Pagan cults in the Golden Age of the Eneolithic (ancient farmers). The oldest farmers of southeastern and central Europe

The religious cults of the most ancient farmers, through the harmony of social relations, were called upon, first of all, to ensure a good harvest, military successes, etc... In this system, there were no aspirations to enslave or decultivate society. This religious system unlike the current "world religions", they were not subcultures, but existed as long as the people themselves existed, their rituals and philosophy were an integral part of culture. The most ancient of the Sumerian deified forces, mentioned in the most ancient tablets (mid-3rd millennium BC), personified the forces of nature - the sky, the sea, the sun, the moon, the wind, etc., then the forces appeared - the patrons of cities, farmers, shepherds, etc. The Sumerians claimed that everything in the world belongs to the gods - the temples were not the place where the gods were obliged to take care of people - but the granaries of the gods - barns. Erim in Sumerian "treasury, pantry, barn, warehouse" (ERIM3, ERIN3); ésa - barn, granary, warehouse (é, "house, temple", + sa, "first, original"). The harvest in that era was the main wealth of the community, so thanksgiving ceremonies were held in honor of the harvest. Special barns were built - sacred grain storages. The temple was not a means of collecting money, which then went to god knows what. The temple, like the bread itself, existed for the benefit of the community. Usually these are square buildings made of mud brick 3-4 meters high with a dome resembling a church one, only in the center of this dome there was an entrance hole, from where a staircase descended down the vault. The depth of such a vault in the Subarean settlement began at 3,000 BC. Tell Khazna I reached 16 meters. The air was hot outside, and at the bottom of the storage one had to work in warm clothes so as not to freeze. For a more complete understanding of the meaning of this holiday, let's turn to ancient sources. September-October the Sumerians called du6-ku3 "sacred hill". Initially, the "sacred hill" is a pile of threshed grain or poured into grain towers. “The Sumerians saw the Sacred Hill “in the mountains on the eastern horizon, at the place of sunrise” (Emelyanov, 1999, p. 99). The Subarts and Sumerians called a pile of grain poured into a grain tower a sacred hill. The first hill of creation is the place of origin, the sacred center of being. In Akkadian, the month is called tašritu “beginning”, which is quite understandable - the seventh Nippur month is symmetrical to the first fact of the equinox, and if the center of the first half of the year is the temple throne, then the second hill is naturally recognized as the first hill (as the second part of the world vertical). ... the libation is made to the first gods of Chaos (seven Anunnaki), who gave birth to the lord of order Enlil. After the end of the harvest, one sacred sheaf was left unthreshed until the next sowing season. It was believed that the spirit of the future harvest Nanna (Nannar) lives in it. In the photo: Reconstruction of the street of the Subarean city 3 thousand BC. (Tell Khazna) with temple buildings and sacred grain towers (with domes)

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The agricultural cult was mainly distributed among the plebeians, common people. Many deities, which later began to play an important role in the pantheon, were originally associated with the cult of fertility - Jupiter, Venus, Saturn, even Mars. In addition to them, the farmers also revered Faun, Liber, Ceres, Terminus, Consus, Pales and others. Religious holidays were dedicated to them: Lupercalia - February 17 - in honor of the Faun; Saturnalia - December - in honor of Saturn; cerealii - April - in honor of Ceres;

Vinalia - April and August - in honor of Jupiter; consulars - August, terminals - February. All of them were timed to coincide with certain events in the life of a farmer: sowing, harvesting, etc. Roman mythology was significantly influenced by other religions. The Romans themselves distinguished between local and foreign gods. Some mistakenly believe that a significant part of the Roman pantheon is borrowed from the Greek.

This is not so, but the mythology of ancient Rome was too poor. Having become acquainted with Greek culture, the Romans began to attribute to their gods the qualities and adventures that the gods were famous for. Ancient Greece. Thus, the Romans did not borrow the pantheon itself (the Roman gods, as we have seen, were originally associated with the cult of fertility), but the content ancient Greek legends and myths, their emotional and plot content, in which the Romans themselves were not strong. If the culture of Ancient Greece had such a strong influence on the ancient Romans, then what can we say about the culture of the Ancient East.

It differed significantly from the culture of ancient Rome and, in the eyes of an ordinary Roman, in better side. Two points can be made here. Firstly, the gods of Ancient Rome did nothing to help common man, so he began to look for intercessors among the eastern deities. The cult of Mithra, and then Christianity, spread widely in Rome.

Secondly, the mystical nature of the ancient Eastern religions opened up a new side of life, orgiastic. The veneration of the eastern gods among the ancient Romans is closely associated with obscene drunken festivities (bacchanalia). It was a natural reaction to the excessive dryness and practicality of Roman religion. The official authorities sought to overcome the influence of the eastern gods, forbade their worship, but to no avail.

"Instant" gods were also revered, who were responsible for various events. human life. For each of these events, there was a separate deity, for example, for the first cry of a child. If it was about something more important, say, about the period when the child learns to speak, or about his physical maturation, then several gods oversaw this at once. A particular goddess took the child to school and another brought him back home.

