar to a flower basket. Typical examples of Doric buildings of the archaic era were the temples of Apollo in Corinth and Poseidon in Paestum. We know more about the Ionic temples of this era from ancient literature: a significant part of them were destroyed. So, throughout the Greek world, the sanctuary of Artemis in the city of Ephesus in Asia Minor (one of the wonders of the world) was famous for the temple of Hera on about. Samos, Apollo in Didyma (Asia Minor). A feature of the archaic temple was a rich polychrome painting. Ancient Greece was the birthplace of marble structures, but by no means only sparkling white, as is sometimes thought. The masterpieces of ancient architecture shone with all the colors: red, blue, gold, green against the backdrop of the shining sun and radiant sky. Sculpture Sculpture archaic period differed by imperfection, creating, as a rule, a generalized image. These are the so-called kuros (“youths”), also called archaic Apollos. Several dozen such statues have survived to our time. The most famous is the marble figure of Apollo from the Shadows. The conditional “archaic smile” characteristic of the sculpture of that time plays on his lips, his eyes are wide open, his hands are lowered and clenched into fists. The principle of frontality of the image is observed in full. Archaic female statues are represented by the so-called kors (“girls”) in long flowing clothes. The heads of the girls are decorated with curls, the statues themselves are full of grace and grace. By the end of the VI century. BC. Greek sculptors gradually learned to overcome the name "Doric" is associated with the Dorians, the conquerors of the Archean cities. The Greeks considered the Doric order to be the embodiment of strength and courage. The capital is the top of a column. The capital supported horizontal part buildings - an entablature consisting of an architrave, a frieze and a cornice. The architrave was a smooth beam; on the frieze, as a rule, sculptural compositions were placed; the cornice formed a gable roof. Paestum is a Greek colony in southern Italy. originally characteristic of their statues static. Ceramics rich picture everyday life inhabitants of Hellas draws the art of vase painting of the 7th-6th centuries. BC, clearly testifying to the love of the Greeks for color and paint. The shapes of the vessels are as varied as their functions. Along with craters for mixing wine, pithoi and amphoras for storing olive oil, wine and grain, small incense bottles, plates, and large dishes were also made. Magnificent Panathenaic amphoras were handed over to the winner of the games, slender lekythos were placed on the graves. Ceramics accompanied man in all his life path. Art style of vase painting of the 7th century. BC. often called orientalizing, i.e. close to east. In the next, VI century. BC, Greek vase painting begins to free itself from oriental influences, and colorful, whimsical pictorial decor, reminiscent of drawings on oriental carpets or fabrics, gives way to scenes taken from life. The new, black-figure style reached its greatest development in Chalkis and Athens. Thus, vases painted by the talented Athenian master Exekius on mythological subjects are widely known: “Achilles and Ajax playing dice” adorn the magnificent Exekia amphora, rightly called the pearl of archaic art. Approximately the middle of the VI century. BC. The technique of red-figure painting was discovered. Instead of black figures on a light background, they began to depict light figures on a dark background - this gave room for a more thorough development of details. Of the well-known masters of red-figure painting, it is worth mentioning Euthymides and Euphronius. In addition to scenes from mythology and the Homeric epic, red-figure style vases depict the daily activities and entertainment of the ancient Hellenes. We see young men practicing in the palestra, flutists and dancers, an artisan's workshop, a school. The desire for realism in the image, for harmony between the depicted figures and the shape of the vessel makes the ceramics of this particular period especially valuable in the eyes of art connoisseurs. high classic(5th century BC) Greece reached its highest point of economic, political and cultural development in the middle of the 5th century. BC. At the beginning of the century, the center of gravity of the political and cultural life The Greek world moved from Ionia (Asia Minor) and from the islands of the Aegean to continental Greece, especially to Athens - the center of Attica. The unique originality of Greek culture classical era gave Athens, and the Athenian state itself became a source of political and cultural influences and a kind of trendsetter. The rulers of Athens (primarily Pericles) sought to make their hometown the largest cultural center Hellas, the center of everything valuable and beautiful in the Greek world. Vibrant