Large polyphonic cycles include. Polyphonic works by J.S. Bach in elementary grades

In a musical play of a polyphonic warehouse (for example, in the canon of Josquin Despres, in the fugue of J.S. Bach), the voices are equal in compositional-technical (the same methods of motive-melodic development are the same for all voices) and logical (equal carriers of "musical thought") relations. The word "polyphony" also refers to the musical-theoretical discipline, which is taught in the courses of secondary and higher musical education for composers and musicologists. The main task of the discipline of polyphony is the practical study of polyphonic compositions.

stress

The stress in the word "polyphony" fluctuates: Russian general lexical dictionaries of the 2nd half of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century, as a rule, put a single stress on the second syllable from the end. Musicians (composers, performers, educators and musicologists) usually put the emphasis on "o"; same orthoepic norm adhere to the latest (2014) Great Russian Encyclopedia and "Musical Spelling Dictionary" (2007). Some specialized dictionaries and encyclopedias allow orthoepic variants.

Polyphony and harmony

The concept of polyphony (as warehouse) is not correlative with the concept of harmony (pitch structure), so it is fair to speak, for example, of polyphonic harmony. With all the functional (musical-semantic, musical-logical) independence of individual voices, they are always aligned vertically. In a polyphonic piece (for example, in Perotin's organum, in Machault's motet, in Gesualdo's madrigal), the ear distinguishes consonances and dissonances, chords and (in the old polyphony) concords, and their connections, which manifest themselves in the deployment of music in time, obey the logic of one or another fret. Thus, a polyphonic piece has a sign of the integrity of the pitch structure, musical harmony.

Polyphony and polyphony

In some Western traditions, the same word is used to denote polyphony (more than one voice in the musical “vertical”) and to denote a special musical warehouse, for example, in English musicology, the adjective polyphonic (in German, on the contrary, there are adjectives mehrstimmig and polyphon) - in such cases, the specifics of word usage can only be established from the context.

AT Russian science the attribute "polyphonic" refers to the specifics of the musical warehouse (for example, "polyphonic piece", "composer-polyphonist"), while the attribute "polyphonic" does not contain such a specific specification (for example, "chanson - a polyphonic song", "Bach - author of polyphonic arrangements of chorales "). In modern non-specialist literature (as a rule, due to a “blind” translation from English), the word “polyphony” is used as an exact synonym for the word “polyphony” (for example, compilers of advertising texts find “polyphony” in mobile phones), and in this (non-terminological) in use, the stress is often set on the penultimate syllable - polyphony.

Typology

Polyphony is divided into types:

• subvocal polyphony, in which, together with the main melody, its echoes, that is, slightly different options (this coincides with the concept of heterophony). Typical for Russian folk song.
• Imitation polyphony, in which the main theme sounds first in one voice, and then, possibly with changes, appears in other voices (there may be several main themes). The form in which the theme is repeated without change is called canon. The pinnacle of the forms in which the melody changes from voice to voice is the fugue.
• Contrasting thematic polyphony (or polymelody), in which different melodies sound simultaneously. First appeared in the 19th century.
• Hidden polyphony- hiding thematic intonations in the texture of the work. Applies to free-style polyphony, starting with J. S. Bach's small polyphonic cycles.

Historical outline

The first surviving examples of European polyphonic music are non-parallel and melismatic organums (IX-XI centuries). In the 13th-14th centuries, polyphony manifested itself most clearly in the motet. In the 16th century, polyphony became the norm for all European music, both church (polyphonic) and secular. Polyphonic music reached its peak in the works of Handel and Bach in the 17th and 18th centuries (mainly in the form of fugues). In parallel (beginning approximately from the 17th century), the homophonic warehouse rapidly developed, in the time of the Viennese classics and in the era of romanticism, it clearly dominated the polyphonic. Another rise in interest in polyphony began in the second half of the 19th century. Imitative polyphony, oriented towards Bach and Handel, was often used by composers of the 20th century (Hindemith, Shostakovich, Stravinsky, etc.).

In the Russian language of the 19th - early 20th centuries. in a meaning similar to modern polyphony, the term "polyphonism" () was used (along with the term "polyphony"). In literary criticism of the XX century. (M. M. Bakhtin and his followers) the word "polyphonism" is used in the sense of dissonance, the simultaneous "sounding" of the author's "voice" and "voices" literary heroes(for example, talking about).