The main wealth that the Nile gave was, of course, water and fertile silt, because the main occupation for the majority of the population was labor in agriculture. The Nile Valley, pacified by canals and dams, has become a real paradise for farmers.

Archeology, combined with numerous reliefs and texts discovered in tombs and palaces, depicting all aspects of the life of an Egyptian, give a complete picture of the gifts of the fertile land.

Growing mainly cereals: semi-wheat emmer, from which bread was baked, and barley for making beer. They formed the basis of diet and wealth. In the farms of the nobles, grain was kept in a tower of prominent storages rounded at the top, built from the Nile silt (they are painted gray on the reliefs). Such granaries were found in the settlements of the I-II millennium BC. e. Grain was poured into them from above, and taken out through a sliding door at the bottom. Seed grain was left until the new sowing in storage facilities arranged right in the field.

Linen was the main industrial crop; many things were made from it - from ropes to the finest fabrics. Importance I also had a collection of marsh papyrus plants. It is not known whether it was cultivated or wild. The roots of papyrus were used for food, the stems were used to make all kinds of items: for example, boats, mats, writing material, which was exported to other countries.

In conditions where the fields were annually replenished with soft fertile silt, agricultural tools have changed little over the millennia.

The main tools were hoes and wooden sickles with inserted blades made of pieces of flint. Grinding of grain was done manually: coarse grain graters have come down to us, they were two stones, between which the grain was ground. In addition to cereals and industrial crops, a wide variety of fruits and vegetables were grown. Small vegetable gardens were planted on elevated areas, where water was delivered manually. Later, the shaduf device appeared, which is still used in the rural areas of the Arab countries. It consists of a long beam planted on a wooden or stone support, and resembles our "crane". At one end of the beam, a container for lifting water or other goods was attached, at the other - a counterweight made of limestone blocks or stones.

The flourishing state of viticulture is indicated by countless wine vessels found in one piece or in fragments. Judging by the seals on the clay stoppers of the vessels, Lower Egypt was the place where viticulture flourished.

In addition to vineyards, it was famous for gardens, meadows, fields of wheat, while Upper Egypt appeared mainly as a grain region, where crops of barley predominated, more dry-resistant than emmer wheat.

Animal husbandry has reached a high development, mainly in Lower Egypt. During excavations, archaeologists find bones of cows, donkeys, sheep and goats. There were many cattle: at the end of the 4th millennium BC. e. one of the pharaohs of Upper Egypt boasted of capturing 400 thousand heads of cattle and 1 million 422 thousand heads of small livestock in the war with Lower Egypt.

But the meat of cattle occupied a relatively small place in the diet of the Egyptian. This cattle rather served as an improvised tool in agriculture. But in the swamps they hunted birds, and the Nile gave fish in abundance.

The main producers of agricultural products were the community members of the fellahs - the main part of the country's population. They lived in villages, cultivated their plots and the lands of the nobles. Very little information has come down to us about the situation of free producers, not involved in the economy of the nobility and the pharaoh. But the life of large estates is well studied by archaeological finds and reliefs.

Large farms consisted of a central estate, courtyards and villages scattered across different regions of Upper and Lower Egypt. The organization of such an economy was complex and differed by multi-stage control.

Managed the house - the economy of the nobleman - the housekeeper. The scribes, the keeper of the records, the measurer and the grain counter were subordinate to him. These people carried out the supreme supervision of the work; all the lower bosses were accountable to them. At the head of individual households and villages was the ruler - heka. Working groups worked on the field during sowing and reaping. Judging by the images, only men entered them, and women only winnowed grain.

On the reliefs, scribes of the nobleman's personal home are visible everywhere: at field work, when driving herds, in production workshops. The steward, the keeper of the household books invariably submitted lengthy statements and annual reports to the owner.

In this . As the main wealth of the country, the pharaoh distributed the land. But the landowners disposed of the land quite freely, they could bequeath it, sell it, donate it.

On the example of farmers and nomads, nomadic peoples, this diversity of development paths is well traced. In the dictionary of V. Dahl, nomads are defined as nomads, nomadic people. Their distinguishing features are cattle breeding, lack of settled life, portable dwellings. Already known from the descriptions of Herodotus, Pliny the Elder, Strabo, Tacitus. Much material is provided by archaeological finds covering vast expanses of Eurasia, for example, the Scythian burial mounds of Alexandropolsky, Chertomlyk, etc.

The cultures of farmers and nomads differ not only in terms of their economic type, but also in terms of cultural models and ways of perceiving the world.

The model of the culture of the farmer is the plant: its structure is reproduced in the ornament, the type and material of the dwelling, the structure of the family; revered deities are associated primarily with fertility cults.

The model of nomadic culture is an animal. Unlike a plant, it is self-propelled and relatively free from environment. But the nomad's movement is forced, he is not free to choose his movement. The life of a nomad is a constant journey, a relentless search for pasture for animals.

One of the first to analyze nomadic cultures from the point of view of the originality of their worldview was the French scientist A. Leroy-Gourhan . He noted: for the early hunter and gatherer, the world is linear, it is not the earth that matters, but its surface, above ground, horizontal, plane. This is also true for later nomadic cultures. The cultures of the nomads originally arose in the belt, where nature itself formed a sense of space in a person. The steppe as a habitat for a nomad pushed the boundaries. His perception of space is linear.