social life distinguished Athens in the middle of the 5th century. BC. All full-fledged citizens of the policy participated in the national assembly - the ekklesia, which had supreme authority. The Athenian state also took care of the cultural leisure of its citizens, giving them the opportunity to participate in festivities and visit the theater. The poor were paid from the treasury theatrical money - theorikon - two obols to visit the theater. In Athens, there was also a developed education system: children from seven to sixteen were educated in private paid schools: literacy, literature, music, and mathematics were taught. Much attention was paid to physical education. Numerous gymnasiums with halls and baths, palestras for youth training turned sports from the privilege of the nobility into the right of any Athenian citizen. The purpose of education was the all-round development of the individual. Here the Greeks identified other peoples not only of antiquity, but also of later eras. In Athens, where there were then the best conditions for free creativity, scientists and artists from other Greek cities aspired. Architecture In the classical period, Greek culture and art are experiencing the era of the highest prosperity, with the main center artistic creativity were Athens. In architecture, it is finally taking shape classical type peripteral temple. Monumental construction reached its greatest extent in Athens. In Athens, a magnificent architectural ensemble the Athenian Acropolis, which became a symbol ancient Greece. The construction work and decorations of the Athenian Acropolis were led by the wonderful sculptor Phidias, a friend of Pericles. The columns of the largest temple of the Acropolis, the Parthenon, dedicated to the goddess Athena-Virgo, rise proudly here. History has preserved the names of its creators - Iktin and Kallikrat. Built of light marble, surrounded by 46 Doric columns and framed by an Ionic frieze, the Parthenon was the epitome of harmony and austerity. Hellenistic period (IV-I centuries BC) Hellenistic civilization It is customary to call a new stage in the development of material and spiritual culture, forms of political organization and social life of the peoples of the Mediterranean, Western Asia and adjacent regions. Literature The literature of the Hellenistic era is unusually rich in terms of the number of works and the variety of genres. At the courts of the Hellenistic kings, magnificent, refined, full of learning court poetry flourished, examples of which were the idylls and hymns of Callimachus from Cyrene, the epic poem Argonautica by Apollonius of Rhodes, and others. Poetry became an art for the elite, its very refined and often pretentious style was far from dr.oniya Rodoskogireni, an epic poem of idyll and enena, full accounting Obol - a Greek measure of weight, the smallest silver or copper coin. The Athenian silver obol weighed 0.73 g and corresponded to the average ancient earnings of an Athenian artisan. problems affecting society as a whole. The most common were small literary forms- elegies and epillias, which were dominated by mythological and love stories. Interesting and tastes of the townspeople were expressed by comedies and mime (everyday scene). The mimes of Herodes were especially famous, realistically depicting urban life. Architecture The art of the era experienced a period of rapid prosperity. It acquired a more secular character and was a fusion of various trends and styles. Active construction was carried out, including new cities: Alexander the Great himself, according to legend, founded 70 cities named Alexandria in his honor. The new Hellenistic cities had a rectangular shape and a very rational layout. The streets in Pergamon were twice as wide as the streets of the old Greek cities, and the Hellenistic Priene surpassed mediaeval Paris in terms of amenities. Special Development in the era of Hellenism received the construction of public buildings and structures. The monumentality of the city ensemble was given by the obligatory porticos, which sheltered both from the rain and the sun. Subsequently, the Romans borrowed this type of construction. Buildings of the Hellenistic time were often distinguished by a craving for the colossal, a kind of megalomania. This applies primarily to the monumental altars - the altar of Hieron II in Syracuse and especially - the altar of Zeus to Pergamon. The latter is famous mainly for its grandiose frieze encircling the basement of the building (its dimensions are 36 * 34 * 5.6 m). greatest achievement Aegean culture was the creation of writing, the so-called syllabary. Epos - special kind art of ancient Greece. epic poems Homer - masterpieces ancient culture. The rapid flourishing of poetry, drama, architecture, sculpture, which had a serious impact on further development literature and art, characterizes the culture of ancient Greece.

