European culture of the Middle Ages briefly. Culture of Medieval Europe

university

Chivalry

Carnival

Brief outline of the culture of the Middle Ages (V-XV centuries)

Lecture 4

Medieval Culture: Phenomena of Carnival, Chivalry, University

The culture of the Middle Ages powerfully and visibly expressed itself in architecture in the emerging artistic styles - Romanesque and Gothic. This topic is presented in detail in the course textbooks, so students will be able to study it on their own, paying special attention to the periods of development of the Romanesque and Gothic styles in France, Spain, Italy, Germany.

The Middle Ages in Europe were defined by Christian culture. Feudalism was asserted with a rural community and the dependence of a person on it and the feudal lord. Many European countries have self-determined and strengthened, the center of cultural improvement is not a set of city-states or one Roman Empire, but the entire European region. Spain, France, Holland, England and other countries come to the forefront of cultural development. Christianity, as it were, unites their spiritual efforts, spreading and asserting itself in Europe and beyond. But the process of establishing statehood among the peoples of Europe is far from complete. Large and small wars arise, armed violence is both a factor and a brake on cultural development.

A person feels like a community member, and not a free citizen, as in ancient society. The value of “serving” God and the feudal lord, but not oneself or the state, arises. Slavery is replaced by mutual communal responsibility and subordination to the community and the feudal lord. Christianity supports feudal class, subordination to God and master. The Church extends its influence to all major spheres of society, to the family, education, morality, and science. Hereticism and any non-Christian dissent is persecuted. From the establishment of Christianity as the state religion of the Roman Empire (325), it rigidly subjugated the entire life of European society, and this continued until the Renaissance.

Thus, the defining feature of medieval culture, the essence of the phenomenon of the culture of the Middle Ages, is a worldview based on Christian doctrine. The theological system of Christianity covered any of the phenomena of culture, in turn, any of the phenomena had its own specific hierarchical place. Hierarchical ideas were embodied in public life (seigneurs - vassals; ethics of personal service), in the spiritual sphere (God - Satan).

However, it would be wrong and one-sided to evaluate the culture of the Middle Ages only negatively. She developed and achieved success. In the XII century. in Flanders, a loom without a mechanical engine was invented. Sheep breeding is developing. In Italy and France, they learned how to produce silk. In England and France, blast furnaces began to be built and coal was used in them.

Despite the fact that knowledge was subordinated to the Christian faith, religious and secular schools and institutions of higher education arose in a number of European countries. In the 10th-11th centuries, for example, philosophy, mathematics, physics, astronomy, law, medicine, and Muslim theology were already taught in the higher schools of Spain. The activity of the Roman Catholic Church, the non-observance of the norms of morality and religious worship by its ministers often caused discontent and ridicule among the broad masses. For example, in the 12th-13th centuries in France, the movement of vagants - wandering poets and musicians - became widespread. They sharply criticized the church for greed, hypocrisy and ignorance. There is a poetry of minstrels and troubadours.

Poetry and prose of chivalry develops, masterpieces are recorded folk epic("Nibelungenlied", "Song of my Sid", "Beowulf"). Biblical-mythological painting and icon-painting are widely spread. In the spirituality of people, Christianity affirmed not only humility, but also the positive ideal of salvation. Following the commandments of God and honoring him, a person can achieve such a desirable state of himself and the state of the whole world, which are characterized by overcoming any lack of freedom and evil.

Since the XIV century, European Catholicism has been experiencing an acute crisis generated by the internal struggle of popes and other hierarchs for religious and secular power, the non-observance of moral standards by many clergy, their desire for wealth and luxury, and the deception of believers. The crisis of the Catholic Church escalated significantly as a result of the Inquisition and the Crusades. The Catholic faith was losing its status as the spiritual basis of European culture. Orthodoxy functioned more smoothly in Byzantium and other countries of Eastern Europe.

Byzantium, or the Eastern Roman Empire, arose in 325 after the split of the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern. In 1054, the division of the Christian church also takes place. Orthodoxy is established in Byzantium.

Byzantine culture existed for 11 centuries, being a kind of "golden bridge" between Western and Eastern culture. In his historical development Byzantium went through five stages:

The first stage (IV - the middle of the VII centuries). The independence of Byzantium is affirmed, the power, the military bureaucracy, the foundations of the "correct" faith on the traditions of pagan Hellenism and Christianity are formed. Outstanding monuments of the middle of the 5th-6th centuries. - Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna; Hippodrome; Temple of Sophia (Anthimius and Isidore); mosaic paintings in the Church of San Vitale in Ravenna; mosaics in the Church of the Assumption in Nika; icon "Sergius and Bacchus".

Second stage (second half of the 7th - first half of the 9th centuries). The invasions of the Arabs and Slavs are reflected. The ethnic basis of culture is consolidated around the Greeks and Slavs. Alienation from the Western Roman (European) elements of culture is observed. The Church triumphs over secular power. The orthodox-conservative foundations of Orthodoxy are getting stronger. Culture is becoming more and more localized, acquiring originality, gravitating towards oriental cultures.

The third stage (the second half of the 9th - the middle of the 11th centuries). "Golden Age" of Byzantine culture. There are schools, universities, libraries.

Fourth period (second half of the 11th - beginning of the 13th centuries). In 1071 Byzantium was defeated by the Turks, in 1204 it was subdued by the knights of the Fourth Crusade. The resulting Latin Empire is losing the authority of power. The Orthodox Church assumes protective and unifying functions. Cultural development slows down significantly.

The fifth stage (1261 - 1453). After the liberation from the power of the Latin knights, Byzantium was unable to restore its former greatness due to internal unrest and civil strife. Receive development: religious and literary creativity, theology, philosophy, miniature, icon, fresco painting.

After the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, Byzantium ceased to exist.

The features of Byzantine culture are:

Orthodoxy as an orthodox-conservative version of Christianity as a spiritual basis

a small degree of losses on the part of the conquerors in comparison with the Western Roman culture

cult of the emperor as a representative and exponent of secular and spiritual power

protection of the power of the emperor, the preservation of the unity of the state through the efforts of the Orthodox Church

traditionalism and the canon of the creeds of Orthodoxy

From 622, first in Mecca, then in Medina on the Arabian Peninsula, a new religion arose - Islam (submissive to God). The spiritual foundations of medieval Arab-Muslim culture have some common features with Christianity in terms of ideas about God and monotheism, in terms of the relationship between God and being, God and man.

The establishment of Christianity and Islam as monotheistic religions contributed to the general development of the culture of many peoples, the formation of historically new types of it.

The lecture reveals in more detail the phenomenal phenomena of medieval culture: carnival, chivalry, university, which will allow one to comprehend both the universalism and the depth of the contradictions of medieval culture, the features of which have been preserved in culture until the 21st century.

Questions for self-control

1. Give a brief description of the culture of the European Middle Ages.

2. Explain what is the essence of medieval culture.

3. What, in your opinion, is the uniqueness of Byzantine culture?

4. Describe the most famous monument of Byzantine architecture - the Temple of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople.

5. What are the features of Byzantism?

6. Bring the realities modern life, which can be considered the heritage of the Middle Ages (institution, symbolism, architectural monument, custom, tradition, clothing, food, drink, spices).

Medieval European culture covers the period from the fall of the Roman Empire to the moment of the active formation of the culture of the Renaissance and divides the culture early period (V-XI centuries) and culture classical Middle Ages(XII-XIV centuries). The emergence of the term "Middle Ages" is associated with the activities of the Italian humanists of the XV-XVI centuries, who, by introducing this term, sought to separate the culture of their era - the culture of the Renaissance - from the culture of previous eras. The era of the Middle Ages brought with it new economic relations, a new type of political system, as well as global changes in the worldview of people.

The entire culture of the early Middle Ages had a religious connotation.

The basis of the medieval picture of the world was the images and interpretations of the Bible. The starting point for explaining the world was the idea of ​​a complete and unconditional opposition of God and nature, Heaven and Earth, soul and body. The man of the Middle Ages imagined and understood the world as an arena of confrontation between good and evil, as a kind of hierarchical system, including God, angels, people, and otherworldly forces of darkness.