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Notes

1. The Great Russian Encyclopedia (T.26. Moscow: BRE, 2014, p. 702) fixes the only stress in this word, on “o”.
2. Musical spelling dictionary (M.: Contemporary music, 2007, p.248) shows only one stress - on "o".
3. M. V. Zarva. Russian verbal stress (2001, p. 388) fixes the single stress on "and"
4. Big dictionary of the Russian language (editor-in-chief S. A. Kuznetsov. Norint 2000. P. 902) fixes a single stress on “and”
5. Superanskaya A.V.. - Science, 1968. - S. 212. fixes the only stress on “and” with the proviso that “in the speech of the musicologist K. Adzhemov, the stress on “o” is fixed.
6. . - 1966. - S. 79.. Article author? Article title?
7. M. V. Zarva. Russian word stress (2001, p. 388)
8. Big explanatory dictionary of the Russian language (Chief editor S. A. Kuznetsov. Norint 2000. P. 902)
9. Frayonov V.P. Polyphony // Great Russian Encyclopedia. T.26. Moscow: BRE, 2014, p.702.
10. Musical spelling dictionary. M.: Modern music, 2007, p.248. ISBN 5-93138-095-0.
11. / T. V. Taktashova, N. V. Basko, E. V. Barinova. - Science, 2003. - S. 229. - ISBN 5-89349-527-6.
12. Protopopov V.V. Polyphony // Music Encyclopedia/ ed. Yu. V. Keldysh. - M .: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1978. - T. 4. - S. 344.

Literature

• Motte D. de la. Kontrapunkt. Ein Lese- und Arbeitsbuch. Kassel, Basel: Bärenreiter, 1981; 9te Aufl., 2014.
• Evdokimova Yu.K. Polyphony of the Middle Ages. X-XIV centuries M., 1983 (History of polyphony, v.1).
• Fedotov V. A. Beginning of Western European polyphony. Vladivostok, 1985.