Polis system

A feature of the political development of Hellas (Greece) was that she never knew the despotic power of kings. In scarce lands mainland Greece it was pointless to create large royal farms based on the labor of thousands of forced laborers, as happened in Egypt and Mesopotamia. The state did not become among the Greeks a complex and well-functioning economic mechanism - on the contrary, it retained all the main features of a communal organization, simple and based on the equality of its members. The preservation of the communal system saved the Elmens from the need to "adjust" their beliefs to the requirements of a strong centralized despotism; the polis, or community - the polis was strong by the unity of its interests. Community - policy included not only rural but also urban population . One could become a member of the community under two conditions: if the person was a Greek by nationality; if he was free and owned private property. All members of the community - free owners - had political rights (although not always equal), which allowed them to take part in state activities. Therefore, the Greek policy is called a civil community. Within the policies, civil law was gradually formed, i.e. codes of laws were formed that determined the rights and obligations of members of the community, giving them some social guarantees. The policy was not only engaged in internal affairs, but could also conduct foreign policy activities, having its own army: the citizens of the policy joined the militia and turned into warriors during the wars. The policy (i.e., the collective of citizens) had the right of supreme ownership of the land. In addition to private plots of land, he also disposed of undivided, free land, and this strengthened the position of the policy as a political entity. Perceiving itself as an independent state, the policy lived in accordance with the idea of ​​autarky. A special system of ideals was created: free citizens believed that the well-being of each of them depended primarily on their native policy, outside of which it was impossible to exist. On the other hand, the prosperity of the policy largely depended on its citizens, who revered ancient traditions, condemned money-grubbing, highly valued peasant labor and, most importantly, felt themselves full and free people. This was a matter of special pride. But nevertheless, conflicts gradually matured within the policies, which by the 7th century. BC. reached a particularly large scale. The former tribal nobility - the aristocrats infringe on the rights of the demos (the people to which all the ignorant free peasants and artisans belonged.) The struggle against the aristocracy was led by the small peasantry, who often faced the threat of losing their land and becoming tenants on their own plots. The aristocrats also had another enemy - a large layer of ignorant citizens who became rich thanks to trade and crafts and who wanted to receive the privileges of the nobility. In many policies, this struggle ended in a coup, the overthrow of the tribal nobility and the establishment of tyranny - autocracy, thanks to which the arbitrariness of the nobility was curbed. The need for tyranny, after the position of the aristocracy had been weakened, quickly fell away, and other forms of government began to appear. In some policies, the government was oligarchic, in others it was democratic, but in any case, the people's assembly played an important role, which had the right to finally decide all the most important issues. Greek policies were usually small. For example, on the island of Rhodes (its area is about 1404 sq. km.) There were three independent policies, and on the island of Crete (8500 sq. km.) - several dozen. The largest policy was Sparta: its territory covered 8400kv. km. Society in policies. Among the population of policies, a privileged position was occupied by its citizens. Other free people, who are not citizens of the policy, are considered incomplete. These included primarily dependent peasants, who had lost their ownership of their plots of land, and foreigners (meteks). Slaves were at the bottom of the social ladder. The economic life of the policy. To get rid of the threat of famine, Greece was forced to start exporting some types of agricultural products and handicrafts quite early. the largest shopping center by the 5th c. BC. became Athens, which actively traded with the colonies and countries of the East. Monetary circulation, credit and usury operations grew. Since each city-state in Greece minted its own coin, foreign exchange developed. Land trade was developed much worse than sea trade. Commodity-money relations in some policies were more developed, while in others they were weaker, they spread unevenly and existed within the framework of a subsistence economy. It was in the policy that the foundations of ancient democracy, commodity-money relations were laid, a special type of personality was formed - free, ambitious, boundlessly devoted to his state. The features of the policy left their mark on the ancient Greek civilization as a whole. The policies reached their peak at the turn of the 6th-5th century. BC. By this time, Greece was a set of separate small cities - states that either fought among themselves, or entered into alliances. Throughout its existence, Ancient Greece did not know a single centralized authority, although there were attempts to establish it. Relatively stable and large associations of policies arose during the wars with Persia. They were headed by the two most powerful policies - Athens and Sparta, which formed two centers of ancient Greek civilization, and each of them developed in a special way. The history of Athens is, first of all, the history of the formation and victory of ancient democracy, while Sparta is often considered a militaristic, even "police" extremely conservative state. The rivalry of these two policies led to many years of civil wars that destroyed the ancient Greek civilization from the inside. The long bloody Peloponnesian wars weakened not only Sparta, but also the victorious policies, and eventually the whole of Greece. Former civilizational structures began to collapse. This was most clearly manifested in the Athenian policy, where commodity-money relations. The laws by which the policy lived, which arose as a "closed" community of citizens - farmers, did not allow rich, but deprived people to lead entrepreneurial activity. The old form of ownership, which united both state and private principles, has outlived its usefulness, and now a transition to full private ownership was required. There were also changes in political life. The struggle between supporters of the oligarchy and democracy was replaced by a confrontation between groups separated by property status. Plato, great philosopher Ancient Greece, wrote that “two states hostile to each other were formed inside the policy: one of the poor, the other of the rich.” In Athens, these conflicts escalated into violent debates in the popular assembly, after which political opponents were often expelled. In other policies, it came to civil wars. Individualism, which used to be combined with the idea of ​​“common benefit”, is now undoubtedly a question: the colletivist morality that restrains it began to collapse, and with it the polis itself in its traditional form, which for a long time was the basis and support of ancient Greek civilization, was destroyed.

Greek democracy

Ancient Greece can be considered the cradle of democracy - it was there that the first democratic states were born. It should not be forgotten that the Hellenes lived in states in which order was maintained by itself, and not at the expense of an exaggerated bureaucratic apparatus. The laws in the Peloponnese were based on elementary norms of life, understandable to everyone. In the modern world, many do not fully know both their rights and their duties. The rulers were mostly from aristocratic circles (this does not indicate an oligarchy at all, on the contrary, this is due to the fact that they could get a good education and were always in sight), but the ruler could well come from the people. Was interesting case with the appointment of Sophocles to the place of the Athenian commander in the battle with the rebellious Samians because his last drama was a tremendous success among the people (by the way, the Athenians were then defeated). Elections were held every year. So no one could firmly gain a foothold in power, and the people could legally change the ruler they did not like. Even in the case when the ruler managed to win the trust of the population, whether through numerous victories on the battlefields or by the government itself, he was threatened with exile, no matter how ridiculous it may sound. In addition to the council, there was a court, and he also participated in political life. At one time, the famous legislator Solon issued a law: “whoever sees an insult can complain to the court.” When a citizen saw damage to the state in the actions of another, he, even if he himself was not affected, filed a lawsuit. It was impossible to prosecute only officials in the performance of duties, but his term was ending and ... all those dissatisfied with his actions in office immediately went to court with complaints. Everyone remembered: if he did not stand up for the state, then no one else would.