Along with the strong influence of the church, the consciousness of medieval man continued to be deeply magical. This was facilitated by the very nature of medieval culture, filled with prayers, fairy tales, myths, magic spells. In general, the history of the culture of the Middle Ages is the history of the struggle between church and state. The position and role of art in this era were complex and contradictory, but nevertheless, throughout the entire period of development of European medieval culture, there was a search for a semantic support for the spiritual community of people.

All classes of medieval society recognized the spiritual leadership of the church, but nevertheless, each of them developed their own special culture, in which they reflected their moods and ideals.

Medieval culture developed in line with the period of early (V-XIII centuries) feudalism in the countries of Western Europe, the formation of which was accompanied by the transition from barbarian empires to the classical states of medieval Europe. It was a period of serious social and military upheaval.

At the stage of late feudalism (XI-XII centuries), craft, trade, and urban life had a rather low level of development. The reign of feudal lords was undivided. The figure of the king was decorative in nature, and did not personify strength and state power. However, from the end of the XI century. (especially France), the process of strengthening royal power begins and centralized feudal states are gradually created, in which the feudal economy rises, contributing to the formation of the cultural process.

Crusades carried out at the end of this period were of great importance. These campaigns contributed to the acquaintance of Western Europe with the rich culture of the Arab East and accelerated the growth of crafts.

On the second development of the mature (classical) European Middle Ages (XI century), there is a further growth in the productive forces of feudal society. A clear division between the city and the countryside is established, and crafts and trade are intensively developed. Royal power is of great importance. This process was facilitated by the elimination of feudal anarchy. Chivalry and rich townspeople become the mainstay of royal power. A characteristic feature of this period is the emergence of city-states, for example, Venice, Florence.

2. Features of the art of medieval Europe.

Development medieval art includes the following three steps:

1. pre-Romanesque art (V-X centuries) ,

which is divided into three periods: early Christian art, the art of the barbarian kingdoms, and the art of the Carolingian and Ottonian empires.

AT early Christian Christianity became the official religion. By this time, the appearance of the first Christian churches. Separate buildings of centric type (round, octagonal, cruciform), called baptistery or baptismal. The interior decoration of these buildings were mosaics and frescoes. They reflected in themselves all the main features of medieval painting, although they were very far removed from reality. The images were dominated by symbolism and conventionality, and the mysticism of the images was achieved through the use of such formal elements as enlargement of the eyes, incorporeal images, prayer poses, and the use of different scales in the depiction of figures according to the spiritual hierarchy.

Art of the barbarians played a positive role in the development of the ornamental and decorative direction, which later became the main part artistic creativity classical Middle Ages. And which already did not have a close connection with ancient traditions.

characteristic feature of art Carolingian and Ottonian empires is a combination of ancient, early Christian, barbarian and Byzantine traditions, which are most clearly manifested in the ornament. The architecture of these kingdoms is based on Roman models and includes centric stone or wooden temples, the use of mosaics and frescoes in the interior decoration of temples.

An architectural monument of pre-Romanesque art is the Chapel of Charlemagne in Aachen, created around 800. In the same period, the development of monastic construction was actively going on. In the Carolingian Empire, 400 new monasteries were built and 800 existing ones were expanded.

2. Romanesque art (XI-XII centuries)

It arose during the reign of Charlemagne. This style of art is characterized by a semicircular vaulted arch, which came from Rome. Instead of wooden coverings, stone ones begin to predominate, usually having a vaulted shape. Painting and sculpture were subordinated to architecture and were mainly used in temples and monasteries. The sculptural images were brightly painted, and the monumental and decorative painting, on the other hand, seemed to be temple paintings of restrained color. An example of this style is the Church of Mary on the island of Laak in Germany. A special place in Romanesque architecture is occupied by Italian architecture, which, thanks to the strong ancient traditions present in it, immediately stepped into the Renaissance.

The main function of Romanesque architecture is defense. Exact mathematical calculations were not used in the architecture of the Romanesque era, however, thick walls, narrow windows and massive towers, being stylistic features of architectural structures, simultaneously carried a defensive function, allowing the civilian population to take refuge in the monastery during feudal strife and wars. This is explained by the fact that the formation and strengthening of the Romanesque style took place in the era of feudal fragmentation and its motto is the statement "My home is my fortress."

In addition to religious architecture, secular architecture also actively developed, an example of this is the feudal castle - a house - a tower of a rectangular or polyhedral shape.

3. Gothic art (XII-XV centuries)

It arose as a result of the development of cities and the emerging urban culture. The symbol of medieval cities is the cathedral, gradually losing its defensive functions. Style changes in the architecture of this era were explained not only by the change in the functions of buildings, but by the rapid development of construction technology, which by that time was already based on precise calculation and verified design. Abundant convex details - statues, bas-reliefs, hanging arches were the main decorations of buildings, both from the inside and from the outside. World masterpieces of Gothic architecture are Notre Dame Cathedral, Milan Cathedral in Italy.

Gothic is also used in sculpture. A three-dimensional plastic of various forms appears, a portrait individuality, a real anatomy of figures.

Monumental Gothic painting is mainly represented by stained glass. Window openings are greatly enlarged. Which now serve not only for lighting, but more for decoration. Thanks to the duplication of glass, the finest nuances of color are transmitted. Stained glass windows begin to acquire more and more realistic elements. Especially famous were the French stained-glass windows of Chartres, Rouen.

In the book miniature, the Gothic style also begins to prevail, there is a significant expansion of its scope, there is a mutual influence of stained glass and miniature. The art of book miniature was one of the greatest achievements of Gothic. This type of painting evolved from the "classical" style to realism.

Among the most outstanding achievements The psalter of Queen Ingeborg and the psalter of St. Louis stand out from the Gothic book miniature. A remarkable monument of the German school of the early XIV century. is the Manesse Manuscript, which is a collection of the most famous songs of the German Minesingers, decorated with portraits of singers, scenes of tournaments and court life, coats of arms.

Literature and music of the Middle Ages.

In the period of mature feudalism, along with and as an alternative to ecclesiastical literature, which had priority, secular literature also developed rapidly. Thus, chivalric literature, which included the chivalric epic, the chivalric romance, the poetry of the French troubadours and the lyrics of the German minizingers, received the greatest distribution and even some approval of the church. They sang the war for the Christian faith and glorified the feat of chivalry in the name of this faith. An example of the knightly epic of France is the Song of Roland. Its plot was the campaigns of Charlemagne in Spain, and the main character was Count Roland.

At the end of the 7th century Under the auspices of Charlemagne, a book-writing workshop was founded, where a special gospel was made.

In the XII century. Chivalric novels written in the genre of prose appeared and quickly became widespread. They told about the various adventures of the knights.

In contrast to the chivalric romance, urban literature is developing. A new genre is being formed - a poetic short story, which contributes to the formation of citizens as a whole.

Medieval European culture covers the period from the fall of the Roman Empire to the moment of the active formation of the culture of the Renaissance. It is divided into 3 periods: 1. 5-10 in the Early Middle Ages; 2. 11-13 century - Classical; 3. 14-16 - Later.

The essence of the k-ry is Christianity, the self-improvement of man. The birthplace of Christianity is Palestine. It arose in 1 AD. This is the teacher's religion - Jesus Christ. The symbol is a cross. The struggle between light and dark forces is constant, in the center is a person. He was created by the Lord in order to show his created image, to live in unity with him, to rule the whole world, performing the role of the high priest in it.

The emergence of the term "Middle Ages" is associated with the activities of the Italian humanists of the XV-XVI centuries, who, by introducing this term, sought to separate the culture of their era - the culture of the Renaissance - from the culture of previous eras. The era of the Middle Ages brought with it new economic relations, a new type of political system, as well as global changes in the worldview of people.

The entire culture of the early Middle Ages had a religious connotation. The social structure had three main groups: peasants, clerics and warriors.

The peasants were the bearers and exponents of folk culture, which was formed on the basis of a contradictory combination of pre-Christian and Christian worldviews. Secular feudal lords monopolized the right to military affairs. The concept of a warrior and a noble person merged in the word "knight". Chivalry has become a closed caste. But with the advent of the fourth social layer - the townspeople - chivalry and knightly culture fell into decline. key concept chivalrous behavior was nobility. Exceptional value for medieval culture as a whole was brought by the activity of monasteries.