For the farmer, the land, the vertical, the border are significant. For him, space is closed, space is an area. He is doomed to draw boundaries. AT Ancient Russia on the borders of their plots, the peasants put stones as a symbol of drawing the border and marking their property. The boundary stone had a sacred meaning in all cultures, for example, in the Kojiki, the sacred scripture of Shinto, the national religion of the Japanese, it is told how the god Susano-o violates the heavenly order by moving and scattering boundary stones and falling asleep boundary.

The farmer is characterized by the image of the world as a circle, a concentric universe. His house is the center of the universe, the village is the center of the universe, the sanctuary, altar or temple is the center of the universe, the axis of the world, axis mundi.

The farmer strives for change; for all the traditional nature of early agricultural cultures, they contain an element of novelty, innovation: the development of plant breeding skills, the improvement of tools and technologies for cultivating the soil, etc. The farmer does not move in space with such speed and intensity as a nomad. It is tied to a cultivated field. For him, the change in the habitable space is a sign of his inner movement. He constantly observes seasonal changes in nature, and they are extremely important to him. For him, the movement of the inhabited world, the ecumene, is the movement of time. He invents many ways to record these changes (the "Agricultural Almanac" of the Sumerians, the registration of the annual floods of the Nile in ancient Egyptian temples, calendar systems, etc.).

The nomad moves in space, but not in time. It moves, not develops. A person does not realize himself in the power of time, does not operate with the categories of time. In the cultures of nomads, the cyclical model of time dominates.

Many deities of the nomads are depicted on chariots, for example, the deities of the Indo-Aryans. God Tvashtar is called in the Vedas the first builder of chariots. The nomads tamed the horse early, used a wheeled cart. A horse is as precious to a nomad as a man, even more so. With him, a person forms a single creature, probably this is how the image of a centaur arose in mythology.

Agriculture and animal husbandry are associated with different technologies. The technology of communication with an animal is simpler, that is, it is not subject to special rationalization, does not stimulate the development of intellectual operations, abstract thinking. She is extremely conservative. It does not require written fixation, as its basic skills are reliably transmitted orally. Therefore, in nomadic cultures, the prerequisites for the formation of writing did not develop. Agricultural crops were originally associated with more complex technologies: with the manufacture of various plowing implements, tillage techniques, plant breeding, crop protection from pests, timing of sowing and harvesting, organizing joint work during harvesting, building and maintaining irrigation facilities. In agricultural cultures, writing is the rule, while in nomadic cultures it is the exception.

The structure of the sociality of farmers and nomads is also not the same. Agricultural communities have two types of connections between people, two fastening threads - a common origin (i.e. blood relationship) and a common place of residence and joint work. Nomads have one bond - blood kinship. But it turns out to be very strong and stable because of this. It can be kept very long time and even in the transition to a settled way of life.

There are different types of housing for farmers and nomads: stationary for farmers, collapsible, frame, portable for nomads. Agriculture required a sedentary lifestyle, the idea of ​​“my land” arose, and “my land” cannot be unlimited, a person learned to live in frontier conditions. A sedentary lifestyle required the creation of stationary dwellings. The dwelling itself, created by the hands and will of a person, is a symbol of the fact that a person imposes his will on nature, subordinates it to himself. Walls, ceiling - this is a man-made border that separates the natural space from the artificial, i.e., created by man for himself. At the same time, the materials used for the construction of the dwelling retained a connection with the world of wildlife: wood, clay, reeds were used, that is, that preserves or nourishes the growth trend.

The dwelling of nomads is as mobile as they are. For example, ger is a collapsible yurt of the Mongols. The yurt is formed by a wooden lattice frame and felt covering. Two adults can assemble it and cover it with felt in a couple of hours. The production of felt was very important for the nomads of the temperate zone. great importance. Many people participated in its manufacture, numerous ceremonies and rituals accompanied it. White felt had a sacred meaning and was used in rituals.

The interior of the yurt is divided into several zones. The main part with a hearth stands out - opposite the entrance, in the center of the yurt. This is a place of honor. In the same space is the home altar.

The rules of behavior were set by ideas about the social and family hierarchy and the degree of sacredness of one or another part of the room. True, this also applies to the dwelling of the farmer.

It is interesting that in Mongolia there was even a type of nomadic Buddhist monastery "khure". Khure looks like several yurts arranged in a circle, in the center there is a yurt-temple.

There are significant differences in the art of nomads and farmers. The art of nomads is characterized by the animal style. Images of ungulates, feline predators, and birds predominated.

There are differences in the cuisine of these peoples. The cuisine of the nomads of the Eurasian steppes has developed on a meat and dairy basis. The Sumerian cycle of legends about Inanna says this:

Oh my sister, let the shepherd marry you

His cream is excellent, his milk is excellent,

Everything that the shepherd's hand touches blossoms.

