Big encyclopedia of oil and gas. Tradition: definition, concept, meaning
Historical legends are a special kind of oral folk poetry.
According to researchers, historical legends belong to one of the original types of verbal creativity. The most ancient form of historical legends were tribal tales about the ancestors of the clan, about the migration of the tribe, about its leaders and heroes. The purpose of such legends is to consolidate and preserve for posterity the memory of the most important events in the life of the clan and tribe.
With the advent of writing, historical legends about ancient times began to be included in the annals. Retelling these legends, chroniclers usually note their oral, legendary character.
In historical legends, history is presented from the point of view of the people; they imprinted not only the people's memory of specific historical events, but also the attitude towards them, reflected the people's ideals.
Along with the real basis in historical legends, there is almost always a share of fiction, but, according to V.K. Sokolova, the author of the monograph “Russian Historical Traditions”, “fiction, or rather conjecture (...) does not contradict historical truth, but contributes to the generalization of reality, to the identification of the most significant, “typical” in it.
84. FOUNDATION OF Kyiv
Archaeological excavations carried out on the territory of Kyiv in the 19th-20th centuries showed that already in the 2nd century AD there were three settlements there, which later merged into one.
Chronicles compiled in the 12th century give a story about the legendary founders of Kyiv. This story is very short: “And there were three brothers: one named Kyi, the other - Shchek, and the third - Khoriv, and their sister was Lybid. Kiy sat on the gar, where the rise of Borichev is now, and Shchek sat on the mountain, which is now called Shchekovitsa, and Khoriv on the third mountain, which is called Khorevitsa after him. And they built a town in the name of their elder brother, and called it Kyiv.
The younger brothers and sister, according to most researchers, are purely legendary characters, fictional in order to explain the names of the hills Schekovitsa and Khorevitsa and the Lybed River. The older brother, Kiy, is probably a historical figure.
Academician B.A. Rybakov writes: “The pronounced possessive form of the name of the city of Kyiv (“Kiya city”, “Kyiv city”) makes it possible to admit the existence of a person named Kiy, who owned this city or built it.”
The story about the founding of Kyiv is repeated almost without changes in two chronicles - Kyiv, known as "The Tale of Bygone Years", and Novgorod. The only difference is the date. The Kyiv chronicler Nestor relates the time of the foundation of the city to the 7th century, and the Novgorod chronicler - to the 9th century.
Kyiv and Novgorod have long competed with each other. Therefore, the Novgorod chronicler indicates a later date, not wanting to admit that Kyiv is older than Novgorod. In addition, he does not recognize Kiy as a prince, but, referring to popular rumor, calls him a boatman who kept a ferry across the Dnieper.
Nestor enters into a controversy with the Novgorod chronicler and includes an additional explanation in his chronicle: “Some, not knowing, say that Kyi was a carrier: there was a transport from the other side of the Dnieper to Kyiv, that’s why they said:“ To transport to Kyiv ” . However, if Kiy was a carrier, he would not go to Constantinople. Meanwhile, this Kiy reigned in his generation and he went to the king - we don’t only know which king, but we only know that great honors were given to him (...) by that king.
In this explanation, Nestor reports new, very important information: then in Russia, the capital of Byzantium, Constantinople, was called Tsar-grad, and the Byzantine emperor was called the king, which means that Kiy visited Byzantium and was honorably received by the emperor. B.A. Rybakov, comparing this information with other chronicle data, put forward a convincing hypothesis about the time to which Kyi's activities belong. Rybakov writes: "This legend (...) fits very well into the historical reality of the 6th century."
The name Kiy possibly means "blacksmith". Researchers Slavic mythology V.V. Ivanov and V.N. Toporov identify Kiy with the hero of the ancient legend about the creation of the Serpentine Walls - earthen fortifications stretching along the Dnieper for hundreds of kilometers. Their origin and time of erection have not been established. In the era of Kievan Rus, they served as a defensive line against the Pechenegs.
The legend says that in ancient times a winged serpent flew in from the sea and began to devour people. People were dying, "like grass under the feet of cattle, like millet in the sun."
The blacksmith - "God's forger" - defeated the snake, harnessed it to the plow - and plowed a furrow to the sea. The furrow filled with water became the Dnieper, and the uprooted land became the Serpentine Walls, which still exist today.
The image of a blacksmith-serpent fighter goes back to the Slavic god of fire, the patron of blacksmithing Svarog, and it can be argued that the legend about the founding of Kyiv has not only historical, but also deeper - mythological - roots.
85. PROPHETIC OLEG
Prophetic Oleg, an ancient Russian prince who lived in the 9th-10th centuries, is reported by ancient chronicles, his name is mentioned in historical documents, but most of the information about his life and work has come down to us in the form of folk tales, in which real events are closely intertwined with legendary ones.
In many ways, the story of the Prophetic Oleg in Nestor's chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years" also has a legendary character.
Nestor calls Oleg a relative of the Novgorod prince Rurik. But from other sources it is known that Oleg had no family ties with the prince, but was his governor and reached a high position only thanks to his personal merits.
He possessed an outstanding talent as a commander, and his wisdom and foresight were so great that they seemed supernatural. Contemporaries called Oleg the Prophetic.
It is possible that the people's memory of the Prophetic Oleg was reflected in the image of the epic prince-sorcerer Volga:
Volga wanted a lot of wisdom:
Pike-fish to walk him in the deep seas,
Fly like a falcon under the shell,
Like a gray wolf to prowl in open fields
Rurik died in 879. Dying, he bequeathed the reign to Oleg and left his young son Igor in his care.
Oleg ruled in Novgorod for three years, and then, having gathered a strong squad and taking Igor with him, he set off to conquer new lands.
At that time, the vast expanses of the Russian land were inhabited by numerous tribes. The chronicle names more than ten Slavic tribes: Vyatichi, Krivichi, Polyans, Severyans, Radimichi and others. Finno-Ugric tribes coexisted with them: Chud, whole, Merya, Muroma.
Oleg with his army moved from north to south by water. They sailed along Lake Ilmen, then along the Lovat River and the Western Dvina, and then, dragging the boats, along the Dnieper.
Along the way, Oleg conquered the Krivichi city of Smolensk and the Severyansk Lyubech, leaving his governors there.
Finally, Oleg arrived in the rich and fertile lands of the glades - and saw a large, beautiful city on the high bank of the Dnieper. That city was called - Kyiv. Two princes reigned in Kyiv - Askold and Dir. Both of them came from Novgorod and once, like Oleg, served Prince Rurik.
Oleg decided to capture Kyiv, but, seeing that the city was well fortified, he used not force, but cunning.
He left most of his army behind, and himself, with young Igor and a small retinue, on one boat approached the very walls of Kyiv and sent a messenger to Askold and Dir: “We are Varangian merchants, we carry a lot of good goods. Let the princes of Kyiv come to see - maybe they will buy something.
Askold and Dir believed that a peaceful merchant caravan had arrived in Kyiv, and went ashore without any guards.
Oleg ordered the soldiers who were with him to lie down for the time being at the bottom of the boat. When the princes of Kyiv came close, he rose to meet them and said: “You are not of a princely family, but I am a prince, and Igor, the son of Rurik, is with me. I, and not you, should reign here! He gave a sign to his soldiers - and they instantly cut down Askold and Dir with swords.
Karamzin, highly appreciating the activities of Oleg, unconditionally condemned this act of his: "The general barbarity of these times does not excuse the cruel and insidious murder."
Oleg entered the city as a victor and commanded: “Let Kyiv be the mother of Russian cities!” Having established himself on the throne of Kiev, he continued the work of conquering neighboring lands and conquering the tribes inhabiting them. Oleg subjugated the Drevlyans, Northerners, Radimichi and imposed tribute on them. Under his rule was a vast territory on which he founded many cities. Thus was formed the great Kievan principality - Kievan Rus.
When Igor became an adult, Oleg chose his wife - Olga (according to some sources, she was the daughter of Oleg himself), but did not concede the principality.
In 907, Oleg was about to go to war against Tsargrad.
Having equipped two thousand ships and gathering a huge cavalry army, Oleg set out on a campaign. The ships sailed along the Dnieper, heading for the Black Sea (it was then called the Pontic, or Russian), and the horse army walked along the shore.
Having reached the sea, the cavalry also boarded the ships, and Oleg's army rushed to Tsaryrad.
Here the capital of Byzantium appeared - its white fortress walls, golden domes of temples.
The Byzantine emperor Leo the Wise, seeing the ships with an innumerable army, ordered to hastily close the harbor. Strong iron chains were stretched across the bay, blocking the way for Oleg's ships.
Oleg had to turn aside and land on the shore at some distance from the city.
Oleg's soldiers devastated the suburbs of Tsargrad, burned houses and churches, killed civilians and threw them into the sea. The chronicler, justifying the cruelty of Oleg's warriors, explains: "This is usually done in war."
But Oleg could not take Tsaryrad himself - the chains reliably protected the city from invasion from the sea. Then he ordered his soldiers to make wheels, put the ships pulled ashore on them and raise the sails.
A fair wind blew - and the ships rushed to the city by land, as if by sea.
Karamzin considers this episode to be legendary: “Perhaps he (Oleg) ordered the soldiers to drag the ships along the shore to the harbor in order to proceed to the city walls; and fable, having invented the action of sails on a dry path, turned a difficult but possible deed into a wonderful and incredible.
However, later historians acknowledge the authenticity of this episode. D.S. Likhachev writes: “In the conditions of river navigation in the north of Russia, ships and boats put on wheels were a common occurrence. The "dragging" of ships on wheels or skating rinks took place in Russia (...) in the places of river watersheds (...). The Kyiv chronicler talks about the movement of Oleg's ships on dry land, as something amazing. This is understandable - there were no "portages" near Kyiv.
However, for the "Novgorodian" Oleg and his Novgorod squad, this was not unusual.
So it was or otherwise, but the terrified Byzantines pleaded defeated and agreed to pay tribute to Oleg, whatever he wished. Oleg demanded 12 hryvnias for each pair of oars on his two thousand ships, as well as tribute for Russian cities - Kyiv, Chernigov, Polotsk, Rostov and others.
As a sign of victory, Oleg strengthened his shield on the gates of Tsaryrad. Between Russia and Byzantium an agreement on peace and unchanging friendship was concluded. Byzantine Christians swore to observe this agreement with the holy cross, and Oleg and his soldiers - Slavic gods Perun and Veles.
Oleg returned to Kyiv with honor and great glory.
Oleg reigned for many years. One day he called the soothsayers to him and asked: “Why am I destined to die?” And the wise men answered: "You, prince, will accept death from your beloved horse." Saddened, Oleg said: “If so, then I will never sit on it again.” He ordered the horse to be taken away, fed and protected, and he took another for himself.
A lot of time has passed. Once Oleg remembered his old horse and asked where he was now and if he was healthy. They answered the prince: "Three years have passed since your horse died."
Then Oleg exclaimed: “The Magi lied: the horse, from which they promised death to me, died, but I am alive!” He wanted to see the bones of his horse and went to an open field, where they lay in the grass, washed by rain and bleached by the sun.
The prince touched the horse’s skull with his foot and said, grinning: “Will I accept death from this skull?” But then a poisonous snake crawled out of the horse's skull - and stung Oleg in the leg.
And Oleg died from snake venom.
According to the chronicler, "all the people mourned him with a great cry."
Retelling in his "History of the Russian State" the chronicle legend about Oleg, N.M. Karamzin says that the story of his death is a "folk fable" (that is, a legend), "worthy of remark for its antiquity."
This legend inspired Pushkin to create the famous "Song of the Prophetic Oleg".
86. HARALD THE BRIGHT AND ELIZABETH YAROSLAVNA
In the 11th century, Grand Duke Yaroslav Vladimirovich, nicknamed the Wise, reigned in Kyiv. Kievan Rus flourished and adorned under Prince Yaroslav. Far away in the steppe he drove off the Pechenegs and strengthened the Russian borders. He built a twelve-domed temple in Kyiv in the name of Sophia of God's Wisdom, a beauty hitherto unseen, decorated it with marvelous mosaics and frescoes, and on the square in front of the temple he placed a sculpture brought from distant lands, depicting a chariot drawn by a quadriga of horses. Yaroslav was a great admirer of book knowledge. “I lay down on books, and often read them both at night and in the day, and gathered many scribes, and transcribed from Greek to Slovene writing, and copied many books,” the chronicler said about him.
Yaroslav the Wise had six sons and three daughters: the eldest Elizabeth, the middle - Anna, the youngest - Anastasia. All three were good-looking, smart and educated, and Yaroslav predicted for them the husbands of the most powerful kings of Europe.
But unexpectedly, to the eldest of the princesses, Elizabeth Yaroslavna, a young Varangian, who served in Yaroslav's squad, wooed.
That Varangian was called Harald. By the will of fate, he was forced to leave his fatherland and serve in a foreign land as a simple mercenary.
However, he came from a noble Norwegian family. The eldest - half - brother of Harald was St. Olaf himself, the illustrious king who united all of Norway under his rule and converted the Norwegians to the Christian faith. But he did it with such cruelty that he aroused universal hatred for himself. Therefore, when the Danes attacked Norway, many Norwegians went over to their side. Olaf had to fight with an army three times his own. And in all the battles next to Olaf was his younger brother - fifteen-year-old Harald. The heavy battle sword he could only lift with two hands, but he fought bravely.
Olaf died at the Battle of Stiklestad. The Danish king established himself on the Norwegian throne.
Harald, saving Olaf's son, six-year-old Magnus, fled with him to Gardarika - the Land of Cities, as the Scandinavians then called Kievan Rus.
Yaroslav accepted little Magnus as his own son, and Harald became the head of the guard squad.
When Harald saw the young princess, the beautiful Elizabeth Yaroslavna, he was captivated by her clear eyes and sable eyebrows, thin waist and swan gait - and he fell in love with Elizabeth forever and ever.
Handsome and brave, Harald skillfully wielded a spear and sword, skied fast and knew how to steer a ship on the high seas, played the sweet-sounding harp and had an invaluable gift for writing poetry. Elizabeth's heart spoke loudly in favor of Harald, but he was a poor, homeless wanderer - Prince Yaroslav did not want such a husband for his daughter. Strictly, he forbade Elizabeth even to think about the young Varangian, and she did not dare to disobey her father. Taking a proud look, but with sadness in her heart, Elizabeth refused Harald.
Then Harald left Yaroslav's court, equipped a ship, recruited a brave squad and set off for distant, unknown countries. Soon his fame was already thundering all over the world. From mouth to mouth passed stories about the extraordinary courage of Harald, about his amazing exploits and adventures. He fought in Sicily and Africa, stormed impregnable fortresses in the East and served with the Byzantine emperor, fought with sea robbers and was at the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem.
And each time, having captured rich booty, he sent gold and silver, jewelry of fine foreign work and patterned fabrics to Kyiv as a gift to Elizabeth Yaroslavna.
But dearer than all gifts, dearer than gold and precious stones, were Harald's poems brought by visiting singers and storytellers, in which he described his exploits, his love and his longing, to Elizabeth. Each stanza of his poems ended with a mournful refrain: And the Russian maiden Haralda despises!
Every hour Elizabeth thought about Harald, trembled at the thought of the dangers surrounding him, and prayed to the Mother of God to save him from enemy swords and from the depths of the sea.
Years passed. And one day Harold's ships appeared under the walls of Kyiv. Crowned with glory, having obtained wealth, he came to again ask for the hand of the beautiful Elizabeth.
The memory of the second courtship of Harald was preserved in the Russian epic:
Three ships sailed and sailed,
Three ships, yes three black ones.
All ships are decorated.
Nose and feed like an animal,
And those sides were in Turin,
All anchors are silver
Thin sails of expensive damask.
Elizabeth's heart trembled with joy when she saw Harald descending to the shore. Prince Yaroslav this time received him graciously - and soon they played a magnificent wedding. The oak tables were bursting with treats, honey and beer flowed like a river, the guests called the newlyweds:
It was not gold that twisted with gold,
That is not pearls with pearls rolled down,
That the prince and the princess converged,
They got engaged with a golden ring.
Harald began to gather for his homeland. Many years have passed since he left Norway, and only vague rumors reached him about the events taking place there.
The Norwegians overthrew the Danish king, tired of his oppression, and called the young Magnus, still living in Kyiv, to the throne. Returning to Norway and becoming king, Magnus began to take revenge on his father's former opponents, and since there were many of them, discontent grew in the country.
Probably, Harald was afraid to expose his young wife to the dangers of a brewing strife. In any case, it is known that he left for Norway alone.
Now it was Elizabeth's turn to write letters of welcome to him and send gifts so that he would not forget her and doubt her love.
So a few more years went by. Harald ruled Norway with Magnus. But one day Magnus had a dream. He saw his father, Saint Olaf, who asked: “Do you want to go with me to heaven now, or will you stay on earth, you will live long and become a great king, but you will do so much evil in your life that the path to heaven will be closed to you forever and ever?" Magnus replied: "You decide, father." Then the Taken Olaf said: "Come with me." Waking up, Magnus told his dream to those close to him, and soon fell ill and died.
Harald, having become the sole ruler of Norway, was finally able to unite with Elizabeth.
In Norway, Elizabeth Yaroslavna was called Elisava, she is mentioned more than once in the sagas. Harald and Elizabeth had two daughters - Ingegerda and Maria.
Harald ruled the country reasonably and fairly, but he was, above all, a warrior. And a warrior, as they said at that time, was born not for a long life, but for glorious deeds. And Harald conceived a new campaign. He decided to conquer England.
On the night before the start of the campaign, Harald's warriors had bad dreams. One saw an evil troll who danced and made faces, another dreamed of black crows clinging to the ship, the third dreamed of huge wolves devouring people.