The development of medieval art includes the following three stages:

pre-Romanesque art (V-X centuries),

Romanesque art (XI-XII centuries),

Gothic art (XII-XV centuries).

Ancient traditions gave impetus to the development of medieval art, but in general, the entire medieval culture was formed in polemics with ancient tradition.

The Dark Ages of the 5th-10th century - the destruction of the ancient church, the written language was lost, the church put pressure on life. If in antiquity man was a hero, a creator, now he is a lower being. The meaning of life is to serve God. Science - scholasticism, is associated with the church, it is proof of the existence of God. The Church dominated the minds of people, fought dissent. A special place in the urban literature is satirical everyday scenes. The heroic epic "The Song of Roland", "Beowulf", "The Saga of Eric the Red", the novel "Tristan and Isolde". Poetry: Bertrand Deborn and Arnaud Daniel. TV jugglers, itinerant actors are born. Main theater genres: drama, comedy, morality. Architecture the main styles: A. Romanesque - stylization, formalism, narrow windows, an example - Notredamm Cathedral in Poitiers, B. Gothic - high lancet windows, stained glass windows, tall columns, thin walls, buildings rushed into the sky, an example - Westminster Abbey in London. Flaming Gothic (in France) - the finest stone carving. Brick Gothic - characteristic of the North. Europe.

General characteristics of the culture of Byzantium.

Byzantium is the eastern Roman Empire. Initially, the main center was the colony of Byzantium, then it became Constantinople. Byzantium included territories: the Balkan Peninsula, Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, India with Palestine, etc. This empire existed from the 4th century BC. - middle of the 15th century, until it was destroyed by the Seljuk Turks. She is the heiress of the Greco-Roman culture. tried to combine the ideals of antiquity and Christianity.

Periods 4-7 centuries. - early period (the formation of Byzantine culture and its flourishing); 2nd floor 7th c. - 12th c. middle (iconoclasm); 12-15 late (started with the invasion of the crusaders, ended with the fall of Constantinople). V. - the heiress of the Greco-Roman culture. However, Byzantine culture was also formed under the influence of Hellenistic culture mediterranean, oriental cultures. Greek dominated. All this was based on the Christian religion.

In culture, fidelity to traditions, canons, determined by religious traditions, was still preserved. Ancient forms were preserved in education.

The ancient tradition prevailed in the art of the early period, Christianity was just beginning to develop its own symbolism and iconography, to form its own canons. Architecture inherited Roman traditions. The predominance of painting over sculpture, perceived as pagan art.

CVIv. arose, in fact, the culture of the Middle Ages. VI century. under Emperor Justinian, Byzantine culture flourished.

New traditions of temple construction - the connection of the basilica with the centric building. Parallel to the idea of ​​many heads. The fine arts were dominated by mosaics, frescoes, and icons.

Fracture and turn associated with the period of iconoclasm (VIIIv.). There was a certain duality in relation to the image of God. The imperial government supported the iconoclasts (for the sake of power). During this period, damage was done to the fine arts. Iconoclasm went far beyond the problem of Christian representation. 19th century icon veneration was restored. After this, the second flowering begins.

Increasing cultural influence on other peoples. Rus. There is a cross-domed architecture of temples. In Xv. the art of enamel reaches its highest level.

X-XI centuries characterized by duality. The rise of culture and the decline of statehood. Byzantium is losing its territories. Church split, crusades. After this, the Byzantine revival begins.

Byzantium and Western Europe: two paths of cultural development. Catholicism and Orthodoxy.

Consider differences between Catholicism and Orthodoxy.

general characteristics

Ecumenical Orthodoxy (Orthodoxy, that is, “right” or “correct”, which has come down without distortion) is a collection of local Churches that have the same dogmas and a similar canonical structure, recognize each other’s sacraments and are in communion. Orthodoxy consists of 15 autocephalous and several autonomous Churches.

Unlike Orthodox churches, Roman Catholicism is distinguished primarily by its solidity. The principle of organization of this Church is more monarchical: it has a visible center of its unity - the Pope of Rome. The apostolic authority and teaching authority of the Roman Catholic Church is concentrated in the image of the Pope.

The very name of the Catholic Church literally means “cathedral” in Greek, however, in the interpretation of Catholic theologians, the concept of catholicity, so important in the Orthodox tradition, is replaced by the concept of “universality”, that is, the quantitative breadth of influence (indeed, the Roman Catholic confession is widespread not only in Europe, but also North and South America, Africa and Asia).

Christianity, which arose as a religion of the lower classes, towards the end of the 3rd century. spread widely throughout the empire.

All aspects of life were determined by Orthodoxy, which was formed in the 4th - 8th centuries. AD Christianity was born as a single universal doctrine. However, with the division of the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern (Byzantium) in 395, Christianity gradually became divided into two directions: Eastern (Orthodoxy) and Western (Catholicism). Popes of Rome since the end of the VI century. did not submit to Byzantium. They were patronized by the Frankish kings, and later by the German emperors. Byzantine and Western European Christianity diverged further and further, ceasing to understand each other. The Greeks completely forgot Latin, and Western Europe did not know Greek. Gradually, the rituals of worship and even the basic tenets of the Christian faith began to differ. Several times the Roman and Greek churches quarreled and reconciled again, but it became increasingly difficult to maintain unity. In 1054 The Roman cardinal Humbert came to Constantinople to negotiate on overcoming differences. However, instead of the expected reconciliation, a final split occurred: the papal envoy and Patriarch Michael Cirularius anathematized each other. Moreover, this split (schism) remains in force to this day. Western Christianity is constantly changing, it is characterized by the presence different directions(Catholicism, Lutheranism, Anglicanism, Baptism, etc.), orientation towards social reality.
Orthodoxy proclaimed fidelity to antiquity, the immutability of ideals. The Holy Scriptures (Bible) and Holy Tradition are the basis of Orthodox dogma.

The true head of the Byzantine church was the emperor, although formally he was not.

The Orthodox Church lived an intense spiritual life, which ensured an unusually bright flowering of Byzantine culture. Byzantium has always remained the center of a unique and truly brilliant culture. Byzantium succeeded in spreading the Orthodox faith, bringing the preaching of Christianity to other peoples, especially to the Slavs. Enlighteners Cyril and Methodius, brothers from Thessaloniki, who created the first Greek alphabet based on the Greek alphabet, became famous in this righteous cause. Slavic alphabets- Cyrillic and Glagolitic.

The main reason for the division of the common Christian Church into Western (Roman Catholic) and Eastern (Eastern Catholic, or Greek Orthodox) was the rivalry between the Popes of Rome and the Patriarchs of Constantinople for supremacy in Christian world. For the first time, the gap took place around 867 (it was liquidated at the turn of the 9th-10th centuries), and again occurred in 1054 (see Fig. Church division ) and was completed in connection with the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders in 1204 (when the Polish patriarch was forced to leave it).
As a form of Christianity, Catholicism recognizes its basic dogmas and rituals; at the same time, it has a number of features in dogma, cult, organization.
The organization of the Catholic Church is characterized by strict centralization, monarchical and hierarchical character. By creed Catholicism, Pope (Roman high priest) - the visible head of the church, the successor of the Apostle Peter, the true vicar of Christ on earth; his power is greater than power Ecumenical Councils .

The Catholic Church, like the Orthodox Church, recognizes seven sacraments , but there are some differences in their dispatch. Thus, Catholics perform baptism not by immersion in water, but by dousing; chrismation (confirmation) is not performed simultaneously with baptism, but over children no younger. 8 years old and usually a bishop. Bread for communion among Catholics is unleavened, not leavened (as among the Orthodox). The marriage of the laity is indissoluble, even if one of the spouses is convicted of adultery.

Pre-Christian culture Eastern Slavs. The adoption of Christianity by Russia. Paganism and Christianity in Russia.

At the end of the 5th - the middle of the 6th century, the great migration of the Slavs to the south began. The territory mastered by the Slavs is an open space between the Ural Mountains and the Caspian Sea, through which waves of nomadic peoples poured into the southern Russian steppes in a continuous stream.

Before the formation of the state, the life of the Slavs was organized according to the laws of patriarchal or tribal life. All matters in the community were managed by a council of elders. A typical form of Slavic settlements were small villages - one, two, three yards. Several villages were united in unions ("rope" of "Russkaya Pravda"). The religious beliefs of the ancient Slavs were, on the one hand, the worship of natural phenomena, on the other, the cult of ancestors. They had neither temples nor a special class of priests, although there were magicians, sorcerers who were revered as servants of the gods and interpreters of their will.