see also

An excerpt characterizing Polyphony

“But you know, Your Excellency, the wise rule of assuming the worst,” said the Austrian general, apparently wanting to end the jokes and get down to business.
He glanced involuntarily at the adjutant.
“Excuse me, General,” Kutuzov interrupted him and also turned to Prince Andrei. - That's what, my dear, you take all the reports from our scouts from Kozlovsky. Here are two letters from Count Nostitz, here is a letter from His Highness Archduke Ferdinand, here's another,” he said, handing him some papers. - And from all this, cleanly, in French, make a memorandum, a note, for the visibility of all the news that we had about the actions of the Austrian army. Well, then, and present to his Excellency.
Prince Andrei bowed his head as a sign that he understood from the first words not only what was said, but also what Kutuzov would like to tell him. He collected the papers, and, giving a general bow, quietly walking along the carpet, went out into the waiting room.
Despite the fact that not much time has passed since Prince Andrei left Russia, he has changed a lot during this time. In the expression of his face, in his movements, in his gait, there was almost no noticeable former pretense, fatigue and laziness; he had the appearance of a man who has no time to think about the impression he makes on others, and is busy with pleasant and interesting business. His face expressed more satisfaction with himself and those around him; his smile and look were more cheerful and attractive.
Kutuzov, whom he caught up with back in Poland, received him very affectionately, promised him not to forget him, distinguished him from other adjutants, took him with him to Vienna and gave him more serious assignments. From Vienna, Kutuzov wrote to his old comrade, the father of Prince Andrei:
“Your son,” he wrote, “gives hope to be an officer who excels in his studies, firmness and diligence. I consider myself lucky to have such a subordinate at hand.”
At Kutuzov's headquarters, among his comrades, and in the army in general, Prince Andrei, as well as in St. Petersburg society, had two completely opposite reputations.
Some, a minority, recognized Prince Andrei as something special from themselves and from all other people, expected from him great success listened to him, admired him and imitated him; and with these people, Prince Andrei was simple and pleasant. Others, the majority, did not like Prince Andrei, they considered him an inflated, cold and unpleasant person. But with these people, Prince Andrei knew how to position himself in such a way that he was respected and even feared.
Coming out of Kutuzov's office into the waiting room, Prince Andrei with papers approached his comrade, adjutant on duty Kozlovsky, who was sitting by the window with a book.
- Well, what, prince? Kozlovsky asked.
- Ordered to draw up a note, why not let's go forward.
- And why?
Prince Andrew shrugged his shoulders.
- No word from Mac? Kozlovsky asked.
- Not.
- If it were true that he was defeated, then the news would come.
“Probably,” said Prince Andrei and went to the exit door; but at the same time to meet him, slamming the door, a tall, obviously newcomer, Austrian general in a frock coat, with his head tied with a black handkerchief and with the Order of Maria Theresa around his neck, quickly entered the waiting room. Prince Andrew stopped.
- General Anshef Kutuzov? - quickly said the visiting general with a sharp German accent, looking around on both sides and without stopping walking to the door of the office.
“The general is busy,” said Kozlovsky, hurriedly approaching the unknown general and blocking his way from the door. - How would you like to report?
The unknown general looked contemptuously down at the short Kozlovsky, as if surprised that he might not be known.
“The general chief is busy,” Kozlovsky repeated calmly.
The general's face frowned, his lips twitched and trembled. He took out a notebook, quickly drew something with a pencil, tore out a piece of paper, gave it away, went with quick steps to the window, threw his body on a chair and looked around at those in the room, as if asking: why are they looking at him? Then the general raised his head, stretched out his neck, as if intending to say something, but immediately, as if carelessly starting to hum to himself, made a strange sound, which was immediately stopped. The door of the office opened, and Kutuzov appeared on the threshold. The general with his head bandaged, as if running away from danger, bent over, with large, quick steps of thin legs, approached Kutuzov.
- Vous voyez le malheureux Mack, [You see the unfortunate Mack.] - he said in a broken voice.
The face of Kutuzov, who was standing in the doorway of the office, remained completely motionless for several moments. Then, like a wave, a wrinkle ran over his face, his forehead smoothed out; he bowed his head respectfully, closed his eyes, silently let Mack pass him, and closed the door behind him.
The rumor, already spread before, about the defeat of the Austrians and the surrender of the entire army at Ulm, turned out to be true. Half an hour later, adjutants were sent in different directions with orders proving that soon the Russian troops, who had been inactive until now, would have to meet with the enemy.
Prince Andrei was one of those rare officers on staff who considered his main interest in the general course of military affairs. Seeing Mack and hearing the details of his death, he realized that half of the campaign was lost, understood the whole difficulty of the position of the Russian troops and vividly imagined what awaited the army, and the role that he would have to play in it.
Involuntarily, he experienced an exciting joyful feeling at the thought of shaming presumptuous Austria and that in a week, perhaps, he would have to see and take part in a clash between Russians and French, for the first time after Suvorov.
But he was afraid of the genius of Bonaparte, who could be stronger than all the courage of the Russian troops, and at the same time he could not allow shame for his hero.
Excited and irritated by these thoughts, Prince Andrei went to his room to write to his father, to whom he wrote every day. He met in the corridor with his roommate Nesvitsky and the joker Zherkov; they, as always, laughed at something.
Why are you so gloomy? Nesvitsky asked, noticing the pale face of Prince Andrei with sparkling eyes.
“There is nothing to have fun,” answered Bolkonsky.
While Prince Andrei met with Nesvitsky and Zherkov, on the other side of the corridor Strauch, an Austrian general who was at Kutuzov's headquarters to monitor the food of the Russian army, and a member of the Hofkriegsrat, who had arrived the day before, were walking towards them. There was enough space along the wide corridor for the generals to disperse freely with three officers; but Zherkov, pushing Nesvitsky away with his hand, said in a breathless voice:
- They're coming! ... they're coming! ... step aside, the road! please way!
The generals passed with an air of desire to get rid of troubling honors. On the face of the joker Zherkov suddenly expressed a stupid smile of joy, which he seemed unable to contain.
“Your Excellency,” he said in German, moving forward and addressing the Austrian general. I have the honor to congratulate you.
He bowed his head and awkwardly, like children learning to dance, began to scrape one leg or the other.
The General, a member of the Hofkriegsrath, looked sternly at him; not noticing the seriousness of the stupid smile, he could not refuse a moment's attention. He squinted to show he was listening.
“I have the honor to congratulate you, General Mack has arrived, in perfect health, only a little hurt here,” he added, beaming with a smile and pointing to his head.
The general frowned, turned away, and walked on.
Gott, wie naive! [My God, how simple he is!] – he said angrily, moving away a few steps.
Nesvitsky embraced Prince Andrei with laughter, but Bolkonsky, turning even paler, with an evil expression on his face, pushed him away and turned to Zherkov. That nervous irritation into which the sight of Mack, the news of his defeat, and the thought of what awaited the Russian army had brought him, found its outlet in bitterness at Zherkov's inappropriate joke.

It should be clarified that polyphony is a kind of polyphony, which is based on the combination, as well as the development of several melodic lines that are completely independent. Another name for polyphony is an ensemble of melodies. In any case, this is a musical term, but polyphony in mobile phones is quite popular and constantly conquers new frontiers.

The basic concept of polyphony

Polyphony implies a certain polyphony, and the number of such voices can be completely different and range from two to infinity. But in fact, several dozen votes are the standard number, and this option is the most common.