But Harald did not heed the warnings. He was so sure of his luck, which had not betrayed him until now, that he took Elizabeth and her daughters on a campaign.
A few days later, Harald's ships reached the coast of England. Harald landed Elizabeth and her daughters on a small island, and he himself moved on, towards the English army.
The battle took place near the city of York. As the two armies faced each other, Harald's horse stumbled. And the English king said: "Harald is a handsome and strong warrior, but luck turned away from him."
The Norwegian warriors, seeing the death of their king, trembled, mixed up - and were defeated.
In great anxiety, full of forebodings, Elizabeth waited for news of the outcome of the battle. Tradition claims that at the very moment when Harald was killed, his youngest - beloved - daughter Maria suddenly screamed - and died.
With the surviving remnants of the army, under black sails, Elizabeth Yaroslavna sailed from the coast of England, mourning two deaths and taking away two coffins.
But for many centuries, the story of a proud beauty and a brave warrior has invariably touched the soul and excited the imagination, a story where, according to the poet N.A. Lvov, who translated the “Song of Harald” into Russian in the 18th century, “love was combined with military virtue.”
87. LEGEND ABOUT THE BEGINNING OF MOSCOW
All world historical capitals, the foundation of which is hidden in the darkness of centuries, have legends about their origin. There are legends about the beginning of Moscow.
The first written mention of Moscow is contained in the chronicle and refers to 1147. This year is conditionally considered the date of its foundation. Although it is obvious that Moscow already existed at that time and was a settlement, quite large and significant.
The chronicle reports that in 1147 the Suzdal prince Yuri Vladimirovich, nicknamed Dolgoruky, who later became the Grand Duke, returning from a successful campaign against Novgorod, made a stop on the banks of the Moskva River and sent a letter from there to his relative and ally Prince Svyatoslav, in which it was written : "Come to me, brother, in Moscow," and when Svyatoslav arrived with his squad, he arranged for them "a strong dinner."
The well-known Russian historian, expert on Moscow I.E. Zabelin, wrote: “Come to me in Moscow! Come to me in Moscow! In these few words, the whole history of Moscow was, as it were, prophetically indicated ... Moscow became strong and ahead of others because it constantly and steadily called the scattered Russian lands to an honest feast of national unity and strong state union».
In the 16th century, when Moscow was already the capital of a strong and extensive Russian state, it began to be perceived as the spiritual heir to the two great Christian capitals - Rome and Constantinople. Moscow began to be called "the third Rome, adding:" and the fourth - not to happen! In Russia, the legends about the signs that were at the foundation of Rome and Constantinople were well known. When laying the city wall of Rome, a human head was found, which foreshadowed him to be the head of many cities. When they began to build Constantinople, a snake crawled out of the mountain, and an eagle flew from the sky - and they began to fight. This foreshadowed that Constantinople would be a king among cities, like an eagle is a king among birds, and fight with enemies.
With the rise of Moscow, educated Muscovites began to research and process the legends that existed among the people about its foundation. In the 17th century, four stories by unknown authors dedicated to the founding of Moscow appeared at once. I.E. Zabelin wrote: "They (...) introduced into their stories the legends that were circulating among the people and the undoubted remnants of already forgotten song epics."
In one of the stories, a certain prince Danilo Ivanovich is named the founder of Moscow - a fictional person. (Probably, the author named him by association with the Moscow prince Daniel - the son of Alexander Nevsky. Under Daniel, Moscow became the capital of a specific principality.) Grand Duke Danilo Ivanovich went "to find a place where he could create a throne city for his great reign." The prince found himself in a dark, impenetrable forest, and there was a marshy swamp in that forest. Suddenly, in the middle of the swamp, Danilo Ivanovich saw a motley beast "great and wonderful, three-headed and red-headed."
The prince asked the Greek scientist Basil who accompanied him: “What does this vision mean?” The learned Greek replied: “Grand Duke! A triangular city will be built on this place, great, wonderful and beautiful. And the diversity of the beast means that people of different tribes will live in that city.
And Prince Danilo Ivanovich founded a city on that place and named it Moscow.
Another story about the founding of Moscow, in its brevity, resembles a chronicle record. It tells about the founding of Moscow by Prophetic Oleg "During his reign, Oleg came to the Moscow River, Neglinna and Yauza flow into it, and he set up a city here and called Moscow." The author conjectured annalistic evidence that Oleg was the founder of "many cities" - and named Moscow among them.
This statement is purely legendary, but the fact that Moscow already existed as a settlement in the time of Oleg is confirmed by archaeological data: jewelry and coins of the 9th–10th centuries were found on its territory.
The author of the third story, the most lengthy, creates a tense, dramatic plot. The story is called "On the Beginning of Moscow and Prince Danil of Suzdal", it is known in many lists and was popular as an entertaining read in the 18th and even in the 19th centuries.
The founder of Moscow in this story is Prince Vladimirsky Andrey Alexandrovich. His historical prototype was most likely the son of Yuri Dolgoruky Andrey Bogolyubsky.
The story tells that Prince Andrei had a brother, Prince of Suzdal Danilo Alexandrovich. Prince Danilo heard that in the forest side, on the banks of the Moskva River, the rich boyar Kuchko lives and that he has two sons, better than whom there are none in all the Russian land.
The author of the story, in accordance with the terminology of the 17th century, calls Kuchka a boyar, while in fact he was the leader of some local Slavic or Finno-Ugric tribe. The historicity of Kuchka is partly confirmed by the name “Kuchkovo Pole” still preserved in Moscow (the territory in the area of Chistye Prudy and Sretensky Boulevard).
Prince Danilo Alexandrovich demanded the young Kuchkovichi from their father and took him into his service: he made one steward, the other - a cup maker.
Handsome young men liked the dissolute Danilov's wife Ulita. The princess entered into a love affair with them and instigated her husband to kill them.
During the hunt, the Kuchkovichi lured Prince Danila into the thicket and "began to kill." But they could not bring the evil deed to the end: the prince's horse carried away his wounded master. The assassins set off in pursuit. The prince, leaving his horse, hid on foot in the forest, and the pursuers lost sight of him.
Danilo Aleksandrovich ran to the ferry across the Oka and wanted to cross to the other side, in order to better get away from the chase. He had no money, and he offered the carrier his golden ring in payment.
The carrier, not recognizing the prince, said: “People are now dashing, deceptive. You will transport another across the river, and he will leave without paying the transport. Put the ring on the oar, and only then get into the boat.” And he handed the oar to the prince.
Danilo Alexandrovich did what was required, but the carrier, having taken possession of the ring, immediately pushed himself away from the shore and sailed away.
Fearing that the killers would overtake him, Prince Danilo again fled into the forest. In the meantime, "it was already shining in the evening, approaching the dark autumn night." Suffering from wounds, exhausted by fatigue, the prince came across a "log" in the forest - a log grave in which the deceased lay, and, forgetting the fear of the dead, climbed into this log, lay down and fell asleep.
The dark autumn night, the thicket, the proximity of the deceased - all these are characteristic elements of the literary genre, which later received the name "Gothic".
Meanwhile, the young Kuchkovichi returned to Ulita "in sorrow, in great sorrow, that they missed Prince Danila alive." The frightened Kuchkovichi said to the princess: “Now Prince Danilo will go to Vladimir, to his brother Prince Andrei Alexandrovich, they will both come here with a strong squad, and then we will be executed by a cruel death, and you, princess, will be buried up to the shoulders in the ground.”
Julitta began to think about how to find and destroy Prince Danila - and she thought of it.
Danila Alexandrovich had a favorite dog. The prince once said to his wife: “If they capture me in battle and take me captive, or I will be wounded and remain lying among the dead, or they will kill me, and my image will be so changed from bloody wounds that it will be impossible to recognize, and they will not find my body then call my beloved dog, he will find me and recognize me, and even if I am dead, he will rejoice and lick my hands.
Ulita called her beloved husband the dog and gave it to the Kuchkovichi (The author of the story exclaims: “What a bloodthirsty lioness, what a ferocious bear can do such a thing!”) The Kuchkovichi drove to the place where the prince had been wounded just now - and set the dog on the trail. Taking the trail, the dog quickly found a log house, stuck his head in there and, having found the owner, began to “rejoice affectionately” at him.
The Kuchkovichi arrived in time to see the dog, “rejoicing and waving its tail”, raised the lid of the log house - and finished off the prince.
Leaving the body in the same log house, they returned home, confident that they had safely buried their secret.
But all the secret becomes clear. The news of the “malice” reached the brother of Prince Danila, Prince Andrei Alexandrovich of Vladimir, and he hurried to Suzdal with a large squad.
Upon learning of this, the Kuchkovichi fled from Suzdal and took refuge with their boyar father Kuchka.
Prince Andrei put Princess Julitta to death and went on a campaign to find and punish the murderers of his brother. Many Suzdalians joined his squad, who wanted to avenge their prince.
The princely army entered the land of Kuchka. Against a strong army, "the boyar Kuchko could fight a little in battle." He was captured and executed along with his sons.
Prince Andrei, in anger, wanted to immediately burn the villages and settlements of Kuchka with fire, but postponed until the morning. And in the morning, getting up from sleep, he looked around - and "God put the thought into the heart of Prince Andrei" to build a city here.
The prince summoned skillful master builders from all over the Russian land: Suzdal, Vladimir, Rostov, and many others. They erected over the Moskva River "the whole city structure" - walls and towers, houses and temples.
“And from there the city of Moscow began to be called and became famous” - this is how the author ends his story.
The fourth story about the founding of Moscow is the most famous. In it, in accordance with historical tradition, Yuri Dolgoruky is named the founder of Moscow.
Prince Yuri Vladimirovich rode through the Russian lands and "arrived at the place where the now reigning city of Moscow."
This place belonged to Stefan Ivanovich Kuchka, who, feeling like a full-fledged owner, "was proud of himself" and did not render the Grand Duke proper honors. The offended prince ordered "to seize the boyar and give him death."
Then Prince Yuri ascended high mountain, “and having surveyed with her eyes with his eyes Semo and Ovamo on both countries of the Moscow River and beyond the Neglinnaya, and loved the villages of ony, and commanded that a small city of derevyan soon be made on the spot and called it the title of Moscow City by the name of the river flowing under it” .
These precise and resonant words have become classics; almost every book on the history of Moscow now begins with them.
88. THE LEGEND OF THE INVISIBLE CITY OF KITEZH
In the Volga forests there is a lake called Svetloyar.
The lake is not large, but its depth is up to thirty meters, and the water level is always the same, either in summer or in spring during high water. In winter, a special “lace” ice freezes on the lake. Svetloyarsk water is unusually clean, transparent and has healing properties. Locals say: "Drink water straight from the lake - don't be afraid, bring it home - it will stand for months, it won't go bad."
MM. Prishvin, having visited Svetloyar, wrote in the essay “Light Lake”: “... a calm, clear eye looked at me from the forest. Light Lake - a bowl of holy water in a green jagged frame.
The legend says that in ancient times, Grand Duke Georgy Vsevolodovich set up the city of Maly Kitezh or Gorodets on the banks of the Volga, and then, having crossed over the Uzola, Sanda and Kerzhenets rivers, he came to the Lyudna River, which originates from Lake Svetloyar.
The places there were beautiful, habitable, and the prince, "at the begging of the inhabitants", built the city of Kitezh the Great on the banks of the Svetloyar, but he himself did not stay in it, but returned to Small Kitezh.
At this time, "like dark clouds across the sky", hordes of the Tatar-Mongol under the leadership of Batu Khan moved to Russia. The enemies approached Small Kitezh and took the city by storm, killing almost all of its defenders.
Prince George Vsevolodovich with the remnants of the army managed to hide in the forests. By secret paths he went to Kitezh the Great in order to gather new forces there.
Batu was unable to find traces of the prince and began to "torment" the captive inhabitants of Small Kitezh, wanting to find out the path along which the prince had left. One of the prisoners “could not endure the torment” and led Batu through the forest to Veliky Kitezh.
The Tatars laid siege to the city, but suddenly, by the will of God, Kitezh became invisible.
Terrified by the accomplished miracle, the enemies fled.
About how the Lord saved Kitezh from enemies, the people tell in different ways.
Some say that the city still stands in its place, but no one sees it, others say that the city has hidden under the high hills surrounding Svetloyar. Writer V.G. Korolenko, who visited Svetloyar at the end of the 19th century, recorded the following story of a local old fisherman: “(...) our place, brother, is not an easy place ... No, no ... Not an easy one ... It seems to you: a lake, a swamp, mountains ... But the creature here is completely other. On these mountains here (he pointed to the hills), they say there will be churches. Etto in where the chapel - the cathedral they have is the Most Pure Savior. And nearby, on another hill, is the Annunciation. Here in the old days a birch stood, so on the sa-ama, it turns out, on the church dome.
According to the third version, the city, together with the inhabitants, sank to the bottom of Lake Svetloyar. People still live in it, and sometimes the ringing of Kitezh bells is heard from under the water.
The legend of the invisible city of Kitezh existed for a long time in oral form, passed down from generation to generation.
In the 17th century, schismatic sketes began to appear in the forests of the Trans-Volga region - secret settlements of adherents of the "old faith", not recognized by the official church. It was the schismatics who in the 18th century first wrote down the legend of Kitezh in the essay "The Book of the Chronicler."
In the presentation of the schismatics, the legend acquired a pronounced religious character. In their view, the underwater city is a monastery in which the righteous elders live, and only people who truly believe can see Kitezh and hear the Kitezh bells.
Over time, Lake Svetloyar became a place of pilgrimage for believers. V.G. Korolenko said: “Crowds of people converge on the banks of Svetloyar, striving to shake off the deceptive vanity of vanity, to look beyond the mysterious boundaries, at least for a short time. Here in the shade of the trees open sky singing is heard day and night, chanting sounds (...) chanting, disputes about the true faith boil. And at dusk and in the blue darkness of a summer evening, lights flicker between the trees, along the banks and on the water. Pious people on their knees crawl around the lake three times, then they put the remnants of candles on the chips into the water, and crouch to the ground, and listen. Tired, between two worlds, with fires in the sky and on the water, they surrender to the lulling swaying of the shores and the indistinct distant ringing ... And sometimes they freeze, no longer seeing or hearing anything from the environment. The eyes are as if blinded to our world, but clear to the unearthly world. His face cleared up, he had a “blissful” wandering smile and tears ... And those who aspired, but did not merit due to lack of faith, stand around and look in surprise ... And shake their heads in fear. It means that he exists, this other world, invisible, but real. They themselves did not see, but they saw those who see ... "
Belief in the real existence of an invisible city was preserved in the vicinity of Svetloyar even in later times. In 1982, folklorists recorded the story of a local resident: “People say that somewhere in the middle of the lake there is a hole - not very big - well, it looks like it will be like a ladle. It's just very hard to find it. In winter, the ice on Svetloyar is clean, clean. So you have to come, shovel the snow, and you can see what is happening there at the bottom. And there, they say, all sorts of miracles: white-stone houses stand, trees grow, bell towers, churches, chopped towers, living people walk ... But not everyone will find it, not everyone will be able to find this hole.
In the late 1930s, such a story was recorded from a certain old man Markelov. There lived in their village "a man, such a bold one." This brave man became interested in a hole, which he discovered under the roots of a fallen birch, and climbed into it. “Lez-lez, then he sees a bright place, and bright-faced elders sit in that place and sort out peasant affairs. And he recognized his grandfather, and his grandfather threatened him with a stick, did not order him to climb anymore.
Another local resident in 1982 told from the words of his father how he "had been to the city of Kitizh - they fed him there, they gave him money." The narrator's father "went to the cart", and then one day he was contracted with a wagon train to take sacks of grain. “And the convoy set off. Just went out to the highway - it got dark. I don’t know how many hours we drove and where, they only see - the gates are boarded. Kind of like a monastery. They are moving in. It's dark there, some houses are standing. While the convoy was being unloaded, everyone was taken into the house, fed, given money - and generously. And before dawn, the gates were opened, and the convoy, already empty, drove back ... Where were they at night? (...) While they were judging, rowing, they turned around - but there were no gates at all.
The stories about how the Kitezhans bought bread from the peasants are taken for granted by the locals. One narrator clarifies: “The Kitezh elders bought bread from the Vyatkas.” Another cites a case “with one Vyatichi”, who “brought rye from his Vyatka region to the market in the village of Voskresenskoye to sell. And so (...) a gray-haired old man approached him, looked at the grain, tried it on his tooth and said: “I will buy a whole load of rye from you (...). I only ask you kind person, take some bread to us in Vladimirskoye. I will give you an extra fee for each bag of ladies for this. Vyatich agreed. Near Vladimirsky (the nearest village from Svetloyar) he saw a monastery. The monks met him, helped to pour the grain into the barn. Having received the payment, Vyatich went back. “I drove away from the lake for some time, stopped and wanted to pray to the monastery for good luck with the sale. I looked back - but there was no monastery. ” (Recorded in 1974.)
According to them, local residents are aware of cases when Kitezhans helped people in the most mundane matters. “I remember that my grandmother told me, as a child, that he lived here in a village by the lake - in Vladimirskoye or in Shadrin, or something, the old man was alone. So, that old man once went to the forest for mushrooms. (...) I walked and walked, and all to no avail - there is not a single mushroom! The old man got tired, tired. And so he sat down on a stump, he wanted to rest. (...) It's a shame for him that he went around a lot, but there is no collection. Then he thought something: "If only the old men of Kitezh would help." Before he had time to think, drowsiness attacked him. (...) After some time, the old man woke up, opened his eyes, looked into the basket - and does not believe his eyes: there are mushrooms in it to the brim. Yes, even some - one to one, but all white! The legend of Kitezh is often compared with the legend of Atlantis. The historicity of the invisible city (as well as Atlantis) has repeatedly tried to prove or disprove.