Main pagan gods: rain-god; Perun - the god of thunder and lightning; mother earth was also revered as a kind of deity. Nature was represented as animated or inhabited by many small spirits.

in some places pagan cult in Russia there were sanctuaries (temples) where prayers and sacrifices took place. In the center of the temple there was a stone or wooden picture god, sacrificial fires were burned around him.

Belief in the afterlife forced, along with the deceased, to put in the grave everything that could be useful to him, including sacrificial food. At the funeral of people belonging to the social elite, their concubines were burned. The Slavs had an original writing system - the so-called nodular writing.

The agreement concluded by Igor with Byzantium was signed by both pagan warriors and "Baptized Russia", i.e. Christians who occupied a high position in Kievan society.

Olga, who ruled the state after the death of her husband, was also baptized, which is considered by historians as a tactical move in a complex diplomatic game with Byzantium.

Gradually, Christianity acquired the status of a religion.

About 988 Kyiv prince Vladimir himself was baptized, baptized his retinue and boyars, and under pain of punishment forced the inhabitants of Kiev and all Russians in general to be baptized. Formally, Russia became Christian. The funeral fires went out, the fires of Perun went out, but for a long time there were remnants of paganism in the villages.

Russia began to adopt Byzantine culture.

From Byzantium, the Russian Church adopted the iconostasis, but she changed it by increasing the size of the icons, increasing their number and filling all the voids with them.

The historical significance of the Baptism of Russia lies in the familiarization of the Slavic-Finnish world with the values ​​of Christianity, the creation of conditions for the cooperation of Russia with other Christian states.

The Russian Church has become a force that unites the different lands of Russia, a cultural and political community.

Paganism- a phenomenon of the spiritual culture of ancient peoples, which is based on faith in many gods. A vivid example of paganism is “The Tale of Igor's Campaign. Christianity- one of the three world religions (Buddhism and Islam), named after its founder, Christ.

Old Russian art.

The most important event of the IX century. is the adoption of Christianity by Russia. Before the adoption of Christianity, in the second half of the IX century. was created by the brothers Cyril and Methodius - Slavic writing based on the Greek alphabet. After the baptism of Russia, it was laid as the basis Old Russian writing. They translated the Holy Scripture into Russian.

Russian literature was born in the first half of the 11th century. The church played a leading role. Secular and ecclesiastical literature. Existed within the framework of the manuscript tradition. Material parchment - calfskin. They wrote in ink and cinnabar, using goose quills. In the XI century. Luxurious books with cinnabar letters and artistic miniatures appear in Russia. Their binding was bound with gold or silver, decorated precious stones(The Gospel (XI century) and the Gospel (XII century). Cyril and Methodius were translated into Old Church Slavonic. The books of Holy Scripture. All Old Russian liter divided into translated and original. The first original compositions belong to the end of the 11th - the beginning of the 12th centuries. ("The Tale of Bygone Years", "The Tale of Boris and Gleb"). Genre diversity- chronicle, life and word. The central place is the chronicle, it was dealt with by specially trained monks. The oldest "Tale of Bygone Years". Another genre of life - the biographies of famous bishops, patriarchs, monks - "hagiography", Nestor "2 lives of the first Christian martyrs Boris and Gleb", "the life of hegumen Theodosius". Another genre of Instruction is "The Instruction of Vladimir Monomakh". Solemn eloquence - Hilarion's "word about law and grace".

Architecture. With the advent of Christianity, the construction of churches and monasteries began (the Kiev-Pechersky monastery in the middle of the 11th century, Anthony and Fedosy of the Caves, the Ilyinsky underground monastery in the thickness of Boldinskaya Mountain). Underground monasteries were centers of hesychia (silence) in Russia.

At the end of the X century. in Russia, stone construction began (989 in Kyiv, the Tithes Church of the Assumption of the Virgin). In the 30s of the XI century. stone Golden Gates with the gate church of the Annunciation were built. Outstanding piece of architecture Kievan Rus became Saint Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod (1045 - 1050).

Crafts were highly developed in Kievan Rus: pottery, metalwork, jewelry, etc. The potter's wheel appeared in the 10th century. By the middle of the XI century. refers to the first sword. The jewelry technique was complex, the products of Russia were in great demand on the world market. Painting - Icons, frescoes and mosaics. Musical art- church singing secular music. The first ancient Russian actors-buffoons appeared. There were epic storytellers, they told epics to the sound of the harp.

Russian culture: characteristic features. Features of the Russian national mentality.

The Russian nation has experienced the greatest historical trials, but also the greatest upsurges of spirituality, which Russian culture has become a reflection of. During the 16th-19th centuries, it fell to the Russians to create the greatest power in the history of the planet, which included the geopolitical core of Eurasia.

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries Russian empire occupied a vast territory, including 79 provinces and 18 regions inhabited by dozens of peoples of various religions.

But for the contribution of any people to the treasury of world culture, it is not the number or the role in political history, but the assessment of his achievements in the history of civilization, determined by the level of material and spiritual culture. “We can speak about the world character of the culture of the people if it has developed a system of values ​​that have universal significance ... Undoubtedly, Russian culture also has a world character in the form in which it was developed before the Bolshevik revolution. To agree with this, one has only to recall the names of Pushkin, Gogol, Turgenev, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky or the names of Glinka, Tchaikovsky, Mussorgsky, Rimsky-Korsakov, or the value of Russian stage art in drama, opera, ballet. In science, it is enough to mention the names of Lobachevsky, Mendeleev, Mechnikov. The beauty, richness and sophistication of the Russian language gives it an undoubted right to be considered one of the world's languages.

For the building of any national culture, the main bearing support is the national character, spirituality, intellectual warehouse (mentality) given people. The character and mentality of an ethnic group are formed in the early stages of its history under the influence of the nature of the country, its geopolitical position, a particular religion, socio-economic factors. However, once formed, they themselves become decisive for further development national culture and national history. So it was in Russia. It is not surprising that disputes about the national character of Russians, about the Russian mentality are primary in discussions both about the fate of our Fatherland and about the nature of Russian culture.

The main features of the Russian mentality:

Russian people are gifted and hardworking. He is characterized by observation, theoretical and practical mind, natural ingenuity, ingenuity, creativity. The Russian people, a great worker, builder and creator, have enriched the world with great cultural achievements.

Among the basic, deep properties of the Russian people is love of freedom. The history of Russia is the history of the struggle of the Russian people for their freedom and independence. For the Russian people, freedom is above all.

Possessing a freedom-loving character, the Russian people repeatedly defeated the invaders and achieved great success in peaceful construction.

The characteristic features of the Russian people are kindness, humanity, a penchant for repentance, cordiality and softness of soul.

Tolerance is one of the characteristic features of the Russian people, which has become literally legendary. In Russian culture, patience and the ability to endure suffering is the ability to exist, the ability to respond to external circumstances, this is the basis of personality.

Russian hospitality It is well known: "Though not rich, but glad to have guests." The best treat is always prepared for the guest.

A distinctive feature of the Russian people is its responsiveness, the ability to understand another person, the ability to integrate with the culture of other peoples, to respect it. Russians pay special attention to the attitude towards their neighbors: “It is a bad thing to offend a neighbor”, “A close neighbor is better than distant relatives”.

One of the deepest features of the Russian character is religiosity, this has been reflected since ancient times in folklore, in proverbs: “To live is to serve God”, “God’s hand is strong - these proverbs say that God is almighty and helps believers in everything. In the view of believers, God is the ideal of perfection, he is both merciful, disinterested, and wise: “God has many mercy.” God has a generous soul, he is glad to accept any person who turns to him, his love is immeasurably great: “Whoever is to God, God will be to him”, “Whoever does good, God will repay him”.

Medieval art. Christianity and Art.

In Western artistic culture, the first two significant trends differ in the Middle Ages.

1) The first direction of Romanesque art (10-12th centuries) The concept of "Romanesque" comes from the word "Roman", in the architecture of religious buildings the Romanesque era borrowed the fundamental principles of civil architecture. Romanesque art was distinguished by its simplicity and majesty.