Now we can no longer imagine a telephone that would be needed only for calls. At the moment, the mobile can fully personify its owner. Among other things, the owner will demand a lot from the same phone - the more functions, the better. That is why polyphony is now in demand. Surprisingly, mobile phones are now much “stronger” in their power than even the first computers.

The difference between polyphony and monophony

Now the possibilities of our mobile phones are almost unlimited, but before, the question of simply the need for the existence of polyphony made people think. This was due to the fact that they did not fully realize what exactly she was like.

A monophonic phone can play only one note or voice at a certain moment, but a polyphonic phone can simultaneously combine up to several dozen different notes and voices at the same time.

That is why the most successful explanation would be a comparison of polyphony and monophony. Imagine in your head the sound of the orchestra and the playing of the soloist. Feel the difference? So, polyphony is an orchestra with its bizarre interweaving of melodies from various musical instruments. It is polyphony that can create a full-fledged high-quality sound and satisfy the desires of even the most demanding music lover.

Polyphonic melodies - requirements and formats

The main requirement is to have at least one powerful speaker. And, of course, this concerns the fact that the mobile phone has enough free memory. Now the presence of such is taken for granted for us. Moreover, for better sounding of the melody, you can also use headphones, for example, vacuum ones.

Now there are many sites that can offer you to download a couple of similar pieces of music from the "polyphony melodies" section. Common file types in this case are midi, mmf, wav, and also amr.

The historical beginning of the development of polyphony

It is surprising that polyphony would not have “come” to the phone if it were not for the brilliant creations of Johann Sebastian Bach.

It was thanks to him that in the 16-17 centuries such polyphony could reach the peak of its popularity. It was this composer who created the classical definition of polyphony as a melody in which all voices are equally expressive and also important.

Types of polyphony

Later, certain special genres arose in polyphony. This applies to some polyphonic variations - the chaconne, as well as the passacaglia, inventions and pieces that used imitation techniques. Fugue is considered the pinnacle of polyphonic art.

The fugue is a polyphonic polyphonic melody, which was composed following special and rather strict laws. One of these laws says that this piece of music should be based on a bright and very well-remembered theme. Most often you can find a three-part or four-part fugue.

Musical polyphony is not just the sound of the orchestra, it is important that it plays one melodic line. At the same time, it makes absolutely no difference how many people will participate in such an orchestra.

It often happens that when several people sing the same melody, everyone wants to bring something of themselves into it and give it some shade of individuality. That is why the melody can, as it were, “stratify” and turn from monophony into polyphony. This form of it appeared a long time ago and is called heterophony.

Tape is considered another and also ancient form of polyphony. It is represented by such a piece of music in which several voices simultaneously perform the same melody, but at different frequencies - that is, one sings a little higher and the other lower.

The first phones with polyphony

The first phone with polyphony appeared in 2000, it was the famous Panasonic GD95. Then it was a grandiose breakthrough in the field of technology, and now it is normal for us if the phone has at least a few polyphonic melodies in its arsenal.

Exactly East Asia became a pioneer in this area and did not lose at all. Polyphony is something that even now does not cause much surprise, because it has conquered the whole world. After that, the GD75 appeared, which was just able to show all people that polyphony is a rather useful tool. It was this model that for a very long time was in the top of all sales.

Polyphony is an improvement that most manufacturers have been striving for. That is why in the future, there was a novelty from the Mitsubishi company, which was able to demonstrate to the whole public a new model of the Trium Eclipse mobile phone. It was he who was able to qualitatively and, most importantly, loudly reproduce three-tone melodies.

Only after that, Europe joined in such a race of innovations and France was able to tell the whole world about a mobile phone that could support playback of eight-tone polyphony. The only thing that sophisticated music lovers did not like was that it did not sound loud enough.

Polyphony is also what Motorola was striving for, but came to this quite late. She was able to introduce the T720, which supported a similar music format. But the famous Nokia company, which is still popular in our time, then chose the path of improving the characteristics of its phones, in particular, this applies to musical characteristics, by using MIDI files.

As you can see, polyphony has gone through a rather long and branched path of improvement and, no matter how strange it may sound, it first appeared in classical musical works. But the year 2000 became a new step in its development - it was then that it first appeared on a mobile phone and won the hearts of many music lovers.

Types of polyphony

There are several types of polyphony: heterophony, subvocal, imitation, polyphonic polyphony.

heterophony (from the Greek eteros - another and ponn - sound) - a type of polyphony that occurs during the joint (vocal, instrumental or mixed) performance of a melody, when deviations from the main melody occur in one or more voices. IndentVariations can be caused by natural differences in the performance capabilities of human voices and instruments, as well as the imagination of the performers. Although there are no reliable written monuments illustrating the history of the development of heterophony, traces of the heterophonic origin of folk polyphony have been preserved everywhere. Examples of heterophony.