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STRUCTURE OF GREEK SOCIETY. CLASSIC SLAVERY

The pace of development of the ancient states, and indeed the very paths along which it went, differed significantly from each other. Accordingly, the structure of society in each Greek policy had its own specifics. The most complete and comprehensive idea of ​​the structure of ancient society can be obtained from the example of Athens, a large democratic city with a developed economy.

The civil collective of the Athenian policy, which united all of Attica, in 432 BC. e. was 35-45 thousand men - full citizens. Together with women and children, there were up to 172 thousand people in the policy. In? in. BC e. in society, the division into four property categories introduced by Solon was still preserved, although now it was no longer of great importance for political life. For the first two ranks - pentakosiomedimnamnam and riders- were mainly representatives of the "old" nobility. There were quite a few aristocrats in Athens. By law, they did not have any privileges. Nevertheless, the high status and authority of people from noble families, good education, and considerable wealth, which many of them retained from previous eras, allowed aristocrats to play a prominent role in public life. It was representatives of the nobility who were most often elected to top positions led military expeditions.

In addition to aristocrats, the first two categories also included very wealthy citizens of humble origin, who made their fortune in trade and handicraft production (large merchants, owners of workshops). No one has amassed fabulous wealth in the Greek policies. Even the largest fortunes were, by modern standards, quite modest. So, in the V century. BC e. richest man in Athens (and, according to some sources, throughout Greece), the diplomat Callius (who made peace with Persia), who had a fortune of 200 silver talents, was considered. The country was poor, and wealth in it was a relative concept.

In general, the ordinary demos perceived the rich with a grain of salt. It was believed that by their very existence they violated the principle of universal equality. To restore "justice" the authorities of the democratic policy imposed on wealthy citizens liturgy- Various duties. One of the popular liturgies was tri-hierarchy: the Athenian had to equip and man the warship at his own expense. Gymnasiarchy implied the organization of sports competitions by a wealthy citizen, the device gymnasiums- sports facilities. Choregia obliged the citizen to pay for the recruitment and training of the choir and actors for festive performances. Thus, the state shifted a significant part of its expenses to private individuals, which was necessary, since citizens did not pay regular direct taxes, only in emergency situations was levied eisphora- One-time emergency tax.

Liturgies, replacing taxation, allowed the civil collective to a certain extent to restrain the property stratification among citizens. It must be said that in Vv. BC e. the rich themselves, caring both for the good of the policy and for their own prestige, by no means tried to avoid liturgies, but, on the contrary, sought to outdo each other with the generosity of spending for the good of society. This gave honor, ensured the growth of political influence, which was considered more significant than the accumulation of material values.

To the third category zewg itam, were middle class peasants. The most numerous, this category at first constituted the main social pillar of democracy.

But gradually they begin to play an increasingly important role feta- the fourth category, uniting the poorest peasants and artisans, day laborers, as well as persons of uncertain occupations. The role of fetes in the life of policies especially increased when, during the Greco-Persian wars, they were first included in the crews of triremes. In relation to these people, the state pursued a certain social policy: it protected them from final ruin, tried to provide them with a plot of land (at least outside of Attica, on the lands of policies - members of the Delian Union), organized well-paid public works for them, most often construction. In the interests of the poor, a fee was introduced for participation in the work of public bodies, and in the 4th century. BC e. - even for attending a public meeting.

In addition to citizens, in Athens lived meteki- Another fairly large category of the population (there were approximately 25-35 thousand people). The status of a meteca was given to persons who moved permanently to Athens from other cities, as well as their descendants. Labels were not used civil rights, could not participate in government, could not own land as private property, but, unlike citizens, paid taxes. The source of livelihood for meteks, as a rule, was crafts and trade. However, in the conditions of an economically developed Athenian policy, these activities brought significant income. Many metecs became very wealthy people and, despite their low legal status, were quite satisfied with their position.

Finally, the lowest in the social hierarchy was one of the most numerous groups of the population - slaves. Some ancient authors (however, "late", whose evidence is not very reliable) claim that in Athens in the 5th century. BC e. there were 400 thousand slaves. According to more conservative estimates, there were 80-115 thousand slaves in the Athenian policy of the classical era. An exact figure is unlikely to be established: unlike citizens and metecs, slaves were not counted in any censuses. In any case, slaves made up about a third of the total population of the Athenian state.