The main role in the Romanesque style was assigned to the harsh, fortified architecture: monastic complexes, churches, castles were located on elevated places, dominating the area. The churches were decorated with murals and reliefs, expressing the power of God in conditional, expressive forms. At the same time, semi-fairy plots, images of animals and plants dated back to folk art. Metal and woodworking, enamel, and miniatures have reached a high level of development.

In contrast to the eastern centric type, a type of temple called the basilica developed in the West. The most important difference between Romanesque architecture is the presence of a stone vault. Its characteristic features are also thick walls, cut through by small windows, designed to receive the thrust from the dome, if any, the predominance of horizontal articulations over vertical ones, mainly circular and semicircular arches. (Liebmurg Cathedral in Germany, Maria Laach Abbey, Germany, Romanesque churches in Val-de-Boie)

2) The second direction is Gothic art. The concept of Gothic comes from the concept of barbarian. Gothic art was distinguished by its sublimity, Gothic cathedrals were characterized by aspiration upwards and a rich external and internal decorum was characteristic. Gothic art was distinguished by a mystical character, a rich and complex symbolic range. The outer wall system, a large area of ​​the wall was occupied by windows, fine detailing.

Gothic architecture originated in France in the 12th century. In an effort to relieve the space of the interior as much as possible, Gothic builders came up with a system of flying buttresses (inclined supporting arches) and buttresses carried out to the outside, i.e. Gothic frame system. Now the space between the traveis was filled with thin walls covered with "stone lace" or colored stained-glass windows in the form of lancet arches. The columns that now support the vaults have become thin and bundled. main facade(a classic example is the Cathedral in Amiens) was usually framed on the sides by 2 towers, not symmetrical, but slightly different from each other. Above the entrance, as a rule, there is a huge stained-glass rose window. (Cathedral in Chartres, France; Cathedral in Reims, Fr; Notre Dame Cathedral)

The influence of the church, which tried to subjugate the entire spiritual life of society, determined the appearance of medieval art in Western Europe. The main examples of medieval fine art were the monuments of church architecture. The main task of the artist was the embodiment of the divine principle, and of all human feelings, preference was given to suffering, because, according to the teachings of the church, this is a fire that purifies the soul. With unusual brightness, medieval artists depicted pictures of suffering and disasters. During the period from the 11th to the 12th centuries. in Western Europe, two architectural styles changed - Romanesque and Gothic. The Romanesque monastic churches of Europe are very diverse in their structure and decoration. But they all retain a single architectural style, the church resembles a fortress, which is natural for the turbulent, disturbing times of the early Middle Ages. The Gothic style in architecture is associated with the development of medieval cities. The main phenomenon of Gothic art is the ensemble of the city cathedral, which was the center of the social and ideological life of the medieval city. Here not only religious rites were performed, but public disputes took place, the most important state acts were performed, lectures were given to university students, cult dramas and mysteries were played out.

Romanesque and Gothic - two styles, two stages in the development of European architecture.

In the architecture of the Middle Ages, two main styles dominated: Romanesque (during the early Middle Ages) and Gothic - from the 12th century.

Gothic, Gothic style (from Italian gotico-goths) is an artistic style in Western European art of the 12th-15th centuries. Originated on the basis folk traditions Germans, the achievements of Romanesque culture and the Christian worldview. It manifested itself in the construction of cathedrals with a lancet roof and the related art of stone and wood carving, sculpture, stained glass, and was widely used in painting.

Romanesque style (fr. gotap from lat. romanus - Roman) - a stylistic trend in Western European art of the 10th-12th centuries, originating in ancient Roman culture; In R. architecture, the style is characterized by the use of vaulted and arched structures in buildings; simple strict and massive forms of a serf character. In the decor of large cathedrals, expressive multi-figured sculptural compositions on the themes of the New Testament were used. It is distinguished by a high level of development of metal, wood, and enamel processing.

Romanesque architecture. In the feudal agrarian Europe of that time, the knight's castle, the monastic ensemble and the temple were the main types of architectural structures. The emergence of the fortified dwelling of the ruler was a product of the feudal era. Wooden citadels in the XI century began to be replaced by stone donjons. These were high rectangular towers that served the lord as both a house and a fortress. The leading role began to be played by towers connected by walls and grouped in the most vulnerable areas, which made it possible to fight even a small garrison. The square towers were replaced by round ones, which provided a better firing radius. The structure of the castle included farm buildings, plumbing and cisterns for collecting water.

A new word in the art of the Western Middle Ages was said in France in the middle of the XII century. Contemporaries called the innovation the "French manner", the descendants began to call it Gothic. The time of the ascent and flourishing of Gothic - the second half of the 12th and 13th centuries - coincided with the period when feudal society reached its apogee in its development.

Gothic as a style was the product of a combination of social changes of the era, its political and ideological aspirations. Gothic was introduced as a symbol of the Christian monarchy. The cathedral was the most important public place city ​​and remained the personification of the "divine universe". In the relationship of its parts, they find similarities with the construction of scholastic "sums", and in the images - a connection with knightly culture.

The essence of Gothic is in the juxtaposition of opposites, in the ability to combine the abstract idea and life. The most important achievement of Gothic architecture was the allocation of a building frame in the building. In Gothic, the system of laying the ribbed vault changed. The ribs no longer completed the construction of the vault, but preceded it. The Gothic style denies the heavy, fortress-like Romanesque cathedrals. The attributes of the Gothic style were lancet arches and slender towers rising to the sky. Gothic cathedrals are grandiose structures.

Gothic architecture was one with sculpture, painting, and applied arts subordinate to it. Particular emphasis was placed on numerous statues. The proportions of the statues were greatly elongated, the expression of the faces was inspired, the poses were noble.

Gothic cathedrals were intended not only for worship, but also for public meetings, holidays, theatrical performances. Gothic style extends to all spheres of human life. So in clothes, shoes with curved toes and cone-shaped hats become fashionable.

Medieval science and education in Western Europe.

Educational schemes in medieval Europe are based on the principles of the ancient school tradition and academic disciplines.

2 stages: First level included grammar, dialectics and rhetoric; 2nd level - the study of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music.

At the beginning of the 9th c. Charlemagne ordered the opening of schools in every diocese and monastery. They began to create textbooks, the laity opened access to schools.

In the 11th century parochial and cathedral schools appear. Because of the growth of cities, non-church education became an important cultural factor. It was not controlled by the church and gave more opportunities.

In 12-13c. universities appear. They consisted of a number of faculties: aristocratic, legal, medical, theological. Christianity determined the specifics of knowledge.

Medieval knowledge is not systematized. Theology or theology was central and universal. The mature Middle Ages contributed to the development of natural science knowledge. There is an interest in medicine, chemical compounds, devices and installations have been obtained. Roger Bacon - English philosopher and naturalist, considered it possible to create flying and moving vehicles. In the late period, geographical works, updated maps and atlases appeared.

Theology, or theology- a set of religious doctrines of the essence and being of God. Theology arises exclusively within the framework of such a worldview.

Christianity - one of the three world religions (along with Buddhism and Islam), is named after its founder, Christ.

Inquisition - in the Catholic Church of the XIII-XIX centuries. Church-police institution for the fight against heresy. The proceedings were conducted in secret, with the use of torture. Heretics were usually sentenced to be burned at the stake. The Inquisition was especially rampant in Spain.

Copernicus proposed a heliocentric system for constructing planets, according to which the center of the Universe was not the Earth (which corresponded to church canons), but the Sun. In 1530 he completed his work On the Conversion celestial spheres", in which he expounded this theory, but, being a skillful politician, he did not publish it and thus avoided the accusation of heresy by the Inquisition. For more than a hundred years, the book of Copernicus was secretly dispersed in manuscripts, and the church pretended that its existence was not When Giordano Bruno began to popularize this work of Copernicus at public lectures, she could not remain silent.

Before early XIX centuries, inquisitorial tribunals intervened literally in all spheres of human activity.

In the 15th century, the Spanish Inquisition executed the mathematician Valmes for solving an equation of incredible complexity. And this, according to the church authorities, was "inaccessible to the human mind."

The actions of the Inquisition threw medicine back thousands of years. For centuries, the Catholic Church opposed surgery.