Organum from the treatise "Musicaenchiriadis" by Huckbald

Dance song of the 13th century

Lithuanian folk song "Austausrelй, teksaulelй" ("Dawn is busy")

Heterophony is characterized by unison (octave) endings, parallel movement of voices (thirds, fourths and fifths), the predominance of synchronism in the pronunciation of words. Expressive possibilities heterophony was used by I. Stravinsky in the ballets The Rite of Spring and Petrushka.

Sub-vocal polyphony - a kind of polyphony, characteristic of Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian folk music, as well as folklore-oriented works of professional musical art. During the choral performance of songs in slow and moderate movement (lyrical drawling and wedding, slow round dance, Cossack) there is a "branch" from the main melody and independent variants of the melody are formed - undertones (eyeliner, dishkant, bitter, and others). Signs of subvocal polyphony: variable number of voices (usually 3, sometimes 5 or more), free turning on and off of voices, an abundance of crossings, the use of imitations (inaccurate), unison and octave endings, simultaneous pronunciation of syllables of the text. Examples subvocal polyphony.

Song from the collection of E. V. Gippius and Z. V. Evald "Songs of Pinezhya"

Song from the collection of A. M. Listopadov "Songs of the Don Cossacks"

The expressive possibilities of subvocal polyphony were used by Mussorgsky in Boris Godunov (prologue), Borodin in Prince Igor, S. S. Prokofiev in War and Peace (soldier choirs), M. V. Koval in the oratorio Emelyan Pugachev ( peasant choir).

AT composer's work There are two main types of polyphony - imitative and non-imitative (different-dark, contrast).Imitation polyphony (from Latin - "imitation") - carrying out the same topic alternately in different voices. Techniques of imitation polyphony are varied. For example, a fragment from G. Dufay's mass “ Avereginacaelorum"

AT multi-dark polyphony different, sometimes contrasting melodies sound simultaneously. As, for example, in the first part of Symphony No. 5 by D. D. Shostakovich

The distinction between imitative and polyphonic polyphony is conditional due to the high fluidity inherent in polyphonic music. When a melody is combined in circulation, increase, decrease, and in a sideways movement, the differences in melodies along the horizontal are intensified and bring the imitation polyphony closer to the contrast one:

Complete tasks

1. Determine the type of polyphony:

a)

lat. polyphonia, from other Greek. πολυφωνία - literally: "polyphony" from other Greek. πολυ-, πολύς - "a lot" + other Greek. φωνή - "sound"

A type of polyphony based on the same time. the sound of two or more melodies. lines or melodic. votes. “Polyphony, in its highest sense,” pointed out A. N. Serov, “should be understood as the harmonic merging together of several independent melodies, going in several voices at the same time, together. In rational speech it is unthinkable that, for example, several persons spoke together, each his own, and so that confusion, incomprehensible nonsense does not come out of this, but, on the contrary, an excellent general impression. In music, such a miracle is possible; it is one of the aesthetic specialties of our art. " The concept of "P." coincides with the broad meaning of the term counterpoint. N. Ya. Myaskovsky referred to the area of ​​contrapuntal. mastery of a combination of melodically independent voices and the combination of several at the same time. thematic elements.

Polyphony is one of the most important means of music. composition and art. expressiveness. Numerous P.'s techniques serve to diversify the content of the muses. production, implementation and development of arts. images; by means of P. it is possible to modify, compare and combine muses. Topics. P. relies on the patterns of melody, rhythm, mode, and harmony. Instrumentation, dynamics, and other components of music also influence the expressiveness of musical techniques. Depending on the definition music context may change art. the meaning of certain means polyphonic. presentation. There are different music forms and genres used to create products. polyphonic warehouse: fugue, fughetta, invention, canon, polyphonic variations, in the 14-16 centuries. - motet, madrigal, etc. Polyphonic. episodes (for example, fugato) are also found in other forms.

Polyphonic (contrapuntal) warehouse of music. prod. opposes homophonic harmonic (see Harmony, Homophony), where voices form chords and Ch. melodic line, most often in the upper voice. The core feature of polyphonic the texture that distinguishes it from the homophonic-harmonic one is fluidity, which is achieved by erasing the caesuras that separate the constructions, by the inconspicuousness of the transitions from one to another. Polyphonic voices. constructions rarely cadence at the same time, usually their cadences do not coincide, which causes a feeling of continuity of movement as a special expression. quality inherent in P. While some voices begin the presentation of a new or repetition (imitation) of the previous melody (theme), others have not yet completed the previous one:

Palestrina. Reacherkar in I tone.