In the 5th century BC e. in the developed Greek policies, which included Athens, finally established classic bondage, characterized by maximum opposition legal statuses slave and free man, by treating the slave as a thing. One of the most important factors in the development of slaveholding relations was the Greco-Persian wars, during which the captured barbarians were enslaved. For example, after the defeat of the Persians under the Eurymedon, 20 thousand prisoners were sold into slavery. Actually, during this period, it was foreigners who made up the vast majority of slaves. By the way, this played a role in the formation of the Greeks' idea of ​​barbarians as "slaves by nature."

Another source of slaves was the capture of free people by pirates. The slave contingent was also replenished at the expense of children born to slaves. Moreover, such slaves usually enjoyed great confidence on the part of their masters. The development of slavery inevitably led to the emergence of slave markets. The largest of them existed in Ephesus, as well as on the islands of Chios, Samos and Delos.

Slave labor was used in the most different areas production. In craft workshops, building artels, slaves often worked on an equal footing with free people. Slave labor prevailed where working conditions were especially difficult, such as in mines. Few slaves were used in agriculture, but even there, even a not very rich peasant was often helped in his work by one or two slaves, and up to several dozen of them could work on the estate of a rich man, headed by a manager, who was also often a slave. In the urban homes of aristocrats, slaves performed the duties of household servants, cooks, gatekeepers, etc. There were also state slaves who could occupy lower positions, which were considered humiliating for free citizens. So, in Athens, a detachment of Scythian slaves armed with bows acted as a police guard.

However, one should not imagine Greek society in a simplistic way, as consisting of a handful of slave owners and opposed to them in furious implacability by a huge mass of mercilessly exploited slaves. First, an extremely important role was played by a large group of small producers-owners - free people. And the slaves in any of the Greek policies never made up the majority of the population.

Secondly, ancient Greek slavery was not based on the most brutal exploitation of slaves in order to squeeze everything out of them. In ancient Greece, the slave, no doubt, was perceived as a thing, but an expensive and necessary thing in the household, so they tried to treat him, like any other thing, with care. The conditions for the existence of slaves were quite tolerable and sometimes differed little from the conditions of life of poor free peasants. This allowed the most rational use of slave labor with optimal benefits for the owner. It must be emphasized that the gravity of the position of a slave did not lie in abuse with him, and in his complete disgrace. The state sometimes intervened in the relationship between slave owners and slaves. So, in some policies (including Athens) it was forbidden to kill or torture slaves for no reason.

In ancient Greece, the release of slaves into the wild was also practiced, although this was not widespread. If a slave was associated with trade or craft, he could redeem himself free with his savings. Slaves often received their freedom by will after the death of their master. There was also such a way of releasing a slave into the wild, as a gift or sale to a deity. At the same time, a special document stipulated that the money from the sale would go entirely to the owner, and the protection of the freedom of the slave was entrusted to God. The freedman filled the ranks of the metecs and continued to maintain a certain dependence on his former master.

Although the history of Greece of the classical era practically did not know major armed uprisings of slaves, however, the dissatisfaction of the slaves with their status spilled over into various forms of protest. The most common of these was flight (for example, during the Peloponnesian War, 20 thousand slaves fled from Athens). There were cases when slaves driven to despair killed their masters. For this crime, the slave was executed on the grave of his master.

Sources

A very valuable source on the history of Greece in the 5th century. BC e., and especially Athens, are dramatic works. The great playwrights Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides and Aristophanes were Athenian citizens. Attic tragedy was a very complex literary genre, in which the mythological plot made it possible to raise the most important religious-philosophical, ethical, and political issues. True, the use of "theatrical" monuments for the reconstruction of the events of the political life of antiquity is complicated by the fact that in the tragedies we find not direct references to these events, but rather allusions and reminiscences, sometimes not fully understood by people of later eras.

Greek comedy of the 5th century. BC e. had the character of a topical political satire. Aristophanes boldly depicted in his plays contemporary politicians and generals, often bringing Cleon, Nikias, Lamachus, Demosthenes and others to the stage under their proper names. Other well-known Athenians turned out to be characters in his works: the philosopher Socrates, the playwright Euripides. In the comedies of Aristophanes, there are many references to the events of Athenian history during the Peloponnesian War, and some of them can only be learned from the writings of this author.

In the research literature, the comedies of Aristophanes are often called the "mirror" of Athenian reality; however, it must be remembered that this mirror is curved. The fact is that, according to the laws of the genre, in comedies the history of Athens appeared before the audience in a grotesque, hyperbolic refraction. In Aristophanes, either a simple peasant makes a separate peace with Sparta and enjoys the benefits of a peaceful life, then two Athenians establish a bird city between earth and sky, and then gain the upper hand over the gods themselves, then women commit a coup d'état, removing men from managing the policy. It's not a reflection real events but rather the aspirations of certain segments of the population.

Artworks Greek poets can serve as a source of religious ideas and cults of the ancient Greeks, their ideology, mentality, moral views.