Grain, flour and products from them in the early history of the nomads were reduced to a minimum: wild, “black” barley, wild herbs were collected in the steppe. The main sources of vitamins were milk and half-cooked meat.

Koumiss (or other fermented milk products in different nomadic cultures) played a special role in the cuisine of nomads. Kumis got into historical writings as early as the 5th century BC. e. thanks to Herodotus. He described the way it was prepared by the Scythians. Then koumiss is mentioned in Chinese court chronicles, in European descriptions of travels in the countries of the East. FROM late XVIII century they became interested in European medicine.

The birthplace of koumiss is the steppes of Eurasia. Kumis is made only from mare's milk. It is prepared in the summer, after the horses have eaten plenty of juicy young grass.

The Italian merchant Marco Polo, who lived for a long time at the court of the Chinese emperors of the Mongol Yuan dynasty, writes that Emperor Kublai had a personal herd of ten thousand mares, "white as snow, without any spots." Kumys from the milk of these mares had the right to drink only members of the imperial family and close associates, who were given this honor.

Bozy is the main dish of Mongolian cuisine. Something like large dumplings or steamed pies. For the filling, a mixture of lamb and beef is used with the addition of onion and garlic, most often wild. The meat is finely chopped with a knife. The Mongols perceive the dough not as an edible part of the pie, but only as a shell for meat. It is not eaten at all or only a small part is eaten, as in Caucasian khinkali.

The Chinese also love dumplings, but the ratio of meat and dough in their dumplings is different. There is even a Mongolian anecdote that reflects the ethno-cultural specifics of this dish: is bozy a Chinese or Mongolian dish? - If there is a lot of meat and little dough, then Mongolian, and if there is a lot of dough and little meat, then Chinese. Most likely, bozy is a border dish, born at the junction of two cultures - nomadic (meat ingredient) and sedentary, agricultural (flour ingredient).

In the history of culture, examples of various relations between nomads and farmers are recorded. The Bible tells the tragic story of Cain and Abel, one of whom was a shepherd and the other a farmer. Cain kills his brother Abel, it seemed to him that God accepted the sacrificial gifts of his brother and did not accept the fruits of his labor. The dispute between nomadic farmers concerned, first of all, fertile soils used for arable land or pasture. The history of relations between farmers and steppe peoples is full of drama. But these cultures are not only competing, but also cooperating.

In the Sumerian-Akkadian cycle of legends about Inanna, the principles of the division of labor and exchange between pastoralists and farmers are stated in poetic form:

... what the farmer has more

than me?

If he gives me his black robe,

I will give him, the farmer, my black sheep in return,

If he gives me his white robe,

I will give him, the farmer, my white sheep in return.

If he pours me his best date wine,

I will give him, the farmer, my yellow milk in return.

If he gives me good bread,

I will give him, the farmer, sweet cheese in return.

History also knows many examples when nomads in a military confrontation defeated peaceful farmers, but the agricultural culture defeated the nomadic way of life, and yesterday's nomads themselves became a settled people.

Agricultural cultures laid the foundation for great changes: in the fourth millennium BC, a new historical type of human community emerged - the state. The state is characterized by a single territory, uniform laws, alienated power in the form of the power of the king, pharaoh, emperor, the formation of ancient ethnic groups, the social heterogeneity of society, and a settled urban lifestyle.

These were agricultural civilizations that arose in the basins of the great rivers. Their scale in time and space is striking: the history of Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, and India is measured for thousands of years. The geographic boundaries are no less impressive: the classical civilizations of the East and the ancient West, the cultures of Africa, Central Asia, the Far East, the civilizations of the New World. Along with textbook examples, one can name less famous cultures North and Tropical Africa: Nok, Meroe, Aksum, Ife, the ruthless Swahali civilization. No less interesting and diverse are the civilizations of Southeast Asia.

Agriculture in these civilizations was mainly associated with the natural rhythm of river floods, which determined the rhythm of agricultural labor and the whole way of life. One of the most important production tasks was the creation of efficient irrigation systems, which determined the system social connections, norms of legal regulation, originality of spiritual life.

The defining feature of the worldview was polytheism, the veneration of many gods.

Ancient cultures are the cultures of the written era, because of this, along with other texts, sacred, sacral texts arose, which set out the main ideas of a particular religion. Already at the end of the IV millennium BC. The Sumerians invented the first written language in history. Initially, the Sumerian writing was pictographic - the content was conveyed by a sequence of drawings, gradually the writing took on the form of cuneiform writing. In Mesopotamia, there was no stone or papyrus, but there was clay, which provided unlimited opportunities for writing at low cost. The writing of the Sumerians was borrowed by the Akkadians, Babylonians, Elamites, Hurrians, Hittites, who adapted it to their languages. Until the middle of the II millennium BC. e. the countries of Asia Minor used the Sumero-Akkadian script. With the spread of cuneiform writing, Akkadian became an international language, contributing to the development of international relations, diplomacy, science and trade.

The development of writing contributed to the creation of schools. The schools of Egypt and Mesopotamia mainly trained scribes for state and temple administration. The curriculum was secular, the main subjects were language and literature. Along with writing, they taught counting, the basics of legal knowledge and office work. For those wishing to receive a broader education, they taught law, astronomy, and medicine. The development of writing and the widespread use of schools led to enough high level education, the formation of a certain spiritual atmosphere, which contributed not only to the birth of literature, but also to the creation of libraries.