The Holy Inquisition could not ignore historians, philosophers, writers and even musicians. Cervantes, Beaumarchais, Moliere, and even Raphael Santi, who painted numerous Madonnas and at the end of his life was appointed architect of St. Peter's Cathedral, had some problems with the church.

Middle Ages - this is a unique period in the history of Europe and all mankind, the origin of which is associated with a powerful psychological shock caused by the fall of the "eternal city" - Rome. The empire, which seemed to stretch through space and time, presented to contemporaries as the embodiment of civilization, culture and prosperity, at one moment sank into oblivion. It seemed that the very foundations of the universe collapsed, even the barbarians, who undermined the foundations of the empire with their incessant raids, refused to believe in what had happened: it is known that many barbarian long years and even decades after the fall of Rome, Roman coins continued to be minted, unwilling to acknowledge the collapse of the empire. The subsequent centuries were marked by attempts to revive the former greatness of the vanished power - perhaps it is from this point of view that states that claimed to be a great power (of course, in the limited sense in which it is applicable to the Middle Ages), "pan-European" status should be considered: an empire Charlemagne (the creation of which culturally entailed a short period of the Carolingian Renaissance of the late VIII - the first half of the IX centuries) and, in part, the Holy Roman Empire.

A man of the Middle Ages, having ceased to focus on ancient culture and civilization - that bright torch that shone on him through the ages - began to perceive the world as the focus of chaos, as the domination of hostile forces, and that is why, trying to protect himself and his loved ones from the surrounding nightmare, he turned his eyes to religion, to zealous service to the Lord, which seemed to be the only salvation from the misfortunes of the new world. Could it be otherwise? How not to believe in anger higher powers, punishing mankind, if the whole surrounding reality literally collapsed before our eyes: a sharp cold snap, constant raids by barbarians, the Great Migration of Nations, devastating epidemics of plague, cholera and smallpox; the capture of the Holy Sepulcher by "infidels"; the constant and ever-increasing fear of attack from the Moors, Vikings (Normans), and later the Mongols and Turks ... All this made the medieval man zealously and earnestly believe, giving all of himself, all his own personality, to the power of the church, the papacy and the Holy Inquisition, going on distant and dangerous Crusades or joining numerous monastic and knightly orders.

The Great Migration of Peoples is the conventional name for the totality of ethnic movements in Europe in the 4th-7th centuries. Germans, Slavs, Sarmatians and other tribes on the territory of the Roman Empire.

(Big Encyclopedic Dictionary)

The feeling of vulnerability often bordered on mass psychosis, skillfully used by the feudal lords and the church for their own purposes - and it is no coincidence that gold from all over Europe flowed in broad streams to papal Rome, allowing it to maintain a perfectly streamlined bureaucratic and diplomatic apparatus, which for many centuries was a model of both efficiency and deceit. The papacy fearlessly challenged secular authorities (for example, fighting it for church investiture - the right to independently appoint and ordain bishops and other representatives of the clergy and spiritual hierarchs) - and in this matter it had someone to rely on: numerous feudal knights who perceived themselves united by a common pan-European class and proudly bearing the title of "army of Christ", with much greater pleasure obeyed the distant Pope than their own kings. In addition, numerous monastic (Benedictines, Carmelites, Franciscans, Augustinians, etc.) and spiritual knights (for example, Hospitallers and Templars) orders were a reliable support for the papal throne, concentrating in their hands significant material and intellectual resources, which allowed them to become genuine centers of medieval culture and education. It is also important to note that for a significant part of the Middle Ages, it was the Church that was the largest landowner and feudal lord, which, in combination with church taxes (for example, church tithes), served as a solid basis for the financial well-being of spiritual power.

The cumulative effect of the above factors largely determined such a historical and cultural phenomenon of the European Middle Ages as the dominance of spiritual power over secular power, which lasted for more than two centuries: from the end of the 11th to the beginning of the 14th centuries. And a vivid embodiment of this superiority of spiritual power was the infamous “humiliation at Canossa”, when the omnipotent Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV in 1077 was forced to humbly and repentantly kiss the hand of Pope Gregory VII, humbly begging for saving forgiveness. Subsequently, the balance of power changed, and secular power took a convincing revenge for its own humiliations (recall, for example, the historical episode known as the Avignon captivity of the popes), but the confrontation between the church and the kings was not completed until the end of the Middle Ages, thus becoming the most important distinguishing feature of the era in question.

The basis of the socio-economic and hierarchical structure of medieval European society was feudalism. Subsistence farming and the rupture of ancient trade and economic ties turned the feudal lord's castle into a closed and completely independent economic system, who did not need the supreme royal power at all. It was on this basis that feudal fragmentation was formed, breaking up the previously relatively monolithic map of the European region, which consisted of large barbarian kingdoms, into a great many tiny and absolutely independent feudal units, intertwined with each other by hundreds of dynastic threads and vassal-seigneurial ties. Serfdom and the personal dependence of the peasants on the feudal lord strengthened the economic well-being and independence of knightly castles and at the same time doomed poor, half-starved peasants to a powerless, miserable existence. The church did not lag behind in greed - it is enough to mention that it was one of the largest feudal lords of the Middle Ages, concentrating untold wealth in its hands.

Feudalism is a specific socio-political economic structure, traditional for the European Middle Ages and characterized by the presence of two social classes - feudal lords (landowners) and peasants economically dependent on them.

Over the centuries, feudalism increasingly became a brake on the socio-economic development of Europe, holding back the formation of bourgeois-capitalist relations, the growth of manufacturing production and the formation of a market for free labor and capital. The creation of powerful centralized states and vast colonial empires objectively contradicted the preservation of feudal rights and privileges, and in this regard, the late Middle Ages is a picture of the progressive strengthening of the power of the king while simultaneously weakening the economic and political power of the feudal lords. However, these trends are still more characteristic of the Renaissance and the beginning of the New Age, while the Middle Ages are strongly associated with the unshakable domination of feudalism, subsistence farming and the vassal-seigneurial hierarchy.

Question for self-study

What is the phenomenon of medieval city law? What do you think is the role of the burghers, guilds and workshops in the evolution of the socio-economic structure of medieval European society?

European culture of the Middle Ages - just like

and other spheres of public life - bears a pronounced imprint of the dominance of a religious worldview (a clear evidence of which can be called the brilliant canvases of Hieronymus Bosch, a Dutch artist of a somewhat later era), in the depths of which not only medieval mysticism and scholasticism developed (a religious and philosophical trend characterized by a synthesis Christian dogmas with rationalistic elements and an interest in formal logical constructions in the spirit of Aristotle), but also the entire artistic culture of European civilization (Fig. 2.1).

Rice. 2.1.

The process of "secularization" of European culture and, in particular, philosophy, the tendency to strengthen its secular beginnings are characteristic exclusively for the era of the late Middle Ages, or the Proto-Renaissance, illuminated by the first rays of the Renaissance. It is no coincidence that the authoritative British mathematician and thinker Bertrand Russell in his "History of Western Philosophy" notes: "Up to the XIV century, churchmen had a genuine monopoly in the field of philosophy, and philosophy was accordingly written from the point of view of the church."

Moreover, almost all the major thinkers of the Middle Ages came from the clergy and, quite logically, built their own philosophical doctrines in strict accordance with the religious, theological worldview. In this context, one should single out the most prominent theologians who contributed huge contribution in the development of medieval philosophical thought: Blessed Augustine (who, although he lived in the 4th - first half of the 5th centuries, that is, even in the period of Antiquity, before the fall of Rome, however, in spirit can rightfully be classified as a medieval thinker), Boethius, John Scotus Eriugena, Meister Eckhart, Pierre

Abelard, Thomas Aquinas, Marsilius of Padua, William of Occam and Jean Buridan.

The Middle Ages is characterized by a successive change of two artistic styles, represented in sculpture, painting, decorative and applied arts and even fashion, but most clearly manifested itself in architecture: Romanesque and Gothic. Perhaps if the Romanesque style, which combined antique art forms with some later elements, was primarily a tribute to the departed great era, then Gothic, with its upward aspiration and amazing geometry of space, can be called a true artistic symbol of medieval Europe (Fig. 2.2).

Romanesque style - the style of architecture and art of the early Middle Ages, characterized by the preservation of many of the main features of the Roman architectural style (round arches, barrel vaults, leaf-shaped ornaments) in combination with a number of new artistic details.