From the book History. Russian history. Grade 10. Deep level. Part 2 author Lyashenko Leonid Mikhailovich

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From the book From Slavery to Slavery [From Ancient Rome to Modern Capitalism] author Katasonov Valentin Yurievich

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From the book History of the East. Volume 1 author Vasiliev Leonid Sergeevich

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author Andreev Yury Viktorovich

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From the book of Barbara. Ancient Germans. Life, Religion, Culture by Todd Malcolm

CHAPTER 2. THE STRUCTURE OF SOCIETY SOCIAL ORGANIZATION The ancient Germanic peoples (civitates, as the ancient Romans called them) consisted of separate population groups, which were usually called tribes (pagi), and which, in turn, united numerous clans or genera. Childbirth

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From the book Mission of Russia. national doctrine author Valtsev Sergey Vitalievich

The Structure of Society Society is a fairly complex social organism. The body presupposes the presence of structure. The structure, multiplied by the individual characteristics of each person, gives rise to a hierarchy. Hierarchies are different: power, cultural, sports, and many others. etc. But

on the one hand, the development of a new, polis feeling of the collective, on the other hand, the development of individual forces. the growth of self-awareness of a person who is trying to define himself and his tasks; in the face of the natural and social conditions of its existence.

Social movements of the 7th - 6th centuries. ideologically took shape in moral preaching, in religious ferment, in the crisis of Olympian religion and mythology. “Truth” (dike), “justice”, which occupied so significant place already in the worldview" of Hesiod (pp. 61, 63), become slogans of the struggle for written legislation, and then - in advanced communities - and for a more radical reorganization of polis life and the destruction of the advantages of the nobility. In the "law" Greek thought begins to see the basis of society. “The law is king,” the poet Pindar later says. The first duty of a citizen is obedience to the laws of the polis. Accordingly, the ideal of "valor" (arete), which contains the entire sum of civilly valuable physical qualities, also changes. and moral. First of all, the aristocracy claims to possess these qualities, substantiating their traditional rights with them. Is aristocratic "prowess" seen as transient? by inheritance and is supported by a system of education based on gymnastic training and "music" education, i.e., the assimilation of the didactic poetry of the aristocracy and its tales of "exemplary" deeds mythological heroes. Among the ideologists of aristocracies, the term “good” becomes almost equivalent to “noble”, “bad” - “ignorant”. In contrast to this aristocratic ideal, other understandings of "valor" are created, highlighting "justice" or "wisdom" (sophia).

The origin of the ideal of "wisdom" is associated with the criticism of the traditional religious and mythological system. By the end of the period under review, this criticism assumed its most radical forms in the places of the most complete victory of the slave-owning class, in the Ionian cities of Asia Minor. The humanized gods of the Olympian religion began to appear as an absurd and immoral fiction, attempts began to bring natural phenomena into a system based on the internal development of nature itself, without assuming the influence of the gods. The idea of ​​"orderliness" ("cosmos") is transferred from the policy to nature. This is how Greek science and philosophy were created in Ionia. On the other hand, peasant unrest in European Greece was accompanied by religious movements that brought to the fore the agricultural religion of underground forces, the veneration of dying and resurrecting gods, the cult of Demeter and Kore (p. 19), especially the god Dionysus, communion with the deity in a sacred action , "mysteries". While the aristocratic religion separated man from God by an abyss, substantiating with this fantastic line the real line between the nobility (“pets of Zeus”, that is, the descendants of the gods, “kings”) and the people, the religion of the mysteries likened to a deity any participant in a sacred action and those most had a more democratic character. The tyrants, in their struggle against the aristocracy, intensively introduced the cult of Dionysus, while trying to politically neutralize and neutralize religious unrest among the masses: thus, in Athens, the tyrant Peisistratus established the feast of the “Great Dionysius”, which played a significant role in the development of Greek drama (p. 107).

Frontiers of Ancient Greek Civilization.

The first question that immediately arises in you is the natural question: “When did ancient civilization exist?”

Ancient civilization existed for twelve centuries starting from the eighth century BC. and ended with the fifth century AD. Ancient civilization is divided into two local civilizations;

a) Ancient Greek (8-1 centuries BC)

b) Roman (8th century BC - 5th century AD)

Between these local civilizations, a particularly bright era of Hellenism stands out, which covers the period from E23 BC. before 30 BC

You can also characterize the ancient Greek civilization and answer the question: Where did it start?

The ancient Greek civilization arose on the Balkan Peninsula and it also included the western coast of Asia Minor (the western part of present-day Turkey). The Balkan Peninsula is washed by three seas from three sides: the Ionian from the west, the Mediterranean from the south, and the Aegean from the east. You can also remember, if you mentally imagine the Balkan Peninsula, that it is mainly represented by mountainous terrain, very few fertile valleys and the main type of economy was mainly cattle breeding (raising sheep and goats). They were also engaged in agriculture (they grew grapes (wine) and olives (olive oil)), but only in two valleys. It should also be noted in connection with the convenient coastline that fishing and navigation were developed. As for minerals, the regions of Ephracia and Macedonia were rich in gold mines. In the south (near Philopones) iron was mined. Tin was mined in the region of ancient Greece. The building material, especially valued and located in Greece, is marble.