The most famous is the library of the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal (669-635 BC) in Nineveh. The royal annals, chronicles of the most important historical events, collections of laws, literary works. Here the literature was systematized for the first time, the books were placed in a certain order. Already in the first third of the third millennium there are archives. In special boxes and baskets, labels were attached indicating the contents of the documents and the period to which they belonged. Along with the temple archives, archives of private individuals were also opened. Widely known, for example, was the archive of the Egibi trading house in Babylon, which contained more than 3,000 promissory notes, contracts for the lease of land and houses, for the surrender of slaves to learn crafts and writing.

In the culture of ancient states, scientific ideas are formed. This was knowledge of a practical nature, that is, those that were directly related to production activities. So, in Egypt, the greatest success was achieved in astronomy, mathematics, medicine.

Despite the similarity of the nature of the cultures of the ancient states, in each of them it acquired its own specific features.

The famous Russian poet K. Balmont has a poem "Three countries":

Build buildings, be in a harem, go out to lions,

Turn neighboring kings into their own slaves,

Get drunk on the repetition of the bright letter I, -

Behold, Assyria, the road is truly yours.

Turn a mighty people into an ascending slab,

To be the creator of riddles, the sphinx of the Pyramids, -

And, having reached the edges in secrets, it will turn into dust, -

Oh, Egypt, you revealed this fairy tale as a reality

Entangle the world with a light fabric of thoughts-webs,

Drain the buzzing of midges with the roar of avalanches with your soul,

In the labyrinths to be at home, to understand everything, to accept, -

My light, India, shrine, virgin mother.

The poetic images of distant cultures, created by the poet's imagination, may be far from historical truth, but on the whole they correctly characterize the general outline of the cultures of Egypt, Mesopotamia, and India.

Moreover, the cultures of ancient civilizations have common features, each of them is characterized by its own specific features.

Thus, the culture of Ancient Egypt, which arose in the Nile River valley, was characterized not only by the polytheistic nature of religious ideas, but also by pronounced zoomorphism. It manifested itself not only in the fact that the cult of animals was developed in Ancient Egypt, but also in the fact that many gods were depicted as animal-like: the sun god Ra - in the form of a ram, the lord of the kingdom of the dead Anubis - with the head of a jackal, the goddess of war Sokhmet - with the head lionesses, the god Horus - with the head of a falcon, etc.

For the spiritual life of the ancient Egyptians, the concept of the division of life before death and after death was essential; without ignoring the values ​​of earthly existence, the ancient Egyptians were very concerned about the eternal existence that comes after earthly life. Content afterlife determined by moral behavior here on earth. Great value for the Egyptians they had the texts of the Book of the Dead, more precisely the Song of the Rising to the Light, which included exculpatory speeches. The soul gives answers to the questions of Osiris: he did not kill, did not succumb to persuasion to kill, did not commit adultery, did not steal, did not lie, did not offend widows and orphans. The artistic practice of ancient Egypt was closely connected with the funeral cult. This is the construction of pyramids, and majestic temples, and wall paintings, and funerary sculpture.

In the history of the culture of ancient Egypt, it should be noted reform activities 17th dynasty pharaoh Amenhotep IV, who lived in the 15th century BC. e. He made a majestic attempt to reform religious ideas, to introduce monoieism in the form of veneration of the single god Aten, who personified the disk of the sun. In this regard, the pharaoh changed his name, he began to call himself Akhenaten (“pleasing to the god Aton”), built new town Akhetaten ("horizon of the Aten"), where unconventional for Egypt developed art, poets and artists were revered, the motives of hedonism sounded in literature. Akhenaten developed the practice of worshiping the Aten, wrote a hymn in honor of the Aten.

After the death of Akhenaten, everything returned to normal, he was declared a heretic and his name was forbidden to be mentioned, the city of Akhenaten fell into disrepair, but despite this, the activities of this Egyptian pharaoh did not sink into oblivion.

Mesopotamia - the land where the biblical paradise was located, where the wonderful tales of the "Thousand and One Nights" arose, where one of the seven wonders of the world was located - the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, where a grandiose attempt was made to build Tower of Babel. This land is a true cradle not only of the culture that arose here, but of all mankind. The American researcher S. Kramer had every reason to say: "History begins in Sumer." The ancient cities of Ur, Uruk, Larsa, Umma, Lagash, Nippur arose here. Pictographic writing, positional numbering, printing were invented here, the basis for the exchange of letters was laid, many astronomical and medical discoveries were made, and the Epic of Gilgamesh was formed.