At such moments, knots of complex structural plexuses are formed, combining in simultaneity the different functions of the muses. forms. Then comes the definition. rarefaction of tension, the movement is simplified up to the next node of complex plexuses, etc. In such dramatic conditions proceeds the development of polyphonic. prod., especially if they allow large art. tasks differ in depth of content.

The combination of voices along the vertical is regulated in P. by the laws of harmony inherent in the definition. era or style. “As a result, no counterpoint can exist without harmony, because any combination of simultaneous melodies at its separate points forms consonances or chords. In genesis, no harmony is possible without counterpoint, since the desire to combine several melodies at the same time precisely caused the existence of harmony” (G A. Laroche). In strict-style pavement of the 15th-16th centuries. dissonances were located between consonances and required smooth movement; dissonances were not connected by smoothness and could pass one into another, pushing the modal-melodic resolution to a later time. In modern music, with its "emancipation" of dissonance, dissonant combinations of polyphonic. votes are allowed at any length.

Types of P. are diverse and difficult to classify due to the high fluidity inherent in this kind of music. lawsuit.

In some bunks. music In cultures, the subvocal type of P. is common, which is based on ch. melodic voice, from which melodic branches off. turnovers of other voices, echoes, varying and replenishing the main. melody, at times merging with it, in particular in cadences (see heterophony).

In prof. art-ve P. developed other melodic. ratios that contribute to the expressiveness of voices and all polyphonic. whole. Here, the type of piping depends on what the horizontal terms are: if the melody (theme) is imitated in different voices, an imitation pissing is formed, if the combined melodies are different, a contrasting pissing is formed. This distinction is conditional, because when imitation in circulation, increase, decrease, and even more so in the sideways movement, the horizontal differences of the melodies intensify and bring the P. closer to the contrast:

J. S. Bach. Organ fugue in C-dur (BWV 547).

In some cases polyphonic combination, starting as an imitation, in a certain. the moment turns into a contrast and vice versa - from a contrast, a transition to an imitation is possible. Thus, an inextricable connection between the two types of P. is revealed. In its pure form, imitations. P. is presented in a single-dark canon, for example. in the 27th variation from Bach's Goldberg Variations (BWV 988):

To avoid monotony in music. The content of the canon of the proposta is built here in such a way that there is a systematic alternation of melodic-rhythmic. figures. During the risposta, they lag behind the proposta figures, and intonation appears along the vertical. contrast, although the melodies are the same horizontally.

The method of increasing and decreasing intonation. activity in the proposte of the canon, which ensures the intensity of the form as a whole, was already known in the strict-style P., as evidenced, for example, by the three-headed. canon "Benedictes" of the mass "Ad fugam" of Palestrina:

T. o., imitation. P. in the form of a canon is by no means alien to contrast, but this contrast arises vertically, while horizontally its terms are devoid of contrast due to the identity of melodies in all voices. In this, it fundamentally differs from contrasting P., which combines horizontally unequal melodic. elements.

The final one-dark canon as a form of imitation. P. in the case of a free extension of his votes goes into contrast P., which, in turn, can go into the canon:

G. Dufay. Duo from Mass "Ave regina caelorum", Gloria.

The described form connects P.'s types in time, across: one type follows another. However, the music of different eras and styles is also rich in their simultaneous combinations along the vertical: imitation is accompanied by contrast, and vice versa. Some voices unfold imitatively, others create a contrast to them or in free counterpoint;

the combination of proposta and risposta recreates here the form of an ancient organum), or, in turn, forming an imitation. construction.

In the latter case, a double (triple) imitation or canon is formed if the imitation extends for a duration. time.

D. D. Shostakovich. 5th symphony, movement I.

The interrelation of imitative and contrasting patois in double canons sometimes leads to the fact that their initial sections are perceived as one-dark imitative, and only gradually do the propostes begin to differ. This happens when the whole work is characterized by a common mood, and the difference between the two propostas is not only not emphasized, but, on the contrary, is masked.