Since the middle of the 19th century, the legend of Kitezh has become an object of research. It aroused the interest of a variety of specialists - folklorists, literary critics, historians, archaeologists. Scientific expeditions were equipped to Svetloyar more than once. In the 50-70s of the XX century, it was established that Lake Svetloyar was formed as a result of a "failure" - a sudden, strong shift of the soil, and this happened around the time to which the legend refers to the disappearance of Kitezh. At the bottom of the lake, a certain “anomaly” was discovered - a half-meter layer of semi-liquid rock, in which fragments of wood are present in abundance. The examination showed that these fragments “have traces of cutting tools”, that is, they were processed by human hands.
The poetic image of the city of Kitezh inspired many poets, artists, and composers. Maximilian Voloshin, Nikolay Klyuev, Sergey Gorodetsky wrote about Kitezh. ON THE. Rimsky-Korsakov wrote the famous opera The Legend of the Invisible City of Kitezh and the Maiden Fevronia, N.K. Roerich created a picturesque panel-curtain for this opera - "The Battle of Kerzhents".
The legend of the city of Kitezh - miraculously saved by God from devastation by enemies, sheltered and saved until better times, when it will again appear to the world, retaining its ancient root, ancient faith and truth - is one of the most cherished legends of the Russian people, for centuries subjected to invasions of external enemies.
89. THE LEGEND OF MOMAY'S BATTLE
On September 8, 1380, when Russia had been under the Tatar-Mongol yoke for more than a hundred years, Russian troops led by the Grand Duke of Moscow Dmitry Ivanovich defeated the hordes of the Tatar-Mongol Khan Mamai in the battle on the Kulikovo field.
D.S. Likhachev, in the article “The World Significance of the Battle of Kulikovo,” writes: “The Kulikovo victory did not mean the complete destruction of the yoke, but (...) made the impending complete liberation from national enslavement undeniable for everyone.”
The Battle of Kulikovo, being the most significant event of its time, served as the subject for several literary works of the late 14th-15th centuries, known in the history of literature as the "Kulikovo cycle". The central work of this cycle is “The Legend of the Mamaev Battle”.
The word "battle" at that time had a different meaning than now "Mamay's massacre" is "victory over Mamai."
The "Tale", dedicated to a real historical event, nevertheless acquires folklore and legendary features, in form and spirit it is closely connected with the traditional works of Russian folk poetry. It has become widespread in Russia, has come down to our time a large number of its lists are more than other works of ancient Russian literature.
... The godless Khan Mamai, a hater of the Christian faith, decided to go on a campaign against Russia, as the frantic Batu did a hundred years ago, burn cities and villages, destroy God's churches, exterminate the Orthodox people.
Mamai gathered an innumerable army and said to his soldiers: “Let's go to the Russian land, we will get rich from Russian gold!” And the Mamaev hordes moved to Russia.
The Ryazan prince Oleg was the first to know about the coming invasion in Russia. He was offended by the Grand Duke of Moscow, Dmitry Ivanovich, because the grandfather of the Grand Duke once took away the city of Kolomna from the princes of Ryazan and annexed it to Moscow. Oleg Ryazansky conceived treason, deciding to enter into an alliance with the godless Mamai.
Oleg sent a large embassy to Khan Mamai with rich gifts and letters. In that letter it was written: “To the Great Khan, free Mamai, from Oleg Ryazansky, your faithful servant. I heard, sir, that you want to go to Russia, to Prince Dmitry of Moscow. You chose the time well, now Moscow is full of gold and silver and all the wealth you need. And Prince Dmitry is not a warrior against you. As soon as he hears your formidable name, he will go to his distant estates - to Novgorod the Great, to Beloozero, or to the Dvina, and all Moscow riches will remain your booty.
Oleg Ryazansky sent another letter to the Lithuanian prince Olgerd: “Rejoice to the Grand Duke Olgerd of Lithuania! I know that you, prince, have long wanted to reign in Moscow. Now the time has come for this: Khan Mamai is coming to Russia. If you and I join him, he will give you Moscow and other cities, and to me - Kolomna, Vladimir and Murom, which lie close to my principality. I have already sent rich gifts to Mamai - send you too. And write him a letter, but you yourself know how, for you understand more than I do in this.
Olgerd of Lithuania listened to the advice of Prince Oleg and sent his embassy to Mamai. Both traitors began to wait for Mamai to come to Russia. They hoped that the Grand Duke of Moscow, Dmitry Ivanovich, frightened, would flee from Moscow, and intended, after waiting for Khan Mamai, to meet him with great gifts and beg him to leave the Russian borders. Then the traitors could occupy Moscow, and divide the Moscow principality among themselves.
Meanwhile, Dmitry Ivanovich, having learned that the enemies were advancing on the Russian land, was not afraid and did not leave Moscow, but began to prepare for a rebuff.
He sent messengers to all ends of the Russian land, to all the princes, governors and boyars - and ordered them to immediately gather with their squads in Moscow.
Princes and boyars gathered in Moscow and brought their warriors. The cousin of the Grand Duke Vladimir Andreevich of Serpukhov came, the Belozersky princes came - Fedor and Semyon, Andrey, Prince of Kemsky, and Gleb Kargopolsky, and Dmitry Rostovsky, and many other princes came.
On all Moscow streets one could hear the rattling of armor, the clatter of hooves, the clatter of horse harness. So many troops gathered in Moscow that they did not fit in the city and occupied the surrounding area.
Then Dmitry Ivanovich learned from faithful people that Oleg Ryazansky and Olgerd Lithuanian made an alliance with Mamai. The Grand Duke was saddened and exclaimed with tears: “When enemies do all sorts of dirty tricks to us, we know that this is how it should be - that’s why they are enemies. But now my friends, my loved ones have rebelled against me! I did no harm to them, I loved them and rewarded them with gifts. May the Lord be their judge!” Prince Dmitry decided not to wait for the enemy in Moscow, but to meet him halfway. Before setting off on a campaign, Dmitry Ivanovich went to the monastery of the Holy Trinity to ask for blessings from the righteous abbot Sergius of Radonezh.
Sergius invited the prince to a monastic meal. During the meal, a messenger galloped up to Dmitry Ivanovich with the news that the Tatars were moving towards Moscow.
The prince hurried and began to ask Sergius to give him a blessing. Sergius sprinkled the prince and his soldiers with holy water and said: “Go to battle with the name of God. The Lord will be your helper and intercessor, and you will defeat your enemies!” Two of the monastic brethren, the monks Peresvet and Oslyabya, who were warriors in the world, having asked for blessings from Sergius, joined the prince's army. Sergius said to them: “Peace be with you, brothers! Do not spare life for the Orthodox faith!” The Grand Duke returned to Moscow and stood at the head of the army, ready to go to the enemy.
Their wives came out to see off the soldiers. Princess Evdokia, the wife of Dmitry Ivanovich, wept, other princesses and boyars wept, saying goodbye to their princes and boyars, the wives of ordinary soldiers wept, not knowing whether they would see their husbands alive.
Dmitry Ivanovich said: “If God is for us, no one can defeat us!” The Grand Duke mounted a horse, all the princes, boyars and governors mounted their horses - and the Russian army set out on a campaign. The soldiers left Moscow through three gates - Frolovsky, Nikolsky and Konstantinovsky. Prince Dmitry divided the army into three parts and ordered to go along three roads, because one road would not have accommodated the entire army, it was so large.
From my high tower Princess Evdokia watched as Dmitry Ivanovich's army marched away along the green bank of the Moskva River.
The meeting place was Kolomna. There, on a wide field, the Grand Duke reviewed the troops, and his heart was filled with joy - great Russian power!
We moved on, crossed the Oka and entered the Ryazan lands - the possessions of the traitor Oleg Ryazan. Dmitry Ivanovich strictly forbade every governor and all soldiers to offend the inhabitants of the Ryazan land.
Meanwhile, Oleg Ryazansky learned that Prince Dmitry was marching against Mamai at the head of a great force, that soldiers from all over the Russian land were marching with him.
Oleg Ryazansky was frightened, repented of his betrayal: “Woe to me, damned! Not only have I lost my fatherland, but I have also ruined my soul. The earth will not wear me because, together with the wicked, I took up arms against the Orthodox faith! I would be glad now to join the Grand Duke, but he will not accept me, because he knows about my betrayal! And Oleg did not go to the aid of Mamai.
And Olgerd Lithuanian, as was agreed with Oleg, was already on his way with his regiments to join Mamaev's army. But near the city of Odoev, he received news of the great force gathered by Prince Dmitry, and that Oleg Ryazansky was afraid to oppose this force. Olgerd said in annoyance: “When a person does not have his own mind, there is nothing to hope for someone else's. I obeyed Oleg, but he confused me too, and disappeared himself! Olgerd decided not to move on, but to remain in place - and wait, whose victory would be.
Meanwhile, the Russian army approached the Don. Dmitry Ivanovich sent two scouts to the steppe, and they obtained a "language" - a Tatar from the courtiers of Khan Mamai himself.
The Grand Duke asked the prisoner: “Does the Khan have much strength and will he soon arrive at the Don?” The Tatar replied: "No one can count the Khan's soldiers, because there are many of them, and there will be a Khan on the Don in three days."
The Grand Duke began to hold council with his governors: “Should we wait for Mamai here or cross the Don, where the Nepryadva River flows into it, and stand on the other side, on the Kulikovo field?” The governors said: “Sire, we will cross the Don! If we have a river behind us, we will stand firmly, because there is nowhere to retreat. If we defeat the Tatars, we will accept all honor, and if we die, we will drink the common death cup, everything from princes to simple warriors.
The Russian army crossed the Don and stood on the other side, waiting for the enemy.
The next day, a scout rode up from the steppe and said: “The Tatars are already quite close. During the night they will reach the Nepryadva River.
Dmitry Ivanovich ordered the Russian regiments to line up in battle order so that everyone would remember who should stand where tomorrow, and sent his brother Vladimir Andreevich’s regiment up the Don so that he could hide in an ambush, in a dense oak forest - and could unexpectedly hit the enemy. The prince appointed the wise and experienced Dmitry Bobrok-Volynets as governor of the ambush regiment.
The Grand Duke went to a high mound, surveyed the Russian army from there. It sways like a boundless sea, banners flutter in the wind like clouds in the sky, helmets shine like the sun on a fine day.
The prince said to the soldiers: “My dear brothers! The night is coming, and tomorrow will be a terrible day. Be of good cheer and be strong and trust in God. And forgive me, brothers, both in this life and in the future, for it is not known what will happen to us.
Night fell, warm and still. Can't sleep to Prince Dmitry Ivanovich, can't sleep to the old governor Bobrok-Volynets. The governor said to the prince: "Sit down, sovereign, on a horse, let's go to the field."
They left for the place of tomorrow's battle, stopped between two camps - Russian and Tatar. From the Tatar side one can hear noise and shouting, and knocking, and creaking of wheels, as if people are coming to bargain. Behind the Tatar camp, wolves howl, crows crow, eagles screech. On the Nepryadva River, geese-swans flap their wings, as before a great thunderstorm. And over the Russian camp there is silence, and in the sky above it there is light, as if the dawn is dawning.
Bobrok-Volynets said: “This is a good sign!” Then the old governor got off his horse and put his ear to the ground. He listened for a long time, and when he got up, he bowed his head.
The Grand Duke asked: “What did you hear, governor?” Bobrok-Volynets answered: “The earth is crying in two voices. One voice - like an old mother. She laments in a foreign language over her children. The other voice is a girl's. The girl is crying like a plaintive flute. This sign promises us victory, but many Russian soldiers will fall in battle.
At sunrise, a thick fog fell to the ground. Neither the Russian nor the Tatar troops are visible in the fog. But then the banners began to hoist above the fog, and battle trumpets rose from both sides. Both armies went out towards each other. From the great gravity, the Kulikovo field sags, rivers overflow their banks.
Prince Dmitry Ivanovich, dressed in damask armor, went around the regiments and spoke to the soldiers, encouraging them to fight: “My dear brothers! Stand up for the Orthodox faith, for the holy churches! You will not gain death, but eternal life!” Then the prince returned to his banner, changed his horse, took off his princely mantle, put on a simple dress - and stood in the ranks of the soldiers.
The princes and boyars shouted: “It is not fitting for you, the Grand Duke, to fight yourself! It is fitting for you, sir, to stand on a high place and watch from there how we, your servants, carry out our service.
Dmitry Ivanovich answered: “My brothers! I don't want to be buried behind your backs. If I die, then with you, if I stay alive, then with you!” The fog cleared, and the Kulikovo field became visible from edge to edge. Russian regiments moved to the enemy. The Tatars are moving towards them like a dark forest. There is nowhere for them to turn around - they themselves suffocate from their tightness.
Khan Mamai with four Horde princes from a high hill watched the start of the battle.
According to custom, the fight was supposed to start with a duel. A hero named Chelubey left the ranks of the Tatar army and stopped, waiting for the enemy. Monk Peresvet, who was in the advanced regiment, exclaimed: “I am ready to fight him! Pray for me brothers!" He spurred his horse and rushed to Chelubey, who galloped towards him. They hit each other so hard that the ground almost broke under them - and both fell from their horses dead.
Russian soldiers shouted: "God is with us!" And the great battle began.
Across the Kulikovo field is thirty miles, the length of the Kulikovo field is forty miles, but it is crowded with mighty hosts. The flash of swords blinded the eyes like the sun, the spears clattered like thunder from heaven. Bloody rivers flowed across the field, bloody lakes arose.
But now - for our sins - the filthy began to overcome us. Like mowed grass, Russian soldiers fell under the hooves of enemy horses. Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich himself was seriously wounded. Tatar regiments were advancing from everywhere, and there were fewer and fewer Russians.
Prince Vladimir Andreevich and the voivode Bobrok-Volynets saw this from an ambush. Vladimir Andreevich cried out: “Voevoda! What are we waiting for? Soon there will be no one to go to help us, for everyone will perish!” Bobrok-Volynets replied: “It’s not time yet, prince! And when our hour comes, we will reward our enemies in every way!” With tears, Vladimir Andreevich prayed to the Lord: “God, our father! Having shown us a little, have mercy a lot! Do not let our enemies triumph!” The soldiers of the ambush regiment cried, watching their comrades die, and rushed into battle, but Bobrok-Volynets held them back, saying: “We have to wait a little longer!” Finally, the Tatars began to tire out, and then, by God's permission, the wind changed - it blew in the Russians' backs, and in the faces of the Tatars.
Bobrok-Volynets said: “The time has come!” Prince Vladimir Andreevich called out in a loud voice: “My brothers and friends, princes and boyars and all Russian forces! Follow me to battle!" Like clear falcons, warriors from the green oak forest rushed to the crane herd. The Tatars fall under their swords, like grass under a scythe, like a forest under a storm.
The Tatars shouted: “Woe to us, woe! Until this hour, the smaller ones fought with us, and now the older fighters have come! - And the Tatars turned to flight.
Khan Mamai saw that his army was defeated, jumped on a horse and galloped off to the steppe with four Horde princes. The Russian soldiers chased after him, but did not catch up, because Mamai and his princes had fresh horses, and the Russians were tired in battle.
Thus ended the great Battle of Kulikovo.
Vladimir Andreevich stood under the grand ducal banners and ordered the trumpet to be blown.
The warriors who remained alive began to gather under the banners of their regiments. They rode from all sides of the Kulikovo field and sang verses - martyr's and the Mother of God.
But from no direction did Prince Dmitry Ivanovich come to his banner. Vladimir Andreevich waited for him for a long time, then, sobbing in his heart, he went to look for the Grand Duke, asking who and when had seen him for the last time.
One soldier said: “I saw the prince at the fifth hour. He fought hard with his enemies with his club.
Another warrior said, “I saw him at the sixth hour. He alone fought against four Tatars.
A third said: “I saw Dmitry Ivanovich before the ambush regiment struck. There was a prince on foot, seriously wounded.
Then everyone who could walk - both princes, and boyars, and ordinary soldiers - dispersed throughout the Kulikovo field to look for Dmitry Ivanovich among the dead - alive or dead.
Two young warriors went down to the river - and saw the Grand Duke lying under a cut birch. He suffered severely from the wound, but he was alive.
The good news quickly spread across the field. The princes and boyars gathered in front of Dmitry Ivanovich, bowed low to him and said: “Rejoice, our sovereign, for you have defeated the enemies!” From such news, the forces returned to the Grand Duke. He rose to his feet and thanked God: “Great is the Lord and marvelous are His works!” They brought the horse to the prince. He got into the saddle and rode across the Kulikovo field. It is not visible on the field of an empty place, all of it is littered with the bodies of the fallen. A lot of Russian soldiers died, seven times more - Tatars.
Dmitry Ivanovich rides across the field - and tears wash his face.
Here are the eight princes of Belozersky, and next to them - the Uglich prince Roman and his four sons, here are the five princes of Yaroslavl, and the princes of Dogobuzh, and Gleb Ivanovich - the prince of Bryansk, and Mikhail Andreevich Brenok, and Timofey Valuy, with him - his butler Ivan Kozhukhov, and Trinity monk Peresvet, and ordinary soldiers - without number.
The Russian army remained on the Don for twelve days, and the bodies of the dead were dismantled for twelve days.
Prince Dmitry Ivanovich said: “Farewell, brethren! You are destined to lie on the Kulikovo field, between the Don and the Nepryadva river. You laid down your heads for the holy Christian faith. Eternal glory to you, and eternal memory!” In total, half a third of a hundred thousand and three thousand more fell on the Kulikovo field of Russian soldiers, and fifty thousand remained alive.
The Russian army returned to Moscow with great glory.