In the center of the cities of Mesopotamia there was a temple and a temple complex, which was erected around the ziggurat. A ziggurat is a Mesopotamian stepped pyramid structure. The Sumerians, whose religion was adopted by the Babylonians and Assyrians, worshiped the gods on the tops of the mountains in their ancestral home. Having moved to the low-lying Mesopotamia, they did not abandon the tradition and began to build artificial mounds. This is how ziggurats appeared, which were built from earth and raw bricks, and were lined with baked bricks on the outside. The Sumerians built them in three stages in honor of the supreme trinity of their pantheon - the air god Enlil, the water god Ea and the sky god Anna. The Babylonians began to build ziggurats of seven steps, which were painted in different colors: black, white, magenta, blue, hot red, silver and gold. The ziggurat was a symbol of the universe, according to the Babylonians, it connected heaven and earth.

special type ancient civilization- this is antiquity, which is a multi-stage process of cultural development in the Mediterranean region. The basis of this civilization is the culture of Ancient Greece.

In the history of the culture of ancient Greece, it is customary to distinguish five periods:

Crete-Mycenaean (III-II millennium BC);

Homeric (XI-IX centuries BC);

Archaic (VIII-VI centuries BC);

Classics (5th century BC - three quarters of the 4th century BC);

Hellenism (IV-I centuries BC).

The Latin word "antique" (literally meaning ancient) gave its name to one of the great civilizations of antiquity. origins ancient civilization date back to the Cretan-Mycenaean civilization, which flourished in the 3rd-2nd millennium BC. e. After her death, the Greek polis civilization arises on the Balkan Peninsula and the islands of the Aegean Sea.

The basis of Greek civilization was policies - city-states with adjacent territories. "The Athens polis is in the same degree a village with arable land around and a city with its shops, harbor and ships, this is the whole Athenian people, fenced off by a wall of mountains and with a window on the sea. The policy was a civil community, characterized by a collective method of management and its own system of values. Each policy had its own gods and heroes, its own laws, even its own calendar. Greece in the polis period was not a centralized state, while remaining an ethnic and cultural integrity. The forms of the polis structure were different - from democratic Athens to the oligarchic Sparta. Each citizen of the policy took part in popular assemblies, was elected to elective office. Even priestly functions were performed by choice or by lot (with the exception of the Eleusinian mysteries and the Delphic college).

The policy was the highest value and the highest good. The hero was the one who most contributed to the glorification of his policy - in any field of activity: in the Olympic competitions, in writing laws, in battle, in philosophical discussion, in art. The agonal, competitive character distinguishes the culture of ancient Greece from other civilizations of antiquity. In ancient Greece in 776 BC. e. The first Olympic Games were held, which became the most important event for all of Greece. It is interesting that the Olympiads, held once every 4 years, became the basis for counting the years for the Olympiads.

Another distinguishing feature of ancient Greek culture was the recognition of the value of freedom, not only in the political but also in the intellectual sphere. The Greeks made a real intellectual revolution, striving not only to know the truth, but also to prove it. They found a discrepancy between the visible connections of phenomena and their true reasons discovered the principle of deduction. Greece became the birthplace of philosophy and science, the categorical apparatus and the main problems of European thought were developed here. The lifestyle of the Greek city stimulated the development of the art of discussion, polemics, and argumentation. Pericles said that the activity of the Athenians is based on "thinking."

Worship of reason, regularity, balance and harmony can be defined as cosmocentrism, or cosmology of Greek culture. The Greek word cosmos means measure, order, harmony, beauty. The cosmocentrism of the Greeks manifested itself in philosophy, plastic arts(the canon of Polykleitos in sculpture, the order structure of architecture), the hippodamic system of city planning with the special role of the square - the agora, moderation as the ideal of life for a citizen of the policy. The cosmos was understood as a beautiful, harmonious living organism, a sensually beautiful body, which is connected with another feature of Greek culture - somatism. The Greeks did not share the concepts of a beautiful soul and a beautiful body, they united them in a single concept of kalokagathia - the unity of beauty and valor. The Greek system of education was aimed at achieving physical perfection and "musical skills". Greek culture is inherent in Apollonian (light, reasonable, measured) and Dionysian ( spontaneous , dark, mystical) beginning.

Greek mythology was transmitted in a free form, it was told by the Aed singers, later by the rhapsodes. Its non-cult comprehension begins quite early, for example, in Hesiod's Theogony. This was a manifestation of religious freedom, the absence of strict priestly control. Legendary heroes and humans act side by side with the gods, even engaging in duels with them. The "Bible of the Greeks" is called the great epic poems- "Iliad" and "Odyssey" by Homer. In Greece, there were no canonical sacred texts like the Vedas. Greek drama was also a rethinking of myths. Here the concept of fate is developed, the problem of divine and human laws. In understanding human destiny The Greeks were characterized by pronounced fatalism. There is nothing random in the world, and this proves tragic story King Oedipus.

In the IV century. BC e. the crisis of polis consciousness begins. It manifested itself most clearly in the dispute between the Sophists and Socrates about the nature of the word. Its other manifestations are the growth of individualism and pessimism. Appear philosophical teachings, in which "fusis" (natural principle) is placed higher than "nomos" (polis laws, regulations, traditions). Such was, for example, the teaching of the Cynics. Another philosophical school - the Stoics - proclaims the importance of universal human values, placing them also above the polis.