In the Et resurrexit of the canonical mass of Palestrina, the double (two-volume) canon is veiled by the similarity of the initial sections of the proposta, as a result of which at the first moment a simple (one-volume) four-voice canon is heard and only later the difference between the propostas becomes noticeable and the form of the two-volume canon is realized:

How diverse the concept and manifestation of contrast in music is, just as diverse is the contrasting piedmont. In the simplest cases of this type of piping, the voices are completely equal in rights, which is especially true for contrapuntal. fabrics in production strict style, where polyphony has not yet developed. theme as a concentrated one-headed. basic expression. thoughts, esp. music content. With the formation of such a theme in the work of J. S. Bach, G. F. Handel and their major predecessors and followers, contrasting P. allows the primacy of the theme over its accompanying voices - counterposition (in fugue), counterpoints. At the same time, in cantatas and works. Other genres in Bach are diversely represented by contrasting verse of another kind, which is formed from the combination of a choral melody with a polygonal melody. fabric of other voices. In such cases, the differentiation of the components of the contrasting voice becomes even clearer, brought to the level of genre specificity of polyphonic voices. whole. In instr. music of later times, the delimitation of the functions of voices leads to a special kind of "P. layers", combining one-headed. melodies in octave doublings and, often, imitations with whole harmonics. complexes: the upper layer is melodic. the bearer of thematism, the middle one is harmonic. complex, lower - melodic mobile bass. "P. Plastov" is exceptionally effective in dramaturgy. relation and is not applied in a single stream for a long time, but in a certain way. production nodes, in particular in the climactic sections, being the result of growths. These are the climaxes in the first movements of Beethoven's 9th symphony and Tchaikovsky's 5th symphony:

L. Beethoven. 9th symphony, movement I.

P. I. Tchaikovsky. 5th symphony, movement II.

Dramatically tense "P. Plastov" can be contrasted with calm-epic. connection is independent. that, an example of which is the reprise of the symphony. paintings by A. P. Borodin "In Central Asia", which combines two diverse themes - Russian and Eastern - and is also the pinnacle in the development of the work.

Opera music is very rich in manifestations of contrasting P., where dec. kinds of combinations voices and complexes that characterize the images of the characters, their relationships, confrontation, conflicts and, in general, the whole situation of the action. The variety of forms of contrasting piano cannot serve as a basis for rejecting this generalizing concept, just as musicology does not reject the term, for example, "sonata form", although the interpretation and application of this form by I. Haydn and D. D. Shostakovich, L. Beethoven and P. Hindemith are very different.

In European P.'s music originated in the depths of early polyphony (organum, treble, motet, etc.), gradually taking shape in its independent form. view. The earliest information that has come down to us about domestic polyphony in Europe refers to the British Isles. On the continent, polyphony developed not so much under the influence of English, but because of internal. reasons. First of all, apparently, a primitive form of contrasting singing is formed, which is formed from counterpoint to a given choral or other genre of melody. The theorist John Cotton (late 11th - early 12th centuries), outlining the theory of polyphony (two-voice), wrote: "Diaphony is a coordinated divergence of voices performed by at least two singers so that one leads the main melody, and the other skillfully wanders around to other sounds; both of them at certain moments converge in unison or octave. This method of singing is usually called organum, because the human voice, skillfully diverging (from the main one), sounds like an instrument called organ. The word diaphony means a double voice or divergence of voices ". A form of imitation, apparently, of folk origin - "very early the people knew how to sing strictly canonically" (RI Gruber), which led to the formation of an independent. prod. using imitation. This is the double hexagon. the endless "Summer Canon" (c. 1240), written by J. Fornset, a monk from Reading (England), testifying not so much to maturity as to the prevalence of imitation (in this case, canonical) technology by the middle. 13th c. Scheme of the "Summer Canon":

The primitive form of contrasting polyphony (S. S. Skrebkov refers it to the field of heterophony) is found in an early motet of the 13th and 14th centuries, where polyphony was expressed in the combination of several. melodies (usually three) with different texts, sometimes on different languages. An anonymous motet of the 13th century can serve as an example:

Motet "Mariac assumptio - Huius chori".

The choral melody "Kyrie" is placed in the lower voice, counterpoints to it with texts in Latin are placed in the middle and upper voices. and French languages, melodically close to the chorale, but still possessing a certain eye are independent. intonation-rhythm. pattern. The form of the whole - variations - is formed on the basis of the repetition of the choral melody, acting as a cantus firmus with melodically changing upper voices. In G. de Machaux's motet "Trop plus est bele - Biauté paree - Je ne suis mie" (c. 1350), each voice has its own melody with its own. text (all in French), and the lower one, with its more even movement, also represents a repeating cantus firmus, and as a result, a polyphonic form is also formed. variations. This is typical. samples of the early motet - a genre that undoubtedly played an important role on the way to the mature form of P. The generally accepted division of the mature polyphonic. claims for strict and free styles correspond to both theoretical and historical. signs. Strict-style clothing was characteristic of the Dutch, Italian, and other schools of the 15th and 16th centuries. It was replaced by free-style P., which continues to develop to this day. In the 17th century advanced along with others. nat. school, in the works of the greatest polyphonists Bach and Handel reached in the 1st half. 18th century polyphonic vertices lawsuit. Both styles within their eras have passed the definition. evolution, closely related to common development music art-va and its inherent laws of harmony, harmony, and other musical expressions. funds. The border between the styles is the turn of the 16th-17th centuries, when, in connection with the birth of the opera, the homophonic-harmonious style clearly took shape. warehouse and two modes were established - major and minor, to which the whole of Europe began to focus. music, incl. and polyphonic.