Prince Dmitry Ivanovich for the victory over the Tatars on the banks of the Don received the nickname - Donskoy, and his brother Vladimir Andreevich - Brave.
90. THE MIRACLE OF RELEASE OF MOSCOW FROM THE RUIN OF KHAN TAMERLANE BY THE HORDS
In the summer of 1395, the Mongol Khan Timur, nicknamed Tamerlane, which means Iron Lame, at the head of half a million troops crossed the Volga, passed the Volga steppes, ravaged the city of Yelets, capturing the local prince, and rushed to Moscow.
Tamerlane proudly declared to the whole world: "Fate is in my hands, and happiness is always with me."
In Russia, they saw him as a second Batu and expected the same terrible ruin as one hundred and sixty years ago. According to the author of an old Russian legend, Tamerlane was "very merciless, unmerciful, fierce tormentor, angry persecutor, cruel tormentor." Horror and despair seized Muscovites. All Moscow churches were open sutra until late at night, Muscovites prayed and prepared for inevitable death.
But the Moscow prince, eighteen-year-old Vasily Dmitrievich, did not succumb to the general despondency. Remembering the glory of his father, Dmitry Donskoy, he began to prepare for defense. He gathered a large army, and among the soldiers there were many of those who fought on the Kulikovo field fifteen years ago, set out from Moscow and stood behind Kolomna on the banks of the Oka in anticipation of the enemy.
And the prince also ordered the Metropolitan of Moscow Cyprian to send people to Vladimir and transfer from there to Moscow an ancient Russian shrine - the miraculous icon of the Mother of God, called Vladimirskaya after it was found in the Assumption Cathedral in the city of Vladimir.
Back in those days, when Kyiv was the capital of Russia, and no one thought, did not guess that a small forest fortress on the banks of the Moscow River was destined to "the kingdom of being, the state of repute." The Patriarch of Constantinople, Luke Chrysover, sent the Grand Duke of Kyiv Yuri Dolgoruky an invaluable gift - the miraculous image of “Tenderness”: the Mother of God holds the Christ Child affectionately clinging to her in her arms. According to legend, the holy evangelist Luke wrote this image, and the Mother of God herself, seeing the image, said: “May the grace of the One Born of Me and Mine be with the holy icon.”
Yuri Dolgoruky erected an icon in the Vyshgorod Monastery near Kyiv.
The village of Vyshgorod belonged to the son of Yuri Dolgoruky Andrei Yurievich. Prince Andrei, a courageous and generous man, was nicknamed Bogolyubsky for his piety. He did not like Kyiv, torn apart by enmity and hatred of the younger princes, did not approve of the greedy ambition of his father, and languished in Vyshgorod as if in captivity. Andrei was born in the Rostov-Suzdal land, and northern Russia was dearer to his heart than southern. In 1155 he left Vyshgorod and went to Rostov the Great. As the greatest treasure, Prince Andrei took with him the gift of the Patriarch of Constantinople - the image of the Virgin.
Before reaching Rostov, near the city of Vladimir, the horses suddenly stood up, and no force could move them. I had to spend the night there. In a dream, the Mother of God appeared to Prince Andrei and said that Her miraculous image should remain in Vladimir.
The prince obeyed. Two years later, having received the Rostov-Suzdal land after the death of his father, he made Vladimir the capital of his principality, and on the high bank of the Klyazma River flowing through the city ordered to build a white-stone church of wondrous beauty dedicated to the Assumption of the Virgin - and put a miraculous icon in it. Since then, they began to call her Vladimir Icon Mother of God.
Over the centuries of its existence, paints faded and crumbled on the icon, and more than once it had to be renewed by Greek, and then by Russian masters, but, probably, there really was a special grace on it - it remained just as beautiful and spiritual.
Under Andrei Bogolyubsky, the Vladimir principality became the first among the Russian principalities, subjugating even ancient Kyiv. main shrine new capital- the icon of the Vladimir Mother of God - began to be revered as the patroness and protector of the entire Russian land.
In 1164, going on a campaign against the Volga Bulgarians, Andrei Bogolyubsky took this icon with him. Before a decisive battle, the soldiers kissed her, exclaiming: “Everyone who trusts in You, Lady, will not perish!” And after the victory, when a thanksgiving prayer service was served in front of the icon right on the battlefield, heavenly light shone from the icon, illuminating everything far around.
Andrei Bogolyubsky reigned for almost twenty years, but in 1175 the boyars, dissatisfied with him, plotted and at dead midnight, breaking into the prince's bedchamber, killed the prince.
In the morning, when the news of the murder spread throughout the city, a rebellion broke out. Dashing people rushed to smash the princely palace, rob the treasury. Their example captivated the common people. Robberies and murders began throughout the district.
The rebellion grew - and there was no one to calm it down.
Then the priests, dressed in ceremonial robes, carried the image of the Mother of God from the Assumption Cathedral and solemnly carried it through the streets, amid the fury reigning there. And the rebellion died down by itself.
In 1237, the ferocious hordes of Batu poured into Russia like a black cloud, sweeping away everything in their path and leaving behind "only smoke, earth and ashes." Having devastated Ryazan and Moscow, the enemies captured Vladimir. Vladimirians took refuge in the Assumption Cathedral, the Tatars overlaid it with brushwood - and set it on fire.
Many people died in the fire, suffocated in the smoke. The cathedral was looted. Batu's soldiers took away church utensils and sacred vestments, tore off the precious riza from the miraculous icon.
But she herself, among the ashes and ruin, was unharmed, instilling in those who survived, courage and hope.
Years passed. The Russian lands united around the new capital - Moscow, and the Russian army could already repulse the enemy. In 1380, the Moscow prince Dmitry Ivanovich defeated the Tatars on the Kulikovo field. It seemed that complete liberation was near, but now a new threat loomed over Russia - the invasion of Iron Lame, cruel Tamerlane.
Moscow ambassadors arrived in Vladimir - for the miraculous icon. Vladimirians with tears saw off their shrine. For almost two weeks, they carried the icon of Our Lady of Vladimir in their arms from Vladimir to Moscow. Crowds of people stood on both sides of the road and, kneeling down, cried out: “Mother of God, save the Russian land!” On August 26, the icon arrived in Moscow. Muscovites went out to meet her outside the city, on Kuchkovo Field (the current area of Sretensky Boulevard “The whole city went out against the icon to meet her,” says the chronicler. “Men and wives, young men and maidens, children and babies, orphans and widows from young to old crosses and icons, psalms and spiritual songs.
On the Kuchkovo field, a prayer service was served in front of the icon on the occasion of its safe arrival in Moscow, then it was again picked up, accompanied by a jubilant crowd, solemnly carried to the Kremlin and installed in the Assumption Cathedral.
Now, feeling under the protection of the Mother of God, Muscovites cheered up - and already hopefully waited for news from the military camp from their prince.
Finally, the news came. It was joyful and surprising: Tamerlane turned his troops to the south without a fight - and left the Russian borders.
Historians still cannot say for sure what prompted Tamerlane to do this. Contemporaries, on the other hand, firmly believed that a miracle had happened: they said that on the very day when the icon of Our Lady of Vladimir was met in Moscow, the Radiant Wife appeared to Tamerlane in a dream, surrounded by radiance and a host of angels with fiery swords. The angels raised their swords and turned them against Tamerlane. Waking up in horror, Tamerlane called his wise men and fortune-tellers and began to ask what this dream means and who is that Radiant Wife. The wise men and fortunetellers answered: “That is the mother christian god, the intercessor of the Russians, and her strength is irresistible. Tamerlane was frightened - and turned his innumerable troops back.
“Tamerlane fled, persecuted by the power of the Blessed Virgin!” - wrote the chronicler.
In the same year, on the Kuchkov field, where Muscovites met the miraculous icon, the Church of Our Lady of Vladimir was erected, and soon a monastery was founded, named Sretensky in honor of the establishment in Moscow of the feast of the Presentation (meeting) of the icon of the Most Holy Theotokos of Vladimir. Since then, every year on August 26, a solemn religious procession was held from the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin to the Sretensky Monastery.
Chronicles tell about the miraculous deliverance of Moscow from Tamerlane, and in the 15th century a story was written about this event, which was widely distributed throughout Russia and has come down to our time in a large number of lists.
The so-called living tradition is a special group of non-narrative - oral (stories, teachings, traditions, folklore) and material (personal things, memorable places etc.) - evidence, especially valuable in the study of new and newest periods church history.
The existence of this category historical sources is connected with the peculiarity of the Orthodox tradition, where the transfer of spiritual experience is carried out from generation to generation: students keep the memory of their elders, spiritual children - about their mentors, listeners - about preachers and missionaries. This memory can be transmitted both in material form and in the form of oral tradition.
Examples of the transmission of the experience of Christ-centered communication from a mentor (founder of a monastery, missionary, preacher) to his disciples can be found in different historical
era in all Orthodox countries. A vivid example of this is the development of tradition in the 20th century: Sophrony Sakharov, having adopted the tradition from Silouan the Athonite, transfers it to Western Europe; modern Serbian theologians Athanasius Evtich and Amfilohiy Radovich continue the dyad Nikolai Velemirovich - Iustin Popovich.
A living tradition is not limited to the borders of a country or a people; for example, the well-known modern Greek elder Paisios Svyatogorets (Eznepidis) was a student of the Russian Hieroschemamonk Tikhon35.
An equally important group of non-narrative sources is the oral tradition36 associated both with the events of the past and with the names of historical figures and ascetics. In its content and features, it adjoins memoir sources. Of interest are not only audio and video recordings, but also the memories of people who were eyewitnesses of events or communicated with certain historical figures.
An interesting type of oral source is folk songs, ballads and poems37, many of which are visible evidence of the influence of the Orthodox tradition and worldview on the masses. In particular, in Serbia, monks and clergymen were the founders of epic folk songs, especially those that make up the so-called. Kosovo cycle.
Oral tradition is a particular source. It is hardly possible to draw far-reaching conclusions about the biography and activities of a particular person solely on the basis of its data. In historical research, the use of oral tradition is an auxiliary element and necessarily requires a combination with more reliable written and material data. At the same time, oral sources are of exceptional value as evidence of how the sermon and mission were perceived among the listeners and students of this or that spiritual mentor, preacher or missionary. The use of oral tradition makes it possible to trace the reaction of the people to their preaching, how it gradually transformed and acquired new features and scales.
A very important and specific type of source is the memoirs and testimonies of contemporary monks, transmitted orally. They are interesting not only as information about the life of modern monasteries. Often the stories of the monks contain unique information about the events of two hundred or three hundred years ago. This circumstance is connected with the centuries-old tradition of eldership: an uninterrupted chain of succession "starets-disciples" does not stop in some monasteries for many centuries. Therefore, modern monks can tell not only about their immediate spiritual leaders, but also about their predecessors and spiritual mentors.
However, when working with sources of this kind, it should be borne in mind that memory itself is a historical phenomenon more than a way of reflecting historical reality. As the Italian scholar of oral tradition Alessandro Portelli points out: “Memory is not a mirror that simply reflects what has been; memory itself is a historical event, part of what happened, and therefore it deserves independent research”38. Memory (because of the distortions that are inevitable in oral transmission of information) can often testify more about the person who tells the memorized and about his social environment than about the memorable event or phenomenon itself39.
Chapter 8 Notes
- See: Vogt J. Architekturmosaiken am Beispiel der drei jordanischen Stadte Madaba, Umm al-Rasas und Gerasa. Greifswald, 2004; Warland R. Die Mosaikkarte von Madaba und ihre Kopie in der Sammlung des Archaologischen Instituts der Universitat Gottingen. Gottingen, 1999; Donner H. The Mosaic Map of Madaba. Campen, 1992; Donner H., Cuppers H. Die Mosaikkarte von Madeba // Abhandlungen des Deutschen Palastinavereins 5. Wiesbaden, 1977; Avi-Yonah M. The Madaba mosaic map. Jerusalem, 1954; pic-
cirillo M. Chiese e mosaici di Madaba // Stadium Biblicum Franciscanum. Collectio maior 34. Jerusalem, 1989 (Arabic version: Madaba. Kana'is wa fusayfasa'. Jerusalem, 1993); Nebenzahl K. Maps of the Holy Land, images of Terra Sancta through two millennia. N.Y., 1986; Jacoby A. Das geographische Mosaik von Madaba, Die alteste Karte des Heiligen Landes. Leipzig, 1905. - For the first time, N.M. introduced the reader to this document. Karamzin (History of the Russian State. T. 2. St. Petersburg, 1816; last academic reprint: Karamzin N.M. History of the Russian State. In 12 volumes / Edited by A.N. Sakharov. T. II-III . M., 1991), followed by N. Vlasov (Journey of Russian people to foreign lands. Part 1. St. Petersburg, 1837) and I. Sakharov (Journey of Russian people in the Holy Land. Part 1. St. Petersburg, 1839).
- It is necessary to indicate the walks of Anthony of Novgorod (in the world - Dobrynya Yadreykovich; n. XIII century), Stefan of Novgorod, Ignatius Smolyanin (XIV century), Hierodeacon Zosima (XV century), merchant Vasily Poznyakov, Trifon Korobeynikov (XVI century; see .: Journey of the merchant Trifon Korobeinikov to the holy places of the East // Notes of Russian travelers of the 16th-17th centuries / Compiled, prepared texts, comments by N.I. Prokofiev, L.I. Alekhina. M., 1988), monks Arseny Sukhanov (see: Proskinitary. Kazan, 1870; Proskinitariy Arseny Sukhanov // Notes of Russian Travelers of the 16th-17th centuries. M., 1988), Jonah the Little (XVII century), Moscow Old Believer priest Ivan Lukyanov (1702; see: Journey to the Holy Land of Priest Lukyanov // Russian Archive 1863. Issues 1-5; Journey to the Holy Land of Moscow Priest John Lukyanov 1710-1711. M., 1864; John Lukyanov Description of the Way to the Holy City of Jerusalem // Journal Moscow Patriarchy.
- No. 8; Ponyrko N.V. John Lukyanov // TODRL. 1990. T. 44; Travnikov N. Life and Walking of John Lukyanov // Journal of Moscow. patriarchy. 1992. No. 8).
- [Sergius (Vesnin), hieroschemamonk.] Letters from the Holy Mountaineer to his friends about the Holy Mount Athos, with a portrait of the author, with his biography, cell notes and a view of the cell in which he lived. In 3 hours, 8th ed. M., 1895 (1st and 2nd ed.: St. Petersburg, 1850; latest reprint: M., 2008); he is. Guide to St. Mount Athos and an index of its shrines and other sights. SPb., 1854; he is. Russian Panteleimon Monastery on Mount Athos. SPb., 1854; Athos Patericon, or Description of the Lives of All the Illustrious Fathers of Athos. In 2 vols. St. Petersburg, 1860 (the book is not finished; after the death of the author, the work was completed, edited by the monk of the Athos Russian Panteleimon Monastery Azariy and published).
- The works of Reverend Porfiry are interesting, first of all, because he combined two genres in them: the actual travel notes, which, thanks to the talent of the author, are magnificent sketches of the life of the areas visited by the traveler, especially valuable due to his inherent sound critical perception of many events and phenomena, they are combined with the researcher’s draft notebooks, revealing the secrets of his creative laboratory - here are his thoughts on the methodology of dating monuments of material culture and historical events, examples of textual research and archeographic analysis are presented, there are samples of scientific controversy that has not yet been polished for further publication, etc. .d.
- As an example of this kind of historically consistent observations, one can cite, for example, travel notes about Mount Athos, left by a Russian foot pilgrim, tonsured a monk by Patriarch Sylvester of Antioch in 1834 in Damascus, Vasily Grigorievich Grigorovich-Barsky (1701-1747), who walked, among other things, to Rome, Corfu, Chios, the islands of the Archipelago, Kefalonia, Thessalonica, Palestine, Syria, Arabia (up to Mount Sinai), Egypt, Constantinople, Antioch, Epirus, Macedonia and twice (in 1725 and 1744-1745) ) who visited Athos (at the same time, everywhere in his travels, Barsky filmed views and plans of noteworthy places and structures and collected about 150 of them) Orthodox Palestinian. Society according to the original manuscript, ed. Nikolay Barsukov. St. Petersburg, 1885-1887; he is. First visit to Mount Athos. St. Petersburg, 1884; he is. The second visit to the Holy Mount Athos by Vasily Grigorovich-Barsky, described by himself. B.m., 1887 (see also: Sofia, 1956; M, 2004). See also: Barsukov N.P. Life and works of V.G. Barsky. St. Petersburg, 1885. The surname "Barsky" is considered fictitious (under it he entered the Jesuit Academy in Lvov and was expelled for Orthodoxy); the name "Vasily" is a monastic one. Barsky himself often called himself Vasily of Kyiv]; the mentioned letters of the Holy Mountaineer, who, almost 100 years after Barsky, arrived on Athos for monastic life and completed it there “in full consciousness and memory ... quietly and calmly, with prayer on his lips and in his heart” [“Three years later, according to custom Athos, the grave of Father Sergius was dug up, and his yellow bones were found in it, which, according to the Athos elders, marks that the deceased is not deprived of the grace of God. The bones were laid in a common fraternal tomb, while the skull, with the blessing of the father hegumen and confessor, was taken to his cell by the aged hieroschemamonk Ezekiel, more than twenty-five years old.
who labors on the Holy Mount Athos and is distinguished by patriarchal simplicity and a virtuous life, and keeps it like a jewel”; in 1894, the skull was already in the cell of Hieromonk Filaret (Life of the Holy Mountaineer Father Hieroschemamonk Sergius // Letters of the Holy Mountaineer. P. 682)]; and scrupulous notes of the traveler-researcher His Grace Porfiry, who surveyed Athos a few years later Svyatogorets and set himself mainly scientific tasks.