The era of Alexander the Great, his fantastic campaign, the emerging system of Hellenistic states gave rise to a profound change in mentality. There is a unique synthesis, a combination of Greek education and Eastern traditions. In the territories conquered by Alexander, the Greek language spreads, gymnasiums, theaters open, libraries appear, scientific centers - museions. But the Greeks are imbued with the spirit of Eastern culture, they get used (albeit not immediately) to the deification of the king, from citizens of the policy they turn into subjects of the king. The Greeks get acquainted with the ancient philosophical and religious teachings, the thousand-year-old wisdom of the East. And not only are they found deep differences but also amazing parallels between the wisdom of Greece and the East. In the era of Hellenism, "the doors of all peoples were opened." New, syncretic religious cults, including the veneration of Greek and Eastern deities, often merging in one image, for example, the god Serapis. Increased interest in magic, alchemy, astrology. New themes and images appear in art. One of the remarkable examples of Hellenistic art is the Fayum portrait. The combination of Greek science and Eastern wisdom gave exceptional results, outstanding discoveries were made in the most different areas science. Among the most famous scientists are the names of Euclid, Archimedes, the Pythagorean Eratosthenes, Apollonius of Perga, Aristarchus of Samos. Hellenistic learning differs from Greek and its book character.

But this meeting of cultures was by no means cloudless and easy. History has brought us examples of open dissatisfaction of the Macedonians and Greeks with the fact that Alexander began to wear oriental clothes, host noble Persians, became related to them and even discovered these barbarians for them! - access to the ranks of his guard - the heart of Alexander's army. There were also uprisings. Alexander, on the other hand, thought of himself as a unifier of peoples, for him there was no division into Greeks and barbarians, it was replaced by a division of virtuous and non-virtuous people.

Alexander rendered a huge impact to contemporaries and descendants. Perhaps, not without the influence of his deeds and ideas, the teachings of Zeno the Stoic, and even earlier - Alexarchus, the scientist and founder of the city in Pamphylia, who bore the beautiful name of Ouranopolis, developed. Its inhabitants called themselves Uranids, that is, the Sons of Heaven. The coins depicted the Sun, Moon and stars - universal gods different peoples. Alexarh also created a special language that was supposed to unite all people. This idea was literally in the air in this era, when the horizons of the civilized world expanded enormously.

After the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC. e. his empire breaks up into 3 large monarchies, Greece finds itself on the periphery of the new Hellenistic world, but its cultural traditions had a huge impact on the culture of Rome.

The history of Rome includes several periods:

Royal period (754-753 BC - 510 BC);

Republic (510 BC - 30 BC);

Empire (30 BC - 476).

Roman culture absorbed not only Greek influences. The early history of Rome, the "royal period", was closely connected with the heritage of the Etruscans. The establishment of democratic forms of government (the Republican period) and the almost continuous wars waged by Rome formed a special system of values ​​for Roman citizens. The leading place in it is occupied by patriotism, based on the idea of ​​the special fate of Rome, its chosen by the gods - the "Roman myth". Rome is known as supreme value and the duty of the Romans is to serve him with all their might. The concept of virtue - virtus - included steadfastness, courage, fidelity, piety, dignity, moderation. A special place in this list belonged to the obedience to the law approved by the people and the custom established by the ancestors. The entire culture of Rome is associated with a constant appeal to the past, to the origins, to tradition, the veneration of the patron gods of their families, rural communities and Rome. The contradiction between traditions and innovations can also be seen in the evolution of Roman law, in which ancient norms, ancestral customs and newly developed ones are layered. Loyalty to old traditions and innovations were the subject of disputes between Cato the Elder and the Grecophiles, for example, the circle of Scipios.

The basis of mythology and religion in early period were communal cults. absent complete system mythologies, and ideas about the gods were built into rituals. Roman religious consciousness was of a pragmatic nature and was a kind of "contract" with the gods. Later, in the era of Augustus, the Roman epic, the Aeneid, took shape. The reign of Augustus was the heyday of Roman civilization, the era of Virgil, Horace, Ovid - "Golden Latin".

During the Punic Wars, Rome goes beyond Italy, then turns into a world power, an empire. All its constituent territories form a single and stable state. The exaltation of Rome is accompanied by the deification of the ruler. Rome is reborn, in the late imperial period new cultural forms appear, and the former are increasingly theatricalized. Religious mysteries take on the character of carnival actions, spectacular mass spectacles, rude amusements and luxury become popular. Theatricality mixes with life and replaces it. The reasons for the decline of Rome are called two - Caesarism and Christianity. Opposition movements are growing in the provinces of the Roman Empire, primarily the veneration of the one God and the expectation of the coming of the Messiah.

Read also other articles in the section:
- Brief description about primitive society
- Primitive human herd
- Formation of the genus
- Primal Hunters

Agriculture of the ancient people

Approximately 13 thousand years ago, a climate similar to the modern one was established on the earth. The glacier retreated to the north. The tundra in Europe and Asia was replaced by dense forests and steppe. Many lakes have turned into peat bogs. Huge ice age animals have become extinct.