Gothic is a period in the development of medieval art in Western, Central and partly Eastern Europe from the 11th-12th to the 15th-16th centuries, which replaced the Romanesque style.

Rice. 2.2. Gothic cathedral in Cologne (Germany). Date of construction: 1248

Medieval literature was also based predominantly on religious tradition and on mystical experience and worldview. At the same time, it is impossible not to mention the so-called chivalric literature, which reflected the spiritual culture and creative searches of the feudal class. In many ways, it is the romance of knightly tournaments, campaigns and the heroic epic, combined with love lyrics and the plot of the struggle for the heart of the beloved, that will subsequently form the basis European romanticism New time (Fig. 2.3.).

Rice. 2.3.

potion. 1867:

Tristan and Isolde are the heroes of a medieval chivalric romance of the 12th century, the original of which has not survived to this day. The love story of Tristan and Isolde had a huge impact on subsequent European literature and art.

Speaking fairly about the sharp drop in the cultural level of Europe during the Middle Ages, about the temporary loss of the vast majority of the ancient heritage, about the attenuation of the formerly great centers of human civilization, one should still not go to the other extreme and completely ignore the Europeans’ craving for the light of knowledge, for the realization of their internal creative freedom and creative potential. The most striking manifestation of this kind of tendencies can be called the appearance in the XI-XII centuries. the first European universities: Bologna (1088) (Fig. 2.4), Oxford (1096) and Paris (1160), and somewhat later, in the first quarter of the 13th century. - Cambridge (1209), Salamanca (1218), Padua (1222) and Neapolitan (1224).

Rice. 2.4.

Within the walls of universities, where all the intellectual life of the classical and late Middle Ages was concentrated, the so-called seven liberal arts, the tradition of studying which went back to Antiquity. The seven liberal arts were conventionally divided into two groups: trivium(grammar, logic (dialectic) and rhetoric, i.e. primary, basic humanitarian disciplines necessary to comprehend deeper knowledge) and quadrivium(arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music).

Thus, despite the general degradation of the socio-economic and cultural life, characteristic of the Middle Ages, life was still glimmering in the depths of European society. The ancient heritage was carefully preserved within the walls of monasteries and universities, and the brighter the dawn of the Renaissance, the bolder and more fearless the creative forces showed themselves, ready to challenge the stagnant, obsolete feudal structure of society. The Middle Ages were drawing to a close, and Europe was preparing for the great hour of liberation. However, even from the standpoint of modernity, it seems impossible to fully answer the question of whether the phenomenon of the Middle Ages was an inevitable, natural stage in the evolution of European civilization, necessary for the successful assimilation of ancient experience, or whether it was, as Renaissance humanists believed, a period of comprehensive cultural and civilizational decline. when European society, having lost the guiding thread of reason, went astray from the path of development and progress.

• Subsequently, when the futility of hopes for the restoration of the former world order became more than obvious, and the need to adapt to new historical realities was more relevant than ever, the name of this interstate formation was changed to the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation.
• Vassalage - a medieval system of hierarchical relations between feudal lords, which consisted in the fact that the vassal received from his lord (suzerain) a feud (i.e. conditional land ownership or, much less often, a fixed income) and on this basis was obliged to bear certain duties in his favor, first of all, military service. Often, vassals transferred part of the land received from the overlord into the possession of their own vassals, as a result, the so-called feudal ladder arose, and in some countries (primarily in France) the principle was in effect: “The vassal of my vassal is not my vassal” .
• Russell B. History of Western Philosophy. pp. 384-385.

Middle Ages - this is a millennium, the conditional historical framework of which is the 5th and 15th centuries. The culture of the European Middle Ages arose in the ruins of the Roman Empire. In a stormy atmosphere of general confusion, the fate of European culture was being decided. Three forces clashed in a struggle on the outcome of which the future depended.

The first of these is traditions of decrepit Greco-Roman culture . They were kept in a few cultural centers, but they could no longer give new ideas. If this force could withstand and reassert itself in society, then the vector of the further cultural life of Europe would be turned into the past. The culture of Europe would have frozen in ancient forms, like Indian or Chinese culture.

The second force was spirit of barbarism . Its bearers were various peoples who inhabited the provinces of the Roman Empire and invaded it from outside. If they managed to root their way of life in the Roman state, then Europe would become a habitat for wild hordes of semi-nomads. ancient culture would have disappeared from the face of the earth, and the cultural development of Europe would have gone along some completely different path, as if starting anew.

Christianity was the third and most powerful of the forces that determined the path of cultural development in Europe. It relied on traditions that had developed outside the ancient world and introduced fundamentally new humanistic attitudes into the minds of people. Christianity was a fresh stream capable of breathing new life into the culture of Europe. By the time the Roman Empire collapsed, the Christian movement already had a centralized church organization uniting all Christians. This allowed him to become the main political force and defeat Greco-Roman polytheism and barbarism.

In this struggle of cultural influences and traditions, medieval Christianity underwent some changes. Ordinary people, newly converted barbarians, accepted Christ simply as more powerful, while maintaining a pagan consciousness: they believed in goblin, mermaids, brownies, sorcerers, etc. Displacing paganism, Christian church went to the transformation of some pagan characters, including them in their rituals or declaring devilish evil spirits.

The Church rejected the ancient cult of the mind, the ancient cult of the body, replacing it with the humiliation of the mind and the postulate of the sinfulness of sensual pleasures, health and bodily beauty.

One of the characteristic features of the medieval worldview, in the spirit of which the masses were brought up, was asceticism . According to asceticism, the globe and man himself in his bodily nature were presented as the embodiment of sin and evil. The duty of a believer was the gradual liberation of the soul from earthly fetters, the continuous struggle with "passions" in order to prepare for the transition to a better, afterlife world. For this, the church recommended fasting, prayers, repentance, mortification of the flesh, etc. The highest feat was considered a complete departure from the world to the monastery.

Asceticism was the official teaching, propagated from the pulpit, taught to the youth in the school, included as necessary element in many types of medieval literature. Asceticism was the most striking expression of the dominance of religion in the Middle Ages, when the exact sciences were still in their infancy, man's power over the forces of nature was extremely imperfect, and social relations doomed the masses to constant patience, abstinence, expectation of retribution and bliss in the other world.

The material basis of medieval culture was feudal relations: a large landowner (feudal lord) disposed of the land with the peasants, which he received from a superior feudal lord (seigneur) on a leasehold basis. The peasants were in complete economic and personal dependence on the "holder" of the land, as a result of which serfdom arose. The economy was natural: with a closed estate cycle and underdevelopment of trade and money relations. This was the result of the fact that during the early Middle Ages, when barbarian raids were almost continuous, the city suffered losses, the trade system collapsed, and the network of roads built during the heyday of the Roman Empire froze. There was a so-called "agrarianization of the population", leading to the disintegration of a single Roman world into separate duchies, principalities, kingdoms.

This nature of economic life has led to formation of a new social culture . The relations between the lord and the vassal, the vassal and the feudal lord were built on the basis of personal and family ties, contracts, patronage, etc. This led to the formation estates- clergy, nobility (chivalry) and other residents, called the "third estate" (people). Monasticism also arose, which personified the process of transition from earthly, “sinful” life to the achievement of individual salvation through ascetic “participation” in Jesus Christ.

If the clergy in medieval society took care of the soul of a person, then another class group - the nobility - had other ideas about a person. On its basis, the so-called chivalrous culture , with his ideal man. This ideal assumed noble origin, courage, concern for glory, honor, striving for exploits, loyalty to one's lord and god, nobility, and worship of a beautiful lady.

peasant culture Middle Ages was presented mainly in the form of folklore. Some researchers call it "laughter" or carnival culture.

Middle Ages knew three types of schools . lower schools , formed at churches and monasteries, aimed to prepare elementary literate clerics - clergy. Their main focus was on studying Latin, prayers and the very order of worship. AT high school , which arose most often at episcopal sees, the study of seven "liberal arts"(grammar, rhetoric, dialectics or logic, arithmetic, geometry, which included geography, astronomy, music). The first three sciences constituted the so-called trivium, the last four - the quadrivium. Later, the study of "liberal arts" began to be carried out in high school , later called university .