The marble of the island of Parros ("Paros" white marble) was also especially valued.

So what kind of people created the ancient Greek civilization? some would say the Greeks. But the concepts of Greeks and Hellenes are the collective names of a huge conglomerate of tribes. While among this conglomerate of tribes such tribes as:

Archeans (dynamic, aggressive people), Dorians, Felacci.

Ancient Greek civilization is divided into three periods:

1. Archaic (8th-6th centuries)

2. Classical (5th-4th centuries)

3. Hellenistic (4th-1st centuries)

What was the transition to the ancient Greek civilization?

In historical science, there is an opinion that the ancient Greek civilization did not develop overnight. What was like two attempts to form a civilization. The first experience of civilization was associated with the Crete-Minoan culture or simply the Minoan culture. (Here you need to understand that any civilization, it is not formed from scratch, something precedes it). In this case, the ancient Greek civilization was preceded by several civilizations, such as:

ksklatskaya (originated on the islands of the same name mentioned in ancient Greek myths), which in turn contributed to the emergence of a new, vibrant civilization, the so-called Minoan civilization (on the island of Crete, it got its name from the name of King Minos who lived in the city of Sknox).

The Minoan civilization arose at the turn of 3-2 thousand years BC. and it lasted about 500 years. This civilization (Minoan) was discovered by the English archaeologist Arthur Leva in the area of ​​the city of Knossos. He discovered the unique palace buildings that belonged to King Minos. Based on the findings of A. Lev, one can imagine the life of the population of that time on the island of Crete. The Minoan civilization is characterized in the first place by the dawn of the agricultural culture. The entire area suitable for cultivation of the land was mastered here. Cattle breeding also played an important role. There was progress in handicrafts. It was a strong centralized state headed by King Minos. In addition, it should be noted that the residents were engaged not only in rural areas. household works but also active maritime piracy. King Minos was considered the lord of the sea. Also, the Minoan civilization can be found under the name of the palace civilization because of the monumental palaces, the construction of which, according to scientists, was borrowed from the Egyptians. But in the 15th century BC. the island of Crete survived terrible catastrophe. There are two versions regarding the death of civilization. According to one of them, on one of the small islands, which are located somewhere in 120 km. a volcanic eruption occurred north of Crete, with a large emission of ash and a tsunami. There is another version that the civilization died as a result of the invasion of the aggressive Aderiks who came from the mainland to the island. Until now, there is no single point of view on the death of the Minoan culture.

In place of the Minoan civilization in this region, as if on the eve of the ancient Greek civilization, the Mycenaean civilization appears.

To the north of the city of Athens, the city of Mycenae is looming, on the site of which the Mycenaean civilization arose.

Heinrich Schliemann discovered the Mycenaean civilization. Looking for Troy in this region, he stumbled upon magnificent palace buildings, which opened the Mycenaean civilization, or as the Archean culture is also called from the name of the Archean tribe. This civilization is very well described in Homer's poems Hellas and Odyssey.

The Mycenaean civilization can be characterized by the following features. Such as the development of palace construction, but also grandiose tombs were built, which were called Tollos. About 600 clay tablets were found in the area of ​​Mycenae and the island of Crete. These tablets were a certain type of writing.

From the end of the 13th century, for 100 years, army culture was destroyed. Scientists are also arguing about the reason for the disappearance of this civilization. Before the dominant hypothesis, the opinion is expressed that this civilization was destroyed by the tribes of the Greek Dorians. Cities were destroyed, part of the population moved to the islands, and part to the western coast of Asia Minor.

In the 11th - 9th centuries BC. in the history of Greece are designated as "dark" ages. They got their name due to the fact that in modern history there is no complete, clear idea of ​​\u200b\u200bwhat happened in these centuries in Greece. Everything we know is based on the analysis of Homer's poems Hellas and Odyssey. This period is characterized by the primitive development of agriculture, tools, and handicrafts.

All this period, the Minoan, Mycenaean civilizations all preceded the appearance of the ancient Greek civilization. This can be compared, as it were, with the first experience of the formation of Greek civilization.

The second experience began in the archaic era (8-6 centuries BC). Actually, this was the direct construction of the ancient Greek civilization. This was facilitated, firstly, by the increased technological base and the economic level of development of society in the conditions of the victory of iron production. Secondly, the deepening of the social division of labor. Third, the formation of genuine urban centers. Fourth, the formation of a developed type of slavery.

archaic era. "Iron Revolution". The role of navigation in the life of ancient society.

The emergence of ancient Greek civilization coincides with the beginning of the Iron Age (1 thousand years, BC). In terms of technological production, a number of changes have taken place. First of all, the transition to steel production was a defining moment. At that time, the Khallib tribes (the north of Asia Minor) were the monopolists in the extraction of iron.