One of the merits of Pavlovsky is the census of the Russian population of Athos carried out by him "behind the scenes from the Greeks", on the instructions of Russian diplomats who wanted to know the exact number of Russian subjects. In 1912, Pavlovsky counted 4,800 Russians on Athos, in 1917 - 2,500. See: Russian monasticism on Athos in 1913-1918: A.A. Pavlovsky to the Russian Consulate General in Thessaloniki / Publ., vst. Art. M.G. Talalaya // Russia and the Christian East: [Sat. Art.]. Issue. 2-3. M., 2004. (Currently, there are less than 100 Russians on Athos.)
Travels to the East, in particular, to the holy places of Palestine and Egypt and the territories adjacent to them, which resulted in meaningful notes, especially important for the study of otherwise poor narrative sources of Christian confessions (in particular, the history of the Coptic Church) and historical periods (for example, the time of various Muslim invasions), has long been undertaken by many Russian pilgrims and researchers.
According to The Tale of Bygone Years, the Monk Anthony, the founder of Russian monasticism, at the beginning of the 11th century. visited Constantinople and visited Athos twice. The Life of Theodosius of the Caves tells about the trip to Jerusalem of the Abbot of the Kyiv Demetrius Monastery Varlaam.
In the XII century. Abbot Daniel (in 1113-1115, 1106-1108 or, as it is now believed, in 1104-1106), left a report on this journey full of accurate and detailed observations, which became a model for many later domestic authors of travel notes [The life and journey of Daniel, the Russian lands of the abbot: 1106-1108. / Ed. M.A. Venevitinov. At 2 p.m. // Pravoslav. Palestine. Sat. 1883. T. I. Issue. 3; 1885. Vol. III. Issue. 3 (9); Lefstrand E. Journey of Abbot Daniel to the Holy Land: Manuscript of the Stockholm Royal Library // Acta Universitatis Stockholmiensis. Stockholm Slavic Studies.
- Vol. 22; "Journey" of Abbot Daniel / Preparatory work. text, trans. and comm. G.M. Prokhorova // Monuments of literature of ancient Russia. XII century. M., 1978 (according to one of the oldest and most correct lists of the National Library of Russia, Q. XVII. 88, 1495, L. 1 ^ 48, using the list of the RSL, Rum. No. 335, XV-XVI centuries). N.M. Karamzin (History of the Russian State. T. II. Notes 211, 225), referring to the South Russian Yuryev, believed that "this traveler could be Bishop Daniel of Yury, appointed in 1113" and who died on September 9, 1122].
Poznyakov on the holy places of the East / Ed., foreword. HM. Lopareva // Pravoslav. Palestine. Sat. 1887. Vol. IV. Issue. 3 (18) (according to another list)], the Moscow merchants Trifon Korobeinikov (d. after 1594) and Yuri Grekov (Trifon Korobeinikov's Journey 1593-1594 / ed. and foreword by H.M. Loparev // Orthodox Palestine. Sat 1888. V. IX. Issue 27. Korobeinikov, as I. E. Zabelin points out, almost completely borrowed Poznyakov's "Journey", merchant from Kazan Vasily Yakovlevich Gagara [Life and Journey to Jerusalem and Egypt of Kazanian Vasily Yakovlevich Gagara in 1634-1637 / Ed., foreword. S.O. Dolgova // Pravoslav. Palestine. Sat. 1891. Vol. XI. Issue. 3 (33); The Journey of Vasily Gagara to Jerusalem and Egypt // Notes of Russian Travelers of the 16th-17th Centuries. M, 1988], the “black deacon” Iona Small from the Trinity-Sergius Monastery [The story and legend about the journey to Jerusalem and Tsargrad of the Trinity Sergius Monastery of the black deacon Iona, according to the advertisement of the Small: 1649-1652 / Ed. S.O. Dolgova // Pravoslav. Palestine. Sat. 1895. Vol. XIV. Issue. 3 (42)], Hieromonk Ippolit Vishensky (died after 1709) [Pelgrimation, or the Traveler of the Honest Hieromonk Ippolit Vishensky, tonsurer of the Holy Passion-bearers Boris and Gleb of the Cathedral of the Chernegov Archdiocese to the Holy City of Jerusalem (1707-1709) / [Foreword: archim. Leonid]. M, 1877 (from “Church in the Imperial Society of History and Antiquities of Russia at Moscow University”. 1876. Book 4; new ed.: Orthodox Palestine. Sat. 1914. Issue 61), Priest Andrey Ignatiev with his brother (Journey from Constantinople to Jerusalem and Mount Sinai of Priest Andrei Ignatiev and his brother Stefan, who was with the Russian envoy Count Petr Andreevich Tolstoy in 1707 // CHOIDR. 1872. Book IV), hieromonks of the Spassky Monastery in Novgorod- Seversky Macarius and Seliverst (The path for us to hieromonks Macarius and Seliverst from the monastery of the All-Merciful Savior Novgorodka Seversky to the Holy City of Jerusalem to bow to the Holy Sepulcher 1704 // Reading in the Society of History and Antiquities of Russia. 1873. Book 3. Part. V) .
In the 19th century both the number of pilgrims and their social composition are expanding. So, they went to the holy places: “the village of Pavlova resident” Kir Bronnikov (Journey to the holy places located in Europe, Asia and Africa, made in 1820 and 1821 of the village of Pavlova by a resident Kir Bronnikov. M, 1824), Saratov hieromonk Paisius ( Notes of the Saratov Savior-Preobrazhensky hieromonk Paisius, who traveled to Jerusalem, Sinai and Mount Athos in 1841 // Readings in the Society of Perfume Lovers, Enlightenment, 1887, book 8); Odessa church publicist Alexander Alekseevich Umanets (1808-1877) [UmanetsA. Trip to Sinai with passages about Egypt and the Holy Land. In 2 hours St. Petersburg, 1850], which gave one of the first survey descriptions of the collection of manuscripts in the library of St. Catherine's Monastery in Sinai; Professor-Arabist of St. Petersburg University Osip Yulian Ivanovich Senkovsky (1800-1858) [Senkovsky O.I. Excerpts from a trip to Egypt, Nubia and Upper Ethiopia (1820-1821) // Senkovskiy O.I. Sobr. op. T. 1. St. Petersburg, 1852]; Andrey Nikolaevich Muravyov (1806-1874) (see: Muravyov A.N. Journey to the Holy Places in 1830. St. Petersburg, 1832; repr.: M, 2007); the already mentioned Bishop Porfiry [Porfiry (Uspensky), archim. Sinai Peninsula // ZhMNP. 1848. Ch. 60; he is. The first trip to the Sinai Monastery in 1845. St. Petersburg, 1856; he is. Archimandrite Porfiry Uspensky's second journey to the Sinai Monastery in 1850. St. Petersburg, 1856; he is. Journey through Egypt and to the monasteries of St. Anthony the Great and St. Paul of Thebes in 1850. St. Petersburg, 1856 (Eminent Porfiry also included some materials on this issue in his memoirs - “The Book of My Being”); see also: Materials for Biography of Bishop Porfiry Uspensky / Ed. P.V. Bezobrazov. T. I-II. St. Petersburg, 1910; Dmitrievsky A.A. Bishop Porfiry as the initiator and organizer of the first spiritual mission in Jerusalem and his merits for the benefit of Orthodoxy and in the study of the Christian East (to the 100th anniversary of his birth) // Soobshch. Imp. Palestine. about-va. 1905 T. 16]; hero of the battle of Borodino, famous collector, minister of public education (1853-1856) and academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1851) Avraamiy Sergeevich Norov (1795-1869) [Norov A.S. Journey through the Holy Land in 1835 Avraamy Norova. 3rd ed. SPb. 1854; he is. Travel in Egypt and Nubia in 1834-1835. Abraham Norova, which serves as an addition to the journey to the Holy Land. Ch. 1-2. St. Petersburg, 1840 (2nd ed. In 2 hours St. Petersburg, 1853); he is. Jerusalem and Sinai: Notes of the second journey to the East. St. Petersburg, 1878; he is. Journey to the seven Churches mentioned in the Apocalypse. St. Petersburg, 1847; see also: Pozdeeva I.V. Patriarch Nikon, Avraamy Norov: Novgorod, Nazareth, Jerusalem, Sarajevo: (Century XVII - century XX: Fate of the book) // Problems of the history of Russian literature, culture and social consciousness. Novosibirsk, 2000. S. 217-224], who set himself the goal of filling in the gaps in the works of his predecessors, His Grace Porfiry and K. von Tischendorf, who “did not have enough time to examine in detail the written treasures, which, in all likelihood, are still hidden under the vaults Sinai Monastery "(Norov A.S. Jerusalem and Sinai.
pp. 109-110); rector (in 1766-1807) of the Russian embassy church in Constantinople, Archimandrite Leonty (Zelensky-Yatsenko) (1726-1807) [see: Popov A.P., prot. Junior Grigorovich: Newly discovered pilgrim to St. places in the 18th century. Kronstadt, 1911 (where excerpts from Father Leonty's notes are published)]; Poltava teacher Viktor Kirillovich Kaminsky (d. 1856) [Kaminsky V.K. Memoirs of an admirer of the Holy Sepulcher. St. Petersburg, 1855 (reprinted: 1856, 1859)]; Kyiv hieromonk Hierotheus [Daytime notes during a journey through the holy places of the East of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra of hieromonk Hierotheus in 1857 and 1858]. Kyiv, 1863]; Biblical professor of the Kyiv Theological Academy, in fact - the first domestic biblical archaeologist in the exact sense of the word Akim Alekseevich Olesnitsky (1842-1907) [Olesnitsky A.A. Holy Land. In 2 volumes. Kyiv, 1875]; historian of the Perm Territory, traveler and public figure, one of the founding members of the Imperial Orthodox Palestine Society and the head of the construction of two main Russian objects in Jerusalem - the Sergius Compound and the Russian House at the Threshold of the New Judgment Gate (the future Alexander Compound) Dmitry Dmitrievich Smyshlyaev (1828-1893 ) [Smyshlyaev D. Sinai and Palestine: From travel notes of 1865. Perm, 1877], who also continued (though not critically) the research of A.S. Norov in the Sinai library.
Important observations regarding the life of the Orthodox East were made by the head of the Russian Ecclesiastical Mission in Jerusalem, Archimandrite Antonin (Kapustin) (1817-1894), who left, as the most important scientific result of one of his trips, a description of the Sinai manuscripts. One copy of his handwritten catalog of Fr. Antonin donated to the monastery of St. Catherine (where he disappeared at the beginning of the 20th century), and gave the other to the library of the Palestinian Society (see: PFA RAS. F. 192. On. 1. D. 71). The catalog has not been published. Diaries about. Antonina are kept in the Russian State Historical Archives (F. 834. Op. 4. D. 1118-1131), OR RNL (F. 253. On. 1. D. 42, 174, 177, 892) and OR BAN [OR BAN (Current. fast.). F. 1382-1382]. From the publications of the works of Fr. Antonin, see: From the notes of a Sinai pilgrim / / Tr. Kyiv spirits, academy. 1873. January-April, September; Five days in the Holy Land. M., 2007; From Jerusalem: Articles, Essays, Correspondences 1866-1891. M., 2010.
See also: Gerd L.A. Archim. Antonin Kapustin and his scientific activity(Based on the materials of the St. Petersburg archives) // Manuscript heritage of Russian Byzantines in the archives of St. Petersburg. SPb., 1999; Guruleva V.V. Archimandrite Antonin as a numismatist // State Hermitage: Numis-matic. Sat. 1998. To the 80th anniversary of V.M. Potina. SPb., 1998; she is. Russian collectors of numismatic monuments in the Orthodox East: (Second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries) // Pilgrims: The historical and cultural role of pilgrimage. Sat. scientific tr. SPb., 2001 \ Dmitrievsky A. Head of the Russian Ecclesiastical Mission in Jerusalem Archim. Antonin (Kapustin). St. Petersburg, 1904; he is. Our collectors of manuscripts and early printed books Professor V.I. Grigorovich, Bishop Porfiry (Uspensky) and Archimandrite Antonin (Kapustin) / Publ., comm. F.B. Polyakova, B.L. Fonkicha // Byzantinorussica
- T. 1; Isaiah (Belov), Hierom. Archim. Antonina (Kapustina) at Sinai // Theological. tr. 1985. Sat. 26; Cyprian (Kern), archim. Father Antonin Kapustin, archimandrite and head of the Russian Ecclesiastical Mission in Jerusalem (1817-1894). Belgrade, 1934 (reprint: M., 2005); Nikodim (Rotov), Metropolitan History of the Russian Ecclesiastical Mission in Jerusalem // Bogosl. tr. 1979. Sat. twenty; Filippov M.V. About scientific and literary activity Archimandrite Antonin Kapustin (in connection with the 90th anniversary of his death: 1894-1984) // Theological. tr. 1986. T. 27; Fonkich BL. Antonin Kapustin as a Collector of Manuscripts // Ancient Russian Art: handwritten book. M., 1983. Sat. 3.
notes of a Russian pastor about the sacred East. Izyum, 1886], who left as a result of his journey in 1881 a description of a number of Jerusalem rites; traveler Alexander Vasilievich Eliseev (1859-1895), who showed particular interest in the study of Asia Minor and Africa [Eliseev A.V. Around the World: Essays and Pictures from Travels in Three Parts of the Old World. In 4 vols. St. Petersburg, 1894-1898 (2nd ed.: St. Petersburg, 1901-1904). See also: Zabrodskaya M.P. Russian travelers in Africa. M., 1955; Moshchanskaya V.N. Travel A.V. Eliseev around the world. M., 1956]; publicist, author of articles on the peasant issue, columnist for "Kievlyanin" Yevgeny Epafroditovich Kartavtsdv (1850-1931), until 1889 - the first manager of the Noble Land and Peasant Land Banks [Kartavtsov E.E. Through Egypt and Palestine. SPb., 1892].
famous explorer Christian iconography, professor of St. Petersburg University, academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts (1893) and Academy of Sciences (1898) Nikodim Pavlovich Kondakov (1844-1925) compiled a description of the illuminated Sinai manuscripts (based on the work of Father Antonin) [see: Kondakov N. P. Journey to Sinai in 1881: From travel impressions. Antiquities of the Sinai Monastery // Zapiski Imp. Novoros. university Odessa, 1882. Ch. 33; he is. Monuments of Christian art on Mount Athos. St. Petersburg, 1902; he is. Archaeological travels in Syria and Palestine. St. Petersburg, 1904; he is. Facial icon-painting original. T. I. Iconography of the Lord God and our Savior Jesus Christ. St. Petersburg, 1905; he is. Iconography of the Mother of God: Connections of Greek and Russian icon painting with Italian painting of the early Renaissance. SPb., 1910; he is. Iconography of the Mother of God. In 2 volumes. St. Petersburg, 1914-1915; idem. The Russian Icon. Oxford, 1927; he is. Russian icon. In 4 volumes. Prague, 1928-1933; he is. Essays and notes on the history of medieval art and culture. Prague, 1929; he is. Readings on the history of ancient life and culture. Prague, 1931. See also: Memoirs and thoughts of N.P. Kondakov. Prague, 1927 (reissued: M., 2002); Maslenitsyn S. Academician N.P. Kondakov // Art. M., 1981. No. 7; Kyzlasova I.L. Research methods F.I. Buslaeva and N.P. Kondakova // Bulletin of Moscow State University. Series 8. History. 1978. No. 4] and made - for the first time in the history of travel to Palestine - 68 photographs of ancient book miniatures. This Sinai album was transferred to the Imperial Public Library (see: Stasov V.V. Photographic and phototype collections of the Imperial Public Library. St. Petersburg, 1885; Vyalova S.O. N.P. Kondakov and his “Sinai Album” // “ Protected by the State”: III Russian Scientific and Practical Conference, Issue 5, Part 2, St. Petersburg, 1994). In addition, one copy was donated to the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris and another to the library of the Academy of Sciences. The album was awarded the Lomonosov Prize for 1883.
Academician Turaev published the results of his Egyptian scientific tour [Turaev B.A. Egyptian Church Impressions // Communications of the Right. Palestine. about-va. 1910. T. XXI. Issue. 2].
Scientific research of ancient Georgian manuscripts in the Sinai Library was carried out by archeographers and paleographers - Georgian historian, professor of St. Petersburg University Alexander Antonovich Tsagareli (1844-1929) [Tsagareli A.A. Finds in Sinai // Church. messenger. 1883. No. 22; he is. Georgian monuments in the Holy Land and Sinai // Report of the Orthodox. Palestine. about-va for 1883-1884; he is. Review of Georgian antiquities in Sinai // ZhMNP. 1884. Issue. 234. Dep. IV; he is. Monuments of Georgian antiquity in the Holy Land and Sinai // Pravoslav. Palestine. Sat. 1888. Vol. IV. Issue. 1 (10); he is. Catalog of Georgian Manuscripts of the Sinai Monastery. SPb., 1889] and (in 1902) future academicians of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR Nikolai Yakovlevich Marr (1864-1934) and Ivane Alexandrovich Javakhishvili (1876-1940) (see: Marr N.Ya. Preliminary report on the work in Sinai conducted by in collaboration with I. A. Dzhavakhov // Report of the Orthodox Palestine Society, 1903, issue XIV). A.A. Dmitrievsky (see: Dmitrievsky A.A. Journey through the East and its scientific results: Report on a business trip abroad in 1887/88 with applications. Kyiv, 1890; aka. Report on the state of the IOPS farmsteads in Jerusalem, Nazareth and Kaifa. 1907 // OR RNB. F. 253. D. 32-33) in Sinai found, in particular, a manuscript of the 15th century. (No. 986), which contains a special order of the liturgy - “the same order that gave rise to the appearance in our service books of the late 16th century. the so-called seven prosphoria, firmly established in our liturgical practice in the 17th century. due to the fact that this rank was included in the printed missals of that time. In our literature, it is well known under the name “Athos”” (Dmitrievsky A.A. Journey through the East and its scientific results. P. 45).