With the retreat of the glacier and the appearance of a richer and more diverse vegetation, the importance of plant foods in people's lives increases. In search of writing primitive people wandered through the forests and steppes, gathering the fruits of wild trees, berries, grains of wild cereals, pulling out tubers and bulbs of plants from the ground, hunted. The search, collection and storage of plant food stocks were mainly women's work.
Gradually, women learned not only to find useful wild plants, but also to cultivate some of them near the settlements. They loosened the soil, threw grains into it, and removed weeds. For tillage, a pointed digging stick and a hoe were usually used. The hoe was made of wood, stone, bone, deer antler. Early farming is called hoe farming. Hoe farming was predominantly the work of women. It provided the woman with honor and respect in the family. Women brought up children, along with men, they took care of the household. Sons always remained in the mother's clan, and kinship was transmitted from mother to son.
The clan in which the woman played the leading role in the economy is called the maternal clan, and the relations that developed between people during the existence of maternal clans are called matriarchy.
In addition to the hoe, other agricultural tools appeared. A sickle was used to cut the ears. It was made of wood with sharp flint teeth. The grain was knocked out with wooden mallets, rubbed with two flat stones - a grain grater.
To store grain and cook food from it, people needed utensils. Having stumbled upon clay soil soaked from rain, primitive people noticed that wet clay sticks and sticks, and then, drying in the sun, it becomes hard and does not let moisture through. Man learned to mold crude vessels from clay, burn them in the sun, and later on fire.

Agriculture ancient man arose in the valleys of the large southern rivers about seven thousand years ago. Here was loose soil, annually fertilized with silt, which settled on it during floods. The first agricultural tribes appeared here. In wooded areas, before tillage, it was necessary to clear the place from trees and shrubs. The soil of the wooded regions, which did not receive natural fertilizer, was rapidly depleted. The ancient farmers of the woodlands often had to change areas for crops, which required hard and hard work.
Along with cereals, the most ancient farmers cultivated vegetables. Cabbage, carrots, peas were bred by the ancient population of Europe, potatoes - by the indigenous population of America.
When agriculture became permanent from an occasional occupation, the agricultural tribes led a sedentary life. Each clan settled in a separate village closer to the water.

Sometimes huts were built over water: logs - piles - were driven into the bottom of a lake or river, other logs were laid on them - flooring, and huts were erected on the floor. The remains of such piled settlements have been found in various countries Europe. The oldest inhabitants of piled buildings used a polished axe, made pottery, and were engaged in agriculture.

Cattle breeding of ancient people

Settled life made it easier for a person to switch to cattle breeding. Hunters have long domesticated some animals. The dog was first domesticated. She accompanied a man on a hunt, guarded the parking lot. Managed to tame other animals - sw her, goats, bulls. Leaving the parking lot, the hunters killed the animals. From the time the tribes moved to settled life, people stopped killing the captured cubs of animals. They learned to use not only the meat of animals, but also their milk.

The domestication of animals gave man better food and clothing. People got wool and down. With helpspindlesthey spun threads from wool and fluff, then weaved woolen fabrics from them. Deer, bulls, and later horses began to be used to transport heavy loads.

In the boundless steppes of Central Asia, Southeast Europe and North Africa nomadic pastoral tribes appeared. They raised cattle and bartered meat, wool and skins for bread from farmers who led a settled life. There is an exchange - trade. Special places appear, where at a certain time people gathered specifically for exchange.

Relations between pastoral nomads and settled farmers were often hostile. The nomads attacked the settled population and robbed it. Farmers stole cattle from nomads. Cattle breeding develops from hunting and therefore, like hunting, is the main occupation of a man. The cattle belongs to the man, as well as everything that can be obtained in exchange for cattle. The importance of women's labor among the tribes that have switched to pastoralism recedes into the background in comparison with the labor of men. Dominance in the clan and tribe passes to the man. The maternal lineage is replaced by the paternal lineage. Sons who previously remained in the mother's clan now enter the father's clan, become his relatives and can inherit his property.

The main features of the primitive communal system.

The history of human society, as established by the founders of Marxism-Leninism, goes through five stages, characterized by special relationships between people that arise in the course of production. These five steps are as follows: primitive communal system, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist and socialist.

The primitive communal system covered the longest period in the history of mankind. It has existed for hundreds of thousands of years. Primitive society did not know private property. In this era there was no inequality. In order to endure the harsh struggle for existence, people had to live and work together, to fairly share the jointly captured booty.

Labor played a decisive role in the development primitive society and the person himself.Thanks to labor, the ancestors of man separated themselves from the animal world, and man acquired the appearance that is characteristic of him now. For hundreds of thousands of years, primitive people have made many valuable inventions and discoveries. People learned how to make fire, make tools and weapons from stone, bone, wood, sculpt and burn clay dishes.

Man has learned to cultivate the land and has grown the useful grains and vegetables that we use now; he tamed, and subsequently domesticated animals, which provided him with food and clothing, and facilitated movement.

The primitive communal system was possible when people possessed primitive tools that did not allow them to have surpluses and forced them to share everything equally.

The primitive society is collective labor, joint ownership of land, hunting and fishing grounds, the fruits of labor, this is the equality of members of society, the absence of oppression of man by man.