Only in the massive separation of steel production can we talk about the victory of the Iron Age over the Bronze Age. The appearance of steel made it possible to successfully cultivate the land, more productively deforestation for mudflow. household land, simplified the creation of irrigation canals. A number of crafts have also been revolutionized. Shipbuilding, blacksmithing, carpentry and weapons crafts appeared. The advent of iron and steel revolutionized the art of war.

The period of formation of the ancient Greek civilization coincides with the so-called great Greek colonization (8-6 centuries BC). For 3 centuries, the Greeks were forced to leave their homeland and move to other countries. This was due to the lack of sufficient land suitable for agricultural activities. The removal of social tension and overcrowding also played a role. And, finally, trade was a very important stimulus for the process of colonization. The colonization movement was carried out in 3 directions.

The first direction is west. The population of Greece moved to the island of Sicily, to the south of Italy, to the south of France. The second direction is south. This is North Africa and Levan. The third direction is the east direction. The Greeks quite early mastered the move from the Aegean Sea to the Black Sea, which they first called "inhospitable", and then it was called "hospitable". They mastered the coast, almost the entire coast. Black Sea. In the south, in the region of present-day Turkey, they created a colony of such repasts, which later became the Trapezoan empire. Moving east they built the city of Fasi, the famous city of Ketch which was called by the Greeks Pahikopeia. Further Chersonese and Kolia, If you go along west coast, then we will see such colonies as Tom and Odessa.

What did these three colonization centuries give the Greeks. First, the colonization of the Greeks brought the Greek world out of its state of isolation. In which she ended up after the collapse of the Mycenaean culture. Historians have long believed that the Greeks were very knowledgeable in terms of historical geography, that they had a good idea of ​​who lived around them. But as recent studies show, the Greeks had a very vague idea, before the period of colonization, about what the world outside their own territories represented.

Secondly: it served to increase the knowledge of the Greeks. For example, the Greeks borrowed a letter from the Phoenicians. In this letter, which consisted of only consonants, they introduced vowels. Thus the Greek alphabet was created. They learned how to make glass from the Phoenicians. The Greeks mastered the technology of making glass from sand. From the Egyptians they learned how to build monumental structures. The Greeks mastered the technology of coinage from the Lygians. They had their own monetary standards, first obols, and then drachmas. Colonization made Greek society more mobile, more receptive, more dynamic. There is room for personal initiative.

The Greeks created colonies, which turned into genuine centers of trade. But the most important condition and consequence of the entire colonization movement is that handicrafts have definitively separated from agriculture.

The main result of colonization is the transition from natural economy to the stage of commodity-money circulation. Their banknotes appear, monetary standards appear. "Money makes a man" - becomes the motto of the archaic era. In modern historical literature, there has been an attempt to introduce the concept of "ancient capitalism". At the head of the colonization movement were the ancient Greek "polises". The ancient Greek civilization is also called the polis civilization.

"Types of society" - Compact PC. Role in the transition to an industrial society: The value of time. Before. Non-economic coercion to work. Industrial society: science is a productive force. Do you agree with J.-J. K. Marx. Agrarian civilizations of the Ancient East. Energy-saving and environmentally friendly technologies will come to the fore.

"Active learning" - Socrates (399 BC) saw the surest way to manifest a person's abilities in self-knowledge. didactic background. He insisted that education should teach to think. Play-based learning has proven high efficiency use of gaming, competitive, command methods learning. Technology of active learning.

"Ancient Greek Theatre" - Scene from ancient Greek comedy Drawing on a vase. Before you is the Greek theater, which gave a performance to the public. Theater at Delphi, 4th century BC e. Skene. Actors Painting on a vase. The emergence of the theater is associated with the name of the god Dionysus, the patron saint of viticulture. Theater of Ancient Greece. Dionysus Painting on a Greek vase.

"Lesson of Human Rights in Society" - Introduction of the concepts "Citizen", "Civil Society". The form and structure of the lesson. Epigraph to the lesson. Conditions for the emergence of civil society. Information material. Expected Result. Hearing. State and law. Lesson number 8. Goals and objectives of the lesson. The presence of ideas about the place of a Russian citizen in existing system relations.

"Society in the New Age" - 2nd option: tell the definitions of the concepts: farmers and laborers. 1st option: tell the definitions of the concepts: the bourgeoisie and the new nobility. Nobility. Bourgeoisie. Aristocracy. Story. The structure of society. 2. Group according to certain criteria. New nobility (gentry) - nobles engaged in entrepreneurship.

"Man society state" - Come up with several sentences with one and the other concept. In the organisation. Ancient Romans. Economic. Part of the world that has certain boundaries. People in society seek to destroy. Spiritual. What can separate people? List the values ​​and shrines of our society. Who is exiled or deprived of life in society?