At the beginning of the XX century. scientific trips to holy places were made by many domestic scientists. Among them, it is worth mentioning the travels of V.N. Beneshevich, the results of which are partially published [see, in particular: Beneshevich V.N. Report on the (second) trip to the Sinai Monastery of St. Catherine in the summer of 1908 // Izv. Imp. Academy of Sciences. 1908; he is. Report on the (third) trip to Sinai in 1911 // Izv. Imp. Academy of Sciences. 1911; Monuments of Sinai archaeological and paleographic / Pod
ed. V.N. Beneshevich. Issue. 1. JI, 1925; Issue. 2. St. Petersburg, 1912; Note on the scientific works of V.N. Beneshevich / F.I. Uspensky, V.P. Buzeskul, I.Yu. Krachkovsky, N.Ya. Marr // Izv. AN. Ser. 6. 1924. Vol. 18. Part 2. See also his: Les manuscripts grecs du mont Sinai’ et le monde savoint de l’Europe depuis le commencement du XVII siecle jusque’ au XX. Monograph. Typescript in French lang. Ed. in Athens, 1936 // PFA RAN. F. 192. On. 1. D. 14; Description of the Greek manuscripts of the monastery of St. Catherine at Sinai. Volume II (p. 1-1223). Among them are notes by Khr.M. Lopareva // PFA RAS. F. 192. On. 1. D. 26; Monuments of Sinai. Issue. I. Printed with numerous author's additions. Bound // PFA RAS. F. 192. On. 1. D. 117; Description of Jerusalem Greek Manuscripts // PFA RAS. F. 192. On. 1. D. 28; Beneshevich V.N., Kondakov N.P. Sinai mosaics. Explanatory text for tables. Typescript // PFA RAS. F. 192. On. 1. D. 15] and the largest Russian Byzantinist Alexander Alexandrovich Vasiliev (1867-1953), who also worked in the Sinai library [see: Vasiliev A.A. Trip to Sinai in 1902. St. Petersburg, 1903; he is. About some Greek manuscripts of the lives of the saints in Sinai // Viz. temporary. 1907. Vol. XIV. Issue. 2-3. Dep. one].
Let us also note the travel notes of the Saratov pilgrim Pyotr Ivanovich Kusmartsev [Kusmartsev II. To the land of the Eternal Testament: Description of my wandering through Kyiv, Odessa and Constantinople to Athos, to Jerusalem, to St. Mount Sinai, to Bar-Grad, Rome, to the Jordan, to Galilee, to Bethlehem and Hebron. Saratov, 1904; he is. Bright feast of the Ascension of the Lord on St. Mount of Olives: Thoughts and Feelings of a Pilgrim in the Holy Land. Jerusalem, 1911] and a peasant from the Samara province
S.A. Khovansky [Khovansky S.A. Journey to holy places. S. Posad, 1915].
The tradition of publishing notes about travels to holy places is also supported by our contemporaries - the abbess of the Gornensky monastery, Abbess Theodora (Pylipchuk) [Theodora, abbot. Pilgrimage of Gornensky nuns to the shrines of Egypt // ZhMP. 1985], nun Julianya (Demina) [Demina E. The revival of monasticism in Egypt // Vestn. RHD. 1981. No. 133; Demina E. (mother Julian). Conversation about modern Coptic monasticism in the Skeet desert (Egypt) // Ibid. 1982. No. 137; she is. Modern Egyptian confessors // Ibid. 1983. No. 139; she is. Passion and Easter in a Coptic monastery // Ibid. 1984. No. 142], Archimandrite Augustine (Nikitin) (b. 1946) [Augustin (Nikitin), archim. Russian pilgrims at the Christian shrines of Egypt. St. Petersburg, 2003; Georgi V., Augustin (Nikitin), archim. To the Holy Land under the sail of "Hope". Petrozavodsk, 1992].
See also: Vah A.K. To the history of the first Russian "Guide" to the Holy Land // Russian Palestine. Russia in the Holy Land: Mat-ly International. scientific conference / Ed. E.I. Zeleneva. St. Petersburg, 2010; Guminsky V.M. Russian pilgrims in the Holy Land in the XII-XX centuries: (Literary genre and sacred space) // Ibid.; Nazarenko A.V. Russia and the Holy Land in pre-Mongol times (XI - the first third of the XIII century) // Ibid.; Vasilevsky V.G. Fav. works. In 4 vols. M, 2010; Lazarevsky A.M. Excerpts from the travel notes of the elder Leonty // Chernigov sheet. 1862. No. 4-6, 8.
- See: Bov(ap?Xrj E. O (Zult;; toi e\\r|viKOU Haoi kata tr|v TOUpKOKpatiav ee1 tg| (Zaa tojv ?;evu)v yaer1g|ug|ta)u. A0T]vai , 1939.
However, plunging into the depths of introspection, the author [although for him, as a Christian, the current world develops in a timeless space: “There is neither future nor past, and it is wrong to talk about the existence of three times: past, present and future. It would be more correct, perhaps, to say this: there are three tenses - the present of the past, the present of the present and the present of the future. These three times exist in our soul and I do not see them anywhere else. ... let only people understand what they say and know that there is neither future nor past ”(Confes. 11. XX. 26)] also gives a lot of historical details regarding the functioning Christian Churches of his time in Africa, Rome, Mediolanum, about Christian and pagan life and customs, about the persons that make up the crown of Christian holiness, with whom he was familiar (Ambrose of Mediolanum, his teacher Simplician, etc.; we can also recall the story of the discovery of the relics Sts. Protasius and Gervasius and transferring them to the Basilica of Ambrose in Mediolanum, etc.). All this brings to his work an essential memoir background.
- Anna Komnena. Alexiad / Per. Ya.N. Lyubarsky. St. Petersburg, 1996; [Nicephorus Bryennios.] Historical notes of Nicephorus Bryennios (976-1087). M, 1997.
The book was written after the death of Emperor Alexei, when, having failed in an attempt to elevate her husband Nicephorus Bryennius to the throne, Anna was forced to retire to a monastery, where she spent the rest of her life. The Alexiad (which is believed to be a continuation of the historical works of Nikephoros Bryennios, forgotten soon after their publication in the 12th century and remained unknown until the 17th century AD, when they were accidentally discovered by the Jesuit Pietro Possevino) covers 1069-1118 ., the main attention is paid in it to the external and internal political life of Byzantium.
Anna drew a significant part of the information "first hand", being at the center of court politics. The historical value of her information is given by the lively immediacy of an eyewitness of events who has preserved evidence gleaned from oral stories, incl. senior officials, as well as from documents, messages, etc. This, in particular, concerns the events of the First Crusade, the description of which by Anna is fundamentally different from the memoirs of Western chroniclers - participants in the campaign. "Alexiad" contains unique evidence of church history - about heretical movements, church politics, problems of preserving the purity of Orthodoxy in Byzantium in
- in. The controversy of Alexei I Komnenos with the Paulicians in Mosinopol (1083), his actions to suppress heretical movements in Philippopolis, the uprising of the Manichean Travl are described in detail, the main points of the dispute with the Paulicians in Philippopolis (1115) are described, the execution of the Bogomil leader Basil by the emperor, etc. .
- Sylvester Siropul. Memories of the Ferrara-Florence Cathedral (1438-1439). At 12 noon / Per., Sun. art., comm., decree. Deacon A. Zanemonets. SPb., 2010. Siropul “at the request of his friends, did his best to tell about what preceded the Council and what happened at the Council itself in Italy, saying a little about what happened after the return” of the Greek representatives to their native places (XII, 15 ).
“This Council,” the memoirist believes, “did not make any decision, and they did not ask its participants who had what opinion about what was discussed at the interviews,” although “it seemed that the appearance of the Ecumenical Council was preserved and cathedral meetings were being conducted accordingly. affairs... .everything happened separately, secretly and covertly... .the participants in the Council did not know how it was all done, since everything happened secretly and in corners. The Ecumenical Council has never done anything like this: neither during the discussions, nor in general since the beginning of the work of the Council, no one - neither Greek nor Latin - was asked and expressed his opinion at the Council.
Thus, Siropul believes, defending the anti-council opposition, “no one can justly accuse those who did not approve of the unification as overthrowing the decision of the Ecumenical Council, since none of its participants declared conciliarly that he approved” the pro-Catholic dogmatic foundations of the cathedral oros (X, 28).
“The Greeks knew,” the memoirist continues, removing the blame also from those who, like himself, signed the union, “that the oros was signed by the emperor, they signed it too. The Latins also knew that it was signed by the Greeks and the pope, and they signed it too. At the same time, the majority did not know what was written in it ”(X, 29; italics ours. - V.S.).
The fact that the council in its main idea - the unification of the Eastern and Western Churches on the basis of the Latin Creed with its Filioque and papal primacy - suffered a complete fiasco is evidenced by the facts of the people's reaction to the events cited by Syropul: the Kerkyrians, for example, who greeted the Greek delegation on the way to cathedral, on the way back they met the cathedral with the words: “It would be better if you didn’t go to the Cathedral. What good have you done? Oh, if we hadn't seen you heading there!" The position of the imperial authorities reflected by the memoirist also testifies to the same inconclusiveness - to the question of the Corfu archpriest how they should continue to behave with the Latins, the emperor replied: “Live according to the order that you held before. ... We arranged and accepted the union in such a way that each side would retain its customs and order ... so that we would have our customs and order, as before ”(XI, 13).
The author explains the failure among the Greeks of conciliar unionist decrees mystically: “I believe that the Merciful and All-Merciful will not leave His Church in the midst of storm and danger,
but he will correct and preserve it in its former well-being and strengthen it even more than before. I also believe that those who truly and wholeheartedly fight for it, He will not allow them to be condemned and fall into temptation, or suffer any evil, since they fight well for Him and support the teachings of our Savior Christ. I am convinced of this from the fact that even earlier God placed many obstacles for the Council to take place, if our people would like to listen to this. And after the Council [nevertheless] took place, God chopped off and took away that which was supposed to serve to maintain the union ”(XII, 16).
- See: Ph. de Commynes. Memoires / Ed. B. de Mandrot. 2 vols. Paris, 1901-1903; idem. Memoires / Ed. J. Calmette. 3 vols. Paris, 1924-1925; Philip de Commin. Memoirs / Per., Art. and approx. Yu.P. Malinin. M., 1986.
Dealing mainly with political and military issues, Commin (especially in the 7th-8th book of the Memoirs) pays very considerable attention to the internal church situation in Italy during the Italian campaign of Charles VIII, in particular, to the conflict between the Colonna and Orsini families, from the development much depended on the position of the papal court, and the activities of the fierce opponent of Pope Sixtus, who relied on the house of Colonna, the cardinal of San Pietro in Vaincoli and the bishop of Ostia, Giuliano della Rovere, who later became pope, taking the name of Julius II (1503-1513), - Let us recall that his pontificate became the prologue of the Protestant Reformation.
- For example, recently found notebooks with records of the legendary leader of the Greeks who rebelled against the Ottoman rule, General Makriyannis, gave grounds to assert that he actually acted within the hesychast tradition. Makriyannis organically combined asceticism in the world with social activities and charity. At the same time, the general did not just describe his spiritual experiences, but knew their nature and could even give them an independent theological description (Etratsuoy MocKpvyiavvrj. Oratsata Kai Eaitsata. A0r|va, 1983). The previously unknown memoirs of Makriyannis made a real sensation in the scientific world and explained many hitherto incomprehensible motives for his actions.
- Attention should be paid to the opinion that personal diaries represent in European and early American culture a phenomenon relatively late and largely provoked by Christianity: this literary genre owes its origin to the natural desire of Christians to record the history of personal spiritual growth, progress in moving towards God. Only in the 19th century this task gives way to other goal-settings: fixing personal experiences and impressions or intellectual dynamics. This secular moment has only been strengthened over time and in the 20th century. acquires a pronounced psychologism: diaries are beginning to be used for introspection and self-disclosure, as well as in order to ensure emotional health.
- Porfiry (Uspensky), Bishop. The book of my being: Diaries and autobiographical notes of Bishop Porfiry (Uspensky) / Ed. P.A. Syrka. T. 1-8. SPb., 1894-1902.
- Nicholas of Japan, set. Brief biography; Diaries 1870-1911 St. Petersburg, 2007. The first edition of these diaries (1994), transcribed by L.N. and K.I. Logachev, was carried out by the publishing house of Hokkaido University, ed. professors K. Nakamura, R. Yasuya, M. Naganawa and a foreign member of the RAS Y. Nakamura.
- Schmemann L., prot. Diaries: 1973-1983. M., 2005.
- Let us turn our attention, for example, to sincere pages describing the evolution of Fr. Shmeman A.I. Solzhenitsyn: from absolute enthusiasm - to thoughts that “that Russia, which he serves, which he protects from“ detractors ”and to which Solzhenitsyn addresses, - that this Russia does not exist and never has been. He invents it... Tolstoy invents the gospel, Solzhenitsyn invents Russia. Solzhenitsyn's biography will need to be unraveled and recreated according to this principle, starting with the question: when, where, at what moment did the thirst for prophecy and teaching triumph in him over the "mere" writer, "pride" over "creativity"? When, in other words, did the conviction enter into him that he was called to save Russia, and save her, at the same time, with his writing? It is characteristic that in his “search for saving truth” Tolstoy reached the most flat rationalism (his gospel) and moralism. But this is also felt in Solzhenitsyn: his “factuality”, “archive-
ness”, the desire for some headquarters to “develop” the Russia it defends scientifically, to provide an objective justification for it”, etc. (See: Ibid., pp. 488, 632, etc.). - In 1478-1481. Infessura held the position of podesta in Orta, in 1481 he became professor of Roman law at the University of Rome, in 1487 he was secretary of the senate and held this post for a number of years, apparently until his death.
It is possible that even in his early youth, Infessura somehow participated in the conspiracy of Stefano Porcaro against Pope Nicholas V, which had the goal of establishing a republican system in Rome. He also sympathized with the pagan-humanistic wing of the Roman Academy, which was led by Pomponius Les.
Infessura was a prominent official in the secular system of government in Rome, he was a republican and therefore considered it necessary to eliminate the influence of the papacy from the municipal apparatus and the entire Roman system; in this regard, he considered himself a Ghibelline, an adherent of a feudal group that was at enmity with the popes and led by the richest Colonna family.
As a supporter of the republican form of government, Infessura saw the constant intervention of the popes in the life of Rome as an evil that did not allow Rome to live a healthy life. It is not surprising that his "Diary" (Diarium urbis Romae) is hostile to the curia, and at the same time to the Orsini family, traditionally associated with the pro-papal party of the Guelphs; Orsini for Infessura is the personification of all the troubles of Rome, which began from the moment the domination of the papal bureaucracy was established in it.
- The Roman constitution was a mixture of republican and monarchical principles, combining secular and spiritual principles. Its main feature was the parallelism of functions and authorities: each municipal body was accompanied by a parallel papal one.
The city prefect, who controlled the military forces of Rome (representative of the papal authority), corresponded to a senator chosen by the college of imbossulators and approved by the pope.
Administrative and legal power was in the hands of the governor (in the 15th century this position was held by the vice-camerling), who represented papal authority; three conservatives functioned in parallel with 13 prefects under them, representing 13 districts of the city of Rome. The governor and the conservatives had almost the same functions, but different sources of power: the conservatives were secular power, the governor represented the interests of the pope.
At the head of the police was bargello, a papal protege, who corresponded to the syndics and other officials of secular power.
The chairman of the small council was a senator, who competed in terms of his power either with the prefect, or with the governor, or with the bargello.
This structure reflected the ancient municipal spirit of Rome in its struggle for communal independence. Secular officials saw papal structures as natural rivals, so it would be naive to expect from them a benevolent attitude towards the papal municipal administration.
- The entries begin with the pontificate of Boniface VIII, a supporter of the Guelph Party and an enemy of the Republican House of Colonna. All the misfortunes of this pope (first of all, the French captivity) for Infessura are a sign of heavenly punishment for the “criminal path” along which the pope led his state. This thought is the leitmotif of the Diary; even his closing lines are a warning to Alexander VI, who wavered in his policy between Orsini and Colonna: Alexander should
remember that Orsini bears a terrible responsibility for the move of the cardinals to Avignon in 1305, which became the beginning of the "Babylonian captivity"; just as Chiarra Colonna once fled from the persecution of Boniface VIII to France in order to return as an avenger for the violated right and divine justice, so now, in 1494, Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere (future Pope Julius II) from San Pietro in Vincoli is looking for salvation in France , who will be the avenger for the injustices of Alexander's regime, and before it's too late, Alexander must feel the threat of the sword that hangs over his head.
Infessura writes now in Latin, now in Italian. His notes do not have a formal beginning (it was added by someone else's hand) and break off in mid-sentence - as it seems to some researchers, due to political disappointment and the loss of the meaning of further work.
The "Diary" of Infessura was first published by the German historian Johann Georg von Eckhart (1664-1730) in the 2nd volume of Corpus historicum medii aevi (Leipzig, 1723); a new publication (with the omission of the most scandalous fragments) was carried out by Fr. Luigi Antonio Muratori (1672-1750) in volume 3 (part 2) of his monumental edition Rerum italicarum Scriptores ab anno cerce christiance 500 ad annum 1500 (25 vols. in 28, folio. Mediolani, 1723-1751; critical reprint - Citta di Castello, later Bologna, from 1900). The best edition of Infessura's Diary is the critical edition by Oreste Tommasini, commissioned by the Instituto Storico Italiano. See: Diario della citta di Roma di Stefano Infessura scribasenato / Nuova ed. a cura di Oreste Tommasini. Roma, 1890 (Fonti per la storia d'ltalia, V). See also: Tommasini O. II diario de Stefano Infessura // Archivia della Societa romana di storia patria. Vol. XI. Roma, 1888; idem. Nuovi documenti illustrativi del Diario di Stefano Infessura // Ibid. Vol. XII. Rome, 1889.