The first universities arose in the 12th century, partly from episcopal schools, which had the most important professors in the field of theology and philosophy, partly from associations of private teachers-specialists in philosophy, Roman law and medicine. The most ancient university in Europe is the University of Paris, which existed as a "free school" in the first half of the 12th century.

The most common areas of medieval science were scholasticism and mysticism . Scholasticism found its clearest expression in theology. Its main feature was not the discovery of anything new, but only the interpretation and systematization of what was the content of the Christian faith. Holy Scripture and sacred tradition- these are the main sources of Christian teaching, which the scholastics sought to confirm with relevant passages from ancient philosophers, mainly Aristotle. From Aristotle, medieval teaching borrowed the very form of logical presentation in the form of various complex judgments and conclusions. In writings on geography, for example, the authority of Aristotle and other ancient authors in the Middle Ages was considered indisputable.

The scholastics resumed the study of the ancient heritage, developed some of the most important problems of knowledge, and finally, many of the scholastics were universal scientists who studied all the sciences then available to them. The greatest medieval scholastics were the Parisian professors Pierre Abelard, Albert the Great, Thomas Aquinas, English scientist, monk Roger Bacon who paid the most attention to natural sciences.

In addition to scholasticism, in the Middle Ages there was another trend that waged a heated struggle with the scholastics. It was Mystic . So, Abelard was stubbornly fought by his contemporary Bernard of Clairvaux, former organizer of the 11th Crusade. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, German mystics were most famous. Johann Tauler and Thomas a Kempis. Mystics rejected the need to study Aristotle and logically prove the foundations of faith. They believed that religious positions are assimilated exclusively through "contemplation", that is, prayers and pious reflections. Speaking in this form, the mystics took a clearly reactionary position.

Official and secular art of the Middle Ages

Of course, that official art wore features of Christian ideology and was directed to religious church needs. Painting has become iconography . In sculpture, as in painting, biblical subjects dominated. In general, sculpture as a form of fine art in the Middle Ages did not receive self-development. After all, its object was the human body in its dynamics, emotions, beauty. And the Christian worldview considered bodily beauty to be sinful. But statues of saints adorned Gothic temples both inside and out. A kind of synthesis of church architecture and sculpture arose.

Music served the interests of the church. Such genres of spiritual music as chorale, mass, requiem. The musical culture of the Middle Ages was especially manifested in professional polyphony - treble. There were canons of solemn church singing. It should be noted that the dependence of fine arts on the religious worldview gave it a symbolic character, contributed to the development of conventional techniques and stylization of forms. The figures of saints are of different scales, the images are devoid of realism, schematic.

Knight culture

Recognizing the spiritual leadership of the church, each class of feudal society, however, developed its own special culture, in which it reflected its moods and ideals. The ruling class of secular feudal lords - chivalry in the broad sense of the word - developed by the XIII century a complex ritual of customs, manners, secular, court and military knightly entertainment. Of the latter, knightly tournaments, a public competition of knights in the ability to wield weapons, have become especially widespread. In the chivalrous environment, military songs were created that glorified the exploits of the knights. Later they turned into poems, novels were widely used, setting out various knightly adventures. great place in chivalric literature occupied love lyrics. Minnesingers in Germany, troubadours in southern France and trouvers in northern France, who sang the love of knights for their ladies, were an indispensable accessory to the royal courts and castles of the largest feudal lords.

Urban culture and folk art of the Middle Ages

medieval city, who played an important political role in the Middle Ages, did a lot for the development of culture. In the city, first of all, secular literature made rapid progress, early revealing its anti-feudal features. In cities in the 12th-13th centuries, so-called fablio, which contained witty attacks on the feudal lords. Many satirical moments directed against the feudal lords were also contained in Italian urban stories - short stories.

The point is that religion ordinary people was peculiar, and the combination of obscenity and blasphemy was not a manifestation of the depravity of ordinary people, but the barbaric childishness of their ideas and perceptions. During the mysteries folk holidays obscene songs about gospel characters were sung, everything lofty and serious in Christian culture was ridiculed.

Folk holidays, carnivals, occupied quite a lot of time in the life of the people of Western Europe in the Middle Ages. They were an expression of a kind laughter culture, to the creation of which an ordinary person had access.

The most striking manifestation of laughter culture was carnival. Carnivals were of pagan origin (the word itself in Latin means literally “meat, goodbye”) - there is an obvious connection with sacrifices. Carnival did not know the division into spectators and performers. All people who took to the streets of medieval cities in Europe became participants in the carnival action. It was carefree fun after hard work, a parodic mockery of everything higher in official life. The jester at the carnival became the king, the grotesque attitude was manifested in the "holiday of fools", the most sacred thing was parodied - the Christian liturgy, worship and other ceremonies. Songs ridiculing monks and priests were in vogue. So, for example, young people in Cologne in the 11th century sang a jester's song, which began with the words:

I would like to die
Not in my apartment
And over a glass of wine
Somewhere in a restaurant.

Distinguished by special frivolity vagant lyrics (wandering singers). Even in the official Christian culture, to the creation of which the common man had access, the grotesque attitude manifested itself in the mysteries (theatricalized life of Christ), in diabolical buffoonery, in satirical genre scenes (farce), in folklore images of ghouls, monsters, etc.

medieval architecture

The Middle Ages left behind many grandiose monuments of architectural art.

During the 9th-13th centuries, two main architectural styles changed in Europe - Romanesque and Gothic . The first got its name from the fact that it is an imitation of ancient Roman buildings. In fact, the Romanesque style was much cruder and more imperfect than the ancient Roman style. Thick walls, a relatively low dome, thick and squat columns, narrow and small windows of Romanesque cathedrals clearly reflected both the weak construction technique during this period and the very political situation of constant feudal wars and strife, when the same churches easily turned into fortresses, where they sat out from raids of knights by the local population.

Much more interesting and technically perfect Gothic architecture . Her feature is the desire of the architect to build the building as high as possible. The place of a semicircular vaulted arch was taken by a sharp lancet arch. Gothic cathedrals had many tall and graceful columns inside. Their windows were larger, with many colored painted panes. The abundance of statues, bas-reliefs, intricate carvings richly decorated the buildings inside and out. One or more high towers and majestic doors gave solemnity to the cathedrals.

Of the monuments of Roman architecture, the most famous are the cathedrals in Poitiers and Orly (France), in Speyer, Worms, Mainz (Germany). The best monuments Gothic art is the Cathedral of Notre Dame (Paris), Lincoln Cathedral (England), Milan (Italy).

Despite the class-corporate nature that the culture of the Middle Ages wore, it is distinguished by a certain integrity. This integrity was given to her two defining factors: feudalism and Christianity .

Distinctive features of the culture of the Middle Ages

Summing up, we can say that The distinctive features of the culture of the Middle Ages were:

christian, religious character through which the ideas of freedom and the value of a person's earthly life shine through;

traditionalism, which was expressed in adherence to icons, archetypes, in limiting the freedom of creativity within the framework of the theological worldview, in the impersonality of works;

symbolism, which found its expression in the semantic, broad interpretation and analysis of texts from the Bible;

historicism and didacticism the spiritual life of the Middle Ages: the righteous and teachers of theology sought in the course of discussions, disputes, teachings to convey the uniqueness of the appearance of Christ and the greatness of the divine plan;

versatility spiritual culture, the essence of which was to create a general picture of the world, created by the compilation of theoretical knowledge.

However, the culture of the Middle Ages contradictory , in it are noticeable and suffering renunciation of the world, and craving for its violent transformation which found expression in the Crusades. The tension and complex search for a new ideological picture of the world, during which thinkers tried to reconcile faith and reason, created new artistic styles prepared people's minds for the use of mechanical devices and technology. It is wrong to consider the Middle Ages as a kind of "break" in the development of human culture, a "dark spot", a "failure", as the thinkers of the Italian Renaissance thought. Man in the course of this contradictory process gradually turns to himself, and not to God.

The creativity of the peoples of medieval Europe laid the foundation for the further development of culture. One should agree with those culturologists who believe that the main achievement of this culture should be considered the discovery of the spiritual forces of man, the discovery of the sources of the humanistic worldview. In relation to our contemporary culture she played, in comparison with M.K. Petrov, the role of scaffolding: it is impossible to build a building without them.