- Johannis Burckardi Liber Notarum ab anno MCCCCLXXXIII usque ad annum MDVI / Ed. E. Celani. Citta di Castello, 1906 (first critical edition based on various previous editions, which have been verified against the original manuscript).
- Johann Burchard, also called Burkard (Burchard and Burckard), who came from the French Niederhaslach (now the Lower Rhine) in Alsace, was for some time the secretary of the Bishop of Strasbourg, was ordained a priest in 1476 and after 5 years was sent to Rome, where he was Appointed Protonotary of the Apostolic See. After 2 years, he becomes the master of ceremonies of Pope Sixtus IV. He holds this position under Popes Innocent VIII (1484-1492), Alexander VI (1492-1503), Pius III (1503) and in early years Julia II - until his death. In Rome, Burchard enters the brotherhood of St. Maria del Anima, quickly advances in it and becomes a provost. Gradually, he receives a whole bunch of church benefices, including the post of provost in Moutiers-Granval (1474) and the cathedral dean in Basel (1501). Pius III, he was appointed bishop of Orte (at that time Burchard was the cleric of the Papal Chapel, the abbreviator of papal letters and the Basel dean), but the early death of the elderly pope led to the fact that Burchard's episcopal consecration took place only after the approval of this decision by the new pope Julius II .
- Among these events were: the visit to Rome of Federigo of Aragon (December 1493 - January 1494), the coronation of Alphonse II of Naples (May 1494), the reception in Rome of the French king Charles VIII (November 1494 - February 1495), the papal embassy to Milan to Emperor Maximilian (July-November 1496), the proclamation of the Jubilee Year (Christmas 1499). Burchard was also present at the laying of the cornerstone for the new building of St. Peter's on April 18, 1506.
- The Diary begins with an account of the events that followed the death of Sixtus IV. In the behavior of the next pope, Innocent VIII, Burchard finds a “dark spot” that even his indifferent pen cannot indifferently pass by: usually papal children are called nephews, but Pope Innocent spoke openly about his daughter and granddaughter, and Burchard regrets that papa dis
he sowed a useful illusion, especially since it was part of the program of the ceremonial worked out once and for all.
However, the activities of Julius II were only slightly reflected in Burchard's Diary: Burchard died on May 16, 1503 and could only speak about the first three years of Julius II's pontificate. He had a deep feeling of gratitude towards him, apparently mainly because the pope gave him two bishoprics at once - in Orta and Civita Castellana, as well as a number of other profitable places. Burchard's dreams of a cardinal's cap were not destined to come true. Burchard was buried in the Roman church of Santa Maria del Popolo at the Flaminian Gate.
Actually, there is no manuscript of Burchard's Diary, there are only separate fragments: a small part of the Diary written by Burchard's hand, from August 12, 1503 to April 1506, as well as manuscript No. 5632 written by Burchard himself, covering the time from 2 December 1492 to the end of 1496 (found in 1900 by Enrico Celani). In a number of Italian libraries and in Paris there are incomplete copies of the Diary, since in the 16th-17th centuries. it was partially copied by many.
Burchard's "Diary" was completely rewritten for the first time in 1562 by order of the Florentine theologian professor Ondfrio Panvinio (1529-1568), librarian of the Pontifical Library. Panvinio compared the copy of the Diary with the original, which had not yet been lost. At present, this copy of the "Diary" is in the Munich Archives and is described in the Catalog of Manuscripts of the Munich Library (vol. III, 25-26). It is considered the best copy of the "Diary" (usually it is called "Burchard's manuscript").
In fragments, the "Diary" was printed already at the beginning of the 17th century. (in particular, excerpts relating to the activities of Savonarola, the Italian campaign of the French king Charles VIII, as well as the ups and downs associated with the Turkish prince Cem, were published by the official French historiographers Theodore and Denis Godefroy).
In 1696, Leibniz published an excerpt from the Diary from an incomplete manuscript he found in the library of Wolfenbüttel. This fragment is connected mainly with the anecdotal side of the life of Alexander VI. Leibniz also intended to publish the "Diary" in the form in which it appears in the manuscript found in Berlin by La Croze. However, this intention was not carried out, and it was not until 1743 that Eckhart published in the 2nd volume of the Corpus Historicum the complete Wolfenbüttel manuscript (which turned out to be incomplete and inaccurate) used by Leibniz. Thus, both German editions proved to be unsatisfactory.
In 1883-1885. The French medievalist Louis Tuan published Burchard's Diary based on the Vatican manuscript no. The edition is supplied with notes and a biography of Burchard. See: J. Burchardi Diarium sive rerum urbanarum commentarii (1483-1506) / Ed., intr., notes, appendices, tables et index par L. Thuasne. 3 vols. Paris, 1883–1885 .
In 1907-1913. Enrico Celani published a Diary based on the Vatican manuscript no. See: Johannis Burckardi Liber notarum / Ed. E. Celani. 2 vols. Citta di Castello, 1907-1913 (Rerum italicarum scriptores, XXXII).
- For example, about the violent death of King Ferrante of Naples, he sparingly notes: “A few days ago ... news came to the city that on Saturday, January 25, on the feast of the conversion of St. Paul, Most Serene Ferdinand of Naples and King of Sicily, having finished the last day of his life, died without light, cross and God ”(see in the ed.: Stefano Infessura, Johann Burchard. Diaries: Documents on the history of the papacy of the XV-XVI centuries. M., 1939, p. 164); Prince Jem's poisoning comments: "died of food or drink that was not suitable for his stomach"; about simony, who reigned in the papal curia, he busily remarks: “On Sunday, October 27, in the monastery of the Minorites
died brother Samson, the chief leader of the order of the Minorites, who, as they said, left behind silver utensils, that is, silver vases, worth 1,000 ducats. In one place he found
- Ltd., in another - 8 Ltd. and in the third - 1,080 ducats. Recently, the pope was informed that the deceased agreed to donate 30,000 or 35,000, even 50,000 ducats for the cardinality” (Ibid., p. 203); etc.
- These letters are addressed mainly to French correspondents and the Pope. They touch upon many important problems of a spiritual, secular and educational nature (including canonical illiteracy) faced by medieval clerics. See: The Letters and Poems of Fulbert of Chartres / Ed. Frederick Behrends. Oxford, 1976.
- The Letters of Saint Bernard of Clairvaux / Trans. Bruno Scott James intr. Beverly Kienzle; foreword Christopher Holdsworth. Kalamazoo (MI), 1998.
- Pertz G.H. Die Briefe des Canonicus Guido von Bazoches, Cantors zu Chalons im zwolften Jahrhundert. Berlin, 1890; Wattenbach W. Aus den Briefen des Guidos von Bazoches // Neues Archiv. 1890. Bd. 16; Liber epistularum Guidonis de Basochis / Ed. Herbert Adolfson. Stockholm, 1969.
- Grigor Magistros spent his childhood and adolescence under the supervision of his uncle Vakhram Pahlavuni in the city of Ani, where the palace of the Pahlavuni princes was located. Here he received an education, studied the Holy Scriptures and the works of the Fathers of the Church.
Like other representatives of the Pahlavuni family, Grigor spoke in defense of the Ani kingdom and the hereditary rights of King Gagik II to the throne. However, disagreements soon began between Grigor Magistros and Gagik, Grigor was persecuted by the king, undergoing, as he writes himself, imprisonment, shackles, hardships and even the threat of death (XLI). Later, the king sought reconciliation, but it apparently did not take place, and Grigor retired to Taron.
King Hovhannes-Smbat bequeathed Ani with all his estates to the Byzantine emperor. When in 1045 Gagik II left for Constantinople to challenge this will, Grigor went there with him, hoping to help Gagik with his presence. “Seeing that Gagik was not allowed to go to his own country, he appeared before the emperor and handed him the keys to Bjni, giving him all his hereditary fiefdom. For this, Grigor received the rank of master [one of the Byzantine military titles. - KA.], accepted the villages and cities appointed as the seat within Mesopotamia, and the eternal right to pass them on from generation to generation was confirmed by a gold-printed letter ”(Aristakes Lastivertsi. History. S. 85-86). Grigor Magistros himself, in one of his letters (III) to the Catholicos Petros, called this act of his "an absurd plan ... because of which ... he suffered more trouble than Priam, who did not happen to see happiness."
In 1048, together with others, he was sent to the east to defend the borders of the country from the Turks and was appointed ruler of Mesopotamia, Vaspurakan, Berkri, Archesh, Manazkert and Taron with the title of dux (“kiton and duk”) or bdeilkh. Judging by the letters, Grigor Magistros managed to improve the areas entrusted to him, but at the same time he always sought to leave the administrative field and take up literature. During his stay, Magistros often visited the monastery of St. Karapet (John the Baptist) in Taron, where a palace and a school were erected for him.
One of the letters of Magistros “To his disciples Barseg and Yeghishe concerning the books of Aristotle” (XLV) is interesting. Having learned that the Catholicos Petros, who had the named students at that time, gave them Aristotle to read, Magistros wrote: “If Aristotle’s writings refer to what he said about celestial bodies and the sphericity of the earth, or about laws ... then send them here .. If this is an Introduction by Porfiry, written at the request of Chrysaor, about the five categories that exist ... we do not want to ask these to be sent to us from afar, because we happened to study these provisions at a young age. In continuation, he wrote that he improved his knowledge with the help of Persian and Arabic
science and that at the time, as he writes a letter, he is trying "to obtain, without wasting time, information about the four Greek arts."
Grigor Magistros himself compiled textbooks. He wrote an interpretation of the Grammar, according to which teachers taught students in the following centuries.
In his declining years, Magistros continued his translation work: “We never stop translating. I began to translate many books that I did not find (in translations. -K.A.) into our language, two books of Plato, the dialogues "Timaeus" and "Phaedo" ... and (works. - K.A.) many others wise men... and the geometry of Euclid. And if the Lord wishes to prolong our lives, I will not hesitate to translate other Greek and Syrian scholars” (XXI).
The letters of Gregory Magistros have titles that may have been given either by the Magistros himself or by people close to him, since those who titled the letters knew very well on what occasion they were written and to whom they were addressed.
The main characteristics of the writing style of Grigor Magistros are conciseness, lack of pretentiousness and embellishment, and the widespread use of synonyms.
In his letters, the Magistros usually tries to inspire himself and his friends, praises and blames, ridicules and ironically, sometimes composes a “muzhik uncouth, full of fiction, jocular” speech, just to have fun, without any other intention. He criticizes without embarrassment, hurting even his high-ranking friends, for example, Bishop Ephraim, well-known at that time, who, together with Magistros, took part in the defeat of the Tondrakian sect.
Grigor Magistros, for the first time in Armenian literature, imitating Arabic kafas, began to widely use rhyme. His great poetic work of 1016 lines [see: Poems of Grigor Magistros Pahlavuny. Venice, 1868 (grabar)], usually called "The Thousand Lines", was written on a theological and literary occasion (as described in the preface, entitled "The Circumstances of Writing a Poem").
In 1045, in Constantinople, for many days Grigor Magistros had discussions on various issues with a skilled Arabic poet. The latter extolled the Qur'an, saying that it was written in verse "in a single meter." Magistros objected to him, answering: “The poems of the Arabs are ordinary exercises in which each line ends with the same syllable. You call them cafes. However, if you consider this a prophetic deed, which your Mahmet wrote for 40 years, then I will write to you in four days, starting from Adam and until the Second Coming of the One Who created him, and I will write in verse even more wonderfully, to the rhyme -in, that is, in the way which you praise." The Arab bet: "If you can do it, then I will become a Christian." Magistros fulfilled his promise by writing a Thousand-Line Book in four days, which he entitled "To Manucha." This is a brief paraphrase of Holy Scripture. In the last part of it, Gregory also speaks about the history of the Armenian Church, starting with Gregory Lusavorich and ending with the creation of the Armenian alphabet and the work of translators.
"Thousand-line" is not the fruit of poetic inspiration; it is a cold, rational art. Unfortunately, there are few beautiful passages in it, and the best among them is the description of the Last Judgment. Grigor Magistros was not distinguished by a poetic gift, he was skilled only in technique, therefore his “Thousand Lines” and several other poetic works that have come down to us are of value solely from the point of view of studying the history of Armenian versification.
The language of Gregory Magistros, both in his letters and in several extant poems, was rightly considered incomprehensible and complex. It contains many Greekisms, on the one hand, and archaic Armenian words, on the other. In his works there are also dialect words that are absent from other authors, the meaning of which is now difficult to establish. Its syntax is also unusual: in the works of Magistros, for example, inverted sentences and atypical use of prepositions and cases are found.
- Other examples are known in Armenian literature when letters were collected in collections - Girk thtots (“Book of Messages”), however, they are official letters on various occasions, while the messages of Grigor Magistros are private.
- The Acton Institute for the Study of Religion and Liberty, founded in 1990 in Grand Rapids (Michigan, USA), is named after him, with a European branch in Rome (since 2006). The objectives of the institute are the study of the natural theory of law, Christian social thought and the theory of a free market economy. The Institute publishes the Journal of Markets & Morality (once every six months), publishing materials on the study of the relationship between economics and morality from the standpoint of social sciences and theology; Religion & Liberty (quarterly), by
sacred to current analysis of religious, economic and cultural processes; as well as Acton Notes (monthly), whose publications are related to the current events of the institute. - On this point, Lord Acton, in a letter to Creighton in 1887, formulated the following judgment ("Lord Acton's dictum"): "I cannot accept your canon that we should judge the Pope and favorable presumption that they are doing nothing wrong. If there is any presumption, then it is just the opposite: it is directed against the holders of power and increases with the growth of this power. What is lacking in legal responsibility must be made up for by historical responsibility. Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely. Great people are almost always bad people, even when they use only their influence and not power: and moreover, if you add to this the tendency - or even the certainty of being corrupted by the fullness of power. There is no worse heresy than that which claims that the office sanctifies its holder ”(Dalberg-Acton J.E.E. Essays on Freedom and Power. Boston, 1949. P. 364).
- Cm.: Selections from the Correspondence of the First Lord Acton / Ed. with an introduction. by John Neville Figgis, Renald Vere Laurence. Vol. I: Correspondence with Cardinal Newman, Lady Blennerhassett, W.E. Gladstone and Others. London, 1917.
- The Letters and Diaries of John Henry Cardinal Newman / Ed. Francis J. McGrath, F.M.C. Vol. 32. Supplement. Oxford, 2008.
- See: Father Tikhon, the last great Russian elder on Athos / Comp. and trans. from New Greek Hieromonk John (Kogan). [FROM. Posad,] 1997.
For example, one of the leaders of the traditional enlightenment movement in Greece, Cosmas of Aetolia, during his travels, founded more than a thousand educational institutions different levels, many of which have survived to our time, and each has a tradition directly related to the name of Cosmas. There are many testimonies about Cosmas preaching in the Balkans. Along the way, he left wooden crosses. These crosses were often updated, many of them have survived to our time. Where they were lost for one reason or another, there are places of worship; in addition, many mountain villages in which crosses were erected received the name Stavros, which means “cross” in modern Greek. Material sources made it possible to establish the geography of Cosmas' travels, confirmed the number of schools he founded and the strength of people's love for this preacher.
Immediately after the death of Cosmas of Aetolia, many churches were built in his honor, icons were painted. The famous Ali Pasha (47 ^ 0-1822,), who ruled the Yanin Pashalik with an iron hand at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries. so that the fame of his cruelty (in particular, thanks to his European guest, the English romantic poet J.G. Byron) reached Western Europe, he revered Koyom as a great prophet and, after his martyrdom, ordered the construction of a large monastery and a Greek school in his honor (By the way, the same Byron speaks of a Greek cultural upsurge in Ioannina under Ali Pasha). The memory of Cosmas did not disappear on Athos either. In addition to the special veneration of the saint, material evidence of his stay on the Holy Mountain is preserved: in the monastery where he labored, there is an epitrachelion, which, according to legend, belonged to Cosmas, and a lectern preserved from the time of his stay in the monastery.
Material sources have come down to us from almost all participants in the traditional educational movement of the 18th-19th centuries. So, in the Athos skete of John the Baptist of the Iberian Monastery, the staff of Macarius of Corinth is kept; in the museum of the monastery of St. John the Theologian on Patmos, two phelonions and a censer are kept, donated to the monastery by St. Macarius. In the homeland of Nicodemus the Holy Mountaineer, the island of Naxos, in addition to the rich oral tradition associated with his name,
his parents' house. Nicodemus the Holy Mountaineer on Athos is highly revered: in many monasteries where he visited, they keep manuscripts and notes made by his hand, and in his native monastery (Dionysiat) you can see the chair on which, according to legend, the Holy Mountaineer worked. (Although for Protestantism such a “real” memory is not very characteristic, we note in passing that in Geneva, in the chapel at the cathedral, a chair by J. Calvin was preserved.)
Thousands of such material sources have been preserved from elders closer to us in time. However, they are not always as important as in the case of Cosmas of Aetolia. The importance and necessity of using material sources is assessed in the context of a particular study.
Material sources make it possible to judge the scale of the activities of some bearers of the Orthodox tradition. Their use makes it possible to check the data of written documents, to characterize the scale and results of their activities. Often in the use of non-narrative sources there is a deep research potential. On the one hand, they allow checking and significantly supplementing the data of written sources, on the other hand, they are able to serve the formulation and solution of individual significant research problems.
- AXeyiaSrjq M. №a)ter1kg | EXXr]viKr| Aaoypaqna. ?uvcryaryr| MeXetcuv. AOtyva, 1978; MerakKhtsq M. EXXr|viKr| Aaoypaqna. A0r|va, 2004; Vlasiy, monk. Radiance of Holiness, or Stories and Sayings of the Athonite Elders, as well as a lot of information about the history and customs of the Holy Mountain. Larnaca, 1997 - M., 1999; and etc.
- AovKocroq A. EGvikt] Per1aiXHoug|. Iatopia toi EXXrjviKou"E0voult;;. T6|iolt;; I. AOrjva, 1975.
- See: Portelli A. The order has been carried out: history, memory and meaning of a Nazi massacre in Rome. London, 2004; idem. The battle of Valle Giulia: oral history and the art of dialogue. Univ. of Wisconsin press, 1997; Stille A. Prospecting for truth amid the distortions of oral history // The New York Times (http://hartford-hwp.com/archives/10/063/html; 03/10/2002).
- See also: Clark A. Diaries. London, 1993; Crane S.A. Writing the individual back into collective memory // The American Historical Review. 1997 Vol. 102. No. 5; Halbwachs M. On collective memory / Ed. L.A. coser. Chicago, 1992; Hutton Ph. Recent scholarship on history and memory I I The History Teacher. 2000 Vol. 33. No. 4.
quite .. but I think you need an individual approach .. . TRADITION - I'll tell you a legend, \ Like a knight to his young wife \ I came on a terrible date \ From the coffin ... Listen fully \ It is impossible without trembling to the denouement. \ A dead man carried away the unfortunate... \ - Shooter, I know this tale. \ I don't have time, gunslinger. Pierre-Jean Berenger. Translated by Vasily Kurochkin THE SHOOTER AND THE PILLAGE WOMAN TRADITION Is there really a dark legend \ About the once bright fate, \ On a cold coffin there is an inscription, \ A commemoration in itself. Pyotr Vyazemsky 1871 FROM TSARSKOYE SEL TO LIVADIA \ (Autumn 1871) \ Dedicated to Elisaveta Dmitrievna Milyutina TRADITION And he has not been seen on earth since then. \ One thing was preserved in the legend: \ With the usual rite, the sacred cathedral \ In the temple performed remembrance; Walter Scott. 1801 Translated by V. Zhukovsky REPENTANCE TRADITION I know one wonderful legend, - \ By the sea a curly-haired nymph lived, \ The poor thing languished in longing of expectation, \ And bitter tears for the dear lila ... . Ellis. From the collection “Immorteli”\1. THE BIRTH OF THE HARP \ (From "Irish Melodies" by T. Moore) \ Dedicated. A. D. Bugayeva Tradition says that to these sacred trees, \ Bent under the weight of countless gifts, \ Spouses flowed to bow from distant lands, \ According to rumor, they were given the gift of miracles; \ And those who came to them with faith, \ In bloom and in the winter of days, they loved each other for a century. Ivan Dmitriev 1805 PHILEMON AND BAUKIDA \ Free translation from Lafontaine legend And merge with new tradition, Once in a single and blood row Lublin stood next to Lyuban, Near Belgorod - Belgrade! Sergei Narovchatov 1944 POLISH POEMS TRADITION Or legend, built on sand, \ Eating up the legend of immortality, \ The familiar world hangs on a bird's hair, \ Then forcefully thrown into the wind This is how the fear of the branches is explained: Judas hanged himself on it, the seller of Christ and the villain. Fyodor Sologub 1886 A timid aspen trembles, a legend... now, perhaps, my friend is alone and locked up, among the pictures, behind the frames looking in vain for windows. \The ship's bell struck, as if \an ancient coin \of a long-vanished state fell loudly, \waking up memories and legends. George Seferis. Translation by S. Ilyinskaya Tradition\\In the dead days of Boris Godunov,\In the mist of the Russian cloudy country,\Crowds of people wandered homeless,\And two moons rose at night. Konstantin Balmont In the deaf days of legend “I don’t know what I yearn for, \ There is no rest for my soul. \ Forget for a moment I can not \ Tradition of distant years. Baal Khabyryys. Translation by N. Glazkov NEW SONG ABOUT LORELEI legend There are many legends here \ Lives among my proud people, \ And the chumgurs sing \ About the unfading glory of the fighters, \ About heroic husbands, \ In the name of freedom and peace, \
“In trying to embrace the world of today, we draw from the vocabulary that has developed in the world of yesterday,” said Antoine de Saint-Exupery. And it's hard for us to disagree with him.
Yes, once there was no science of philosophy. But humanity has already been and loved wisdom. And today we read wise Russian, French, Turkish and other fairy tales that have come to us from the abyss of time, measured not only in thousands, but also in tens of thousands of years. So Kolobok came down to us from that era when agriculture was just beginning. And the fairy tale about him also contains a philosophical conclusion, albeit a simple one: no matter how quickly you can get away from your grandparents, from a bear and a wolf, a fox's cunning is stronger than you. That golden egg, which the mouse brushed off the bench with its tail, and it fell and broke, scientists deduce from the ancient myth about the birth of the Universe. Let's look into the distant past and get acquainted with the ideas of ancient thinkers about man and society. People have long tried to explain the existence of society. And they asked the following questions:
How does a society emerge?
How does it develop?
Where does it go in its development?
What are its prospects?
The answers to these questions were determined by the level of development of a particular society. Sometimes the distant past of mankind is compared with childhood. In childhood, we live in a fairy-tale world, a world created by our imagination and fantasies. The fairy tales that adults told us gave us the first idea about good and evil, about powerful forces and passions, about man, about the world around us.
So in the early stages of human development, the ideas of the ancients were reflected in myths.
Mythology- from Greek. tradition, legend and word, doctrine.
Read the following myths and answer the question: “What do myths tell us about?”
1. In Australian myth, Bront's crane throws an egg into the sky. It breaks, and since then its yolk, becoming the sun, illuminates the earth. One of the sacred books of India reports that once, in an era when there was nothing in the universe but water, a certain god turned into an egg and began to swim in these waters. Then the egg cracked open. Of the two halves of the shell, one was silver, the other gold. Silver is the earth, gold is the sky.
When believers paint eggs for Orthodox Easter, they also, only now, unknown to themselves, recall the myth of the “world egg”. The new faith takes over fragments of the old.
2. Scandinavian legends paint a majestic picture of the origin of the world.
First there was a black abyss that separated from each other the realm of fogs (in the north) and the realm of fire (in the south). In the realm of fogs, a spring filled, its waters, freezing, filled the abyss, until the ice came close to the realm of fire. Sparks, mixing with ice, breathed life into it, giants arose from the melting ice - the first of them was Ymir - and a giant cow that gave milk to the giants. The cow, licking an ice block, created a giant, whose three children became the first aesir gods. They killed Ymir and made the earth from his body, the vault of heaven from the skull, mountains from the bones, trees from the hair, and so on. Then they cut down the ash tree and made a man out of it, and a woman out of an alder. High above the clouds is now the land of the gods. In the middle of it is the top of the huge ash tree Ygdrazil, whose roots lie in the land of fogs, and in the land of giants, and in the land of people. The branches of this ash tree stretched over the whole world.
Such a world tree is in the myths of many peoples. In Africa, it is, of course, the baobab or palm tree, and not the northern ash of the Scandinavians.
The world is complicated, but it is doomed - sooner or later a great war will begin between the gods on the one hand and the giants and monsters on the other. The ash tree Ygdrazil, supporting the vault of heaven, will collapse, the earth will plunge into the world sea, the wolves, eternally pursuing the sun and moon, will finally swallow them ...
Here is the beginning of the world, and its history, and its current state, and the future, including the end of the world.
Everything is explained (here the smallest share of Scandinavian mythology), everything is meaningful ... Do you want to know why earthquakes happen? Please. For numerous criminal tricks, the aces punished the fire god Loki by chaining him by the arms and legs to a rock (like Zeus - Prometheus). A snake hangs over Loki's head, poison dripping from its mouth all the time. The devoted wife of Loki collects this poison in a bowl, protecting her husband, but the bowl must sometimes be emptied, and at this time drops of poison fall on Loki's face, he shudders in pain, shaking the ground.
Another thing is that these explanations are not verifiable and cannot be logically proven. But the myth does not need logic and evidence, it is a matter of faith, and only faith.
3. One of African peoples There is a fairy tale about how a wise turtle decided to collect all the wisdom of the world in a pumpkin bottle - calabash, in order to correct the world with the help of this wisdom. The tortoise asked different animals in turn what was the wisdom of each of them.
“In fangs! In the claws! In a jump, ”the leopard answered.
"In strength and calmness," said the elephant.
In the legs and ears was the wisdom of a hare. In the wings and flight was the wisdom of the eagle.
So bit by bit, bit by bit, bit by bit, she collected wisdom from all over the earth and, without dropping a single crumb, she hid it in her biggest, best calabash ...
In the end, the turtle decided that it had bypassed all the animals that deserved attention, gathered all their wisdom in its calabash. And now we need to hang the calabash on a tree, higher, in order to keep everything assembled intact. And close to suitable tree a Guinean hen rummaged in the ground. Just in case, a reasonable tortoise also took an interest in her wisdom, but the Guinean hen was stupid like a chicken, and even more stupid than all the other chickens in the world.
The tortoise climbed up the tree, hanging the calabash on its chest. It is clear that it was uncomfortable for her to climb. And from below, the chicken shouts: “If you decide to climb a tree, then hang the calabash on your back.”
And the tortoise understood, because she was really wise, that even the most stupid chicken can have a grain of wisdom, that all the wisdom of the world cannot be hidden even in the biggest and best calabash in the world, that wisdom cannot belong to one, and if it is wisdom, then everyone should have it.
And the tortoise with all his strength threw his wonderful calabash on the ground. It shattered into pieces. And with it scattered - all over the earth - the wisdom that the tortoise had collected for many, many years.
Scattered to make the world wiser!
On the whole, this is, no doubt, a parable philosophical in spirit, although it has taken the form of a fairy tale.
(Discussion of read myths.)
In this way, mythology - it is historically the first form of understanding of the world, of people's explanation of social life.
Read an excerpt from the book "Myths of the Peoples of the World" (p. 25 of the textbook).
How is a fairy tale different from a myth?
Is it possible to classify historical tradition as a kind of myth? Justify your conclusion.
With the help of the myth, the past was connected with the present and the future, a spiritual connection between generations was provided. Spiritual values were passed from generation to generation: the rudiments of knowledge, religious beliefs, political views, various types of art, etc.
Thus, mythology expresses the urgent need of a person to comprehend himself and the world around him. And this need is embodied in diverse fantastic pictures of the real world.
In ancient myths about the origin of the world and people, two ideas are most often distinguished:
1) the idea of creation - the world was created by a being-god;
2) the idea of development - the world gradually developed out of chaos. The main thematic cycles of myths:
Cosmogonic myths - myths about the origin of man and human society;
Myths about cultural heroes - myths about the origin and introduction of certain cultural goods;
Eschatological myths - myths about the "end of the world", the end of time. Consequently, at an early stage of their development, people have a so-called mythological consciousness.
Working with paragraph 1 § 2, let's highlight the main features of the mythological consciousness and define its features.
Do you think that mythological consciousness is preserved in modern conditions? Justify your answer.
Yes, indeed, it would be reckless to assert that the mythological way of explaining life was characteristic of people only at an early stage in the development of mankind. For example, in the Soviet period, many myths were created, which we hardly part with today.
2. Ancient Indian philosophy: how to save yourself from the suffering of the world
In order to understand the peculiarities of the worldview of the Indians, it is necessary to know how they imagined the world around them, what place and role they assigned to a person in this world. While listening to my story, make an outline of the answer to this question in your notebooks.
The first written sources of the ancient philosophy of ancient India are Veda- collections of hymns to the gods, chants, rituals, sayings, sacrificial formulas, etc. It is believed that the Vedas were compiled in the first half of the 1st millennium BC. e. Traditionally Vedic literature is divided into several groups of texts. It is primarily four Veda(literally - knowledge, hence the name of the entire period and its written monuments); the oldest and most important of them - Rigeeda(knowledge of hymns) - a collection of hymns, which was formed relatively long time and finally formed in the XII century. BC e. Somewhat later they appear Brahmins(from the 10th century BC - Vedic ritual manuals, of which the most important is Shatapathabrahmana(Brahman of a hundred paths). The end of the Vedic period is represented Upanishads- the philosophical views of the Hindus.
The text of the Upanishads mentions that for his education a person masters “... Rigveda, Yajurveda, Sama Veda, Atharvaveda, Itihasa, Puranas, Veda Veda, the rules of veneration of ancestors, the science of numbers, the art of predictions, chronology, logic, rules of conduct, etymology, the science of sacred knowledge, the science of demons, the science of war, the science of snakes and lower deities.
In the VI-V centuries. BC e. in India, several philosophical schools arise, which exert an undeniable influence on each other, while maintaining, however, originality. These are Buddhism, Jainism, Samkhya, Yoga, Vaisheshika, Nyaya, Mimamsa, Vedanta, etc.
The worldview of the ancient Indian permeates a deep sense of the living universe. Reflections on being and the universe found, perhaps, the most complete reflection in the "Hymn on the Creation of the World." It is placed in the earliest of the Vedas - Ragveda(Veda of hymns) and was created, as they say, earlier than the 10th century. BC e.
First it was "Something One"- having the only property - indivisibility Breath Then appeared Universe Creation has begun sacrifice
space giant Purusha was divided into parts and became the source of life for all living beings.
The world of the universe is filled with: people, spirits, animals
What place did people occupy in this world?
1st place - world of the gods"a space where heavenly life thrives."
II stage - people world, subject to a strict cosmic hierarchy, which was reflected in the caste structure of India:
brahmins - sages, interpreters of the Vedas;
kshatriyas- warriors and rulers;
vaishi- the class of farmers and pastoralists;
sudra- servants.
III stage - world of demons, spirits, animals and inhabitants of numerous hells.
They do not have the right to choose and depend on the conditions in which they find themselves.
Conclusion: the human world occupies a middle position in the universe, so people have an equal choice and can rise to divine heights or descend to a hellish life.
According to the views of the ancient Indians, man, having arisen simultaneously with all the creatures of the universe, is in constant change: trees, birds, rivers, mountains, the earth itself, people constantly die and are reborn. Therefore, the idea of the eternal cycle of life and the idea of an eternal spiritual source (the idea of an eternal immortal soul) were central.
After the death of the body, the soul continues to live, moving into the body of the born being (reincarnation). But what body does the soul choose? What does it depend on?
The answer to this question is given by the law of Karma.
It says: the sum of a person's good and evil deeds received in previous lives determines the form of subsequent births.
Good karma guarantees a successful rebirth on Earth and life will proceed with minimal suffering.
Bad karma will lead to the worst conditions of bodily existence. In a new life, one can be born a slave, an animal, a worm, and even a roadside stone that takes on all the blows of thousands of feet as retribution for the sins of past years.
The reason for your suffering is in yourself, you deserved it by your actions in the past.
Myth, fairy tale, legend
When demarcating myth and fairy tale, modern folklorists note that myth is the predecessor of a fairy tale, that in a fairy tale, in comparison with myth, there is ... a weakening of strict faith in the truth of the stated fantastic events, the development of conscious fiction (whereas myth-making has an unconsciously artistic character), etc. The distinction between myth and historical tradition, legend, is all the more controversial because it is largely arbitrary.
Historical tradition is most often called those works of folk art, which are based on some historical events. Such are the legends about the founding of cities (Thebes, Rome, Kyiv, etc.), about wars, about prominent historical figures, etc. This sign, however, is by no means always sufficient to distinguish between myth and historical tradition. A good example is many ancient Greek myths. As you know, they included various narratives (often taking poetic or dramatic form) about the founding of cities, the Trojan War, the campaign of the Argonauts and other great events. Many of these stories are based on real historical facts, confirmed by archaeological and other data (for example, the excavations of Troy, Mycenae, etc.). But it is very difficult to draw a line between these stories (i.e., historical legends) and myths proper, especially since mythological images of gods and other fantastic creatures are woven into the narrative of seemingly historical stories.
Questions and tasks: 1) How is a fairy tale different from a myth? 2) Can historical tradition be classified as a kind of myth? Justify your conclusion.
| They argue about it |
Read excerpts from T. P. Grigoriev's book "Tao and Logos" and the textbook "Introduction to Philosophy" (edited by I. T. Frolov).
- Burns, Robert - short biography
- The concept of common vocabulary and vocabulary of limited use
- Nancy Drew: The Captive Curse Walkthrough Nancy Drew Curse of Blackmoore Manor Walkthrough
- Deadpool - Troubleshooting
- Won't start How to Survive?
- What to do if bioshock infinite won't start
- Walkthrough Nancy Drew: Alibi in Ashes
- Spec Ops: The Line - game review, review Spec ops the line crashes on missions
- Room escape level 1 walkthrough
- Processing tomatoes with boric acid How much will 2 grams of boric acid
- Cucumber Grass (Borago)
- Bioinsecticide Lepidocid: purpose, properties and application procedure Lepidocide waiting period
- How to change the language to Russian in steam
- Dendrobium noble: room care
- Morphology of plants general concepts - document
- Planting, propagation and care of bamboo at home, photo Growing bamboo from seeds
- How to strengthen the cellular signal for the Internet in the country
- Sanskrit reveals the forgotten meaning of Russian words (2 photos)
- The oldest language Sanskrit programming language of the future Dead language Sanskrit
- Who has dominion over all the earth?