The works of the era of strict style "amaze with the loftiness of flight, severe grandeur, some kind of azure, serene purity and transparency" (Laroche). They used preim. wok. genres, instruments were used to dub the songs. votes and extremely rarely - for independent. execution. The system of ancient diatonic frets, in which the lead-in intonations of the future major and minor gradually began to break through. The melody was distinguished by its smoothness, the jumps were usually balanced by the subsequent move in the opposite direction, the rhythm, which obeyed the laws of mensural theory (see Mensural notation), was calm and unhurried. In combinations of voices, consonances predominated, dissonance rarely appeared as independent ones. consonance, usually formed by passing and auxiliary. sounds on the weak beats of the measure or prepared retention on the strong beat. "... All parties in res facta (here - written counterpoint, as opposed to improvised) - three, four or more - all depend on each other, that is, the order and laws of consonances in any voice should be applied in relation to to all other voices," wrote theorist Johannes Tinktoris (1446-1511). Main genres: chanson (song), motet, madrigal (small forms), mass, requiem (large forms). Receptions thematic. development: repetition, most of all represented by stretta imitation and canon, counterpuncture, incl. movable counterpoint, contrast compositions of chant. votes. Distinguished by the unity of mood, polyphonic. prod. strict style were created by the method of variation, which allows: 1) variational identity, 2) variational germination, 3) variational renewal. In the first case, the identity of some polyphonic components was preserved. the whole while varying others; in the second - melodic. identity with the previous construction remained only in the initial section, but the continuation was different; in the third - there was an update thematically. material while maintaining the general character of intonations. The variation method extended to the horizontal and vertical, to small and large forms, suggested the possibility of melodic. the changes introduced with the help of circulation, the movement of the movement and its circulation, as well as the variation of the metro rhythm - increases, decreases, skipping pauses, etc. The simplest forms of variational identity are the transfer of finished contrapuntal. combinations to other heights (transposition) or the attribution of new voices to such a combination - see, for example, in "Missa prolationum" by J. de Okeghem, where melodic. the phrase to the words "Christe eleison" is sung first by alto and bass, and then repeated by soprano and tenor a second higher. In the same op. Sanctus consists of the repetition of a sixth higher by the soprano and tenor parts of what was previously entrusted to the alto and bass (A), which are now counterpointed (B) to imitating voices, but changes in duration and melodic. the figure of the initial combination does not occur:

Variational renewal in a major form was achieved in those cases when the cantus firmus changed, but came from the same source as the first (see below about the masses "Fortuna desperata" and others).

The most important representatives of the strict style P. are G. Dufay, J. Okegem, J. Obrecht, Josquin Despres, O. Lasso, and Palestrina. Remaining within the framework of this style, their production. demonstrate different attitude to the forms of music-thematic. development, imitation, contrast, harmony. fullness of sound, they also use cantus firmus in different ways. Thus, the evolution of imitation is visible, the most important of the polyphonic. means of music expressiveness. Initially, imitations were used in unison and octave, then other intervals began to be used, among which the fifth and fourth are especially important as they prepared the fugue presentation. Imitations developed thematically. material and could appear anywhere in the form, but their dramaturgy gradually began to be established. purpose: a) as a form of initial, exposition presentation; b) as a contrast to non-imitation constructions. Dufay and Okeghem almost never used the first of these techniques, while it became a constant in production. Obrecht and Josquin Despres and almost obligatory for polyphonic. forms of Lasso and Palestrina; the second one (Dufay, Okegem, Obrecht) was originally put forward when the voice leading the cantus firmus was silent, and later began to cover entire sections of the large form. Such are Agnus Dei II in Josquin Despres' mass "L" homme armé super voces musicales" (see the musical example from this mass in the article Canon) and in the masses of Palestrina, for example in the six-voice "Ave Maria". The canon in its various forms (in in its pure form or accompanied by free voices) was introduced here and in similar samples at the final stage of a large composition as a generalization factor. In such a role later, in the practice of free style, the canon almost never appeared. In the four-headed mass "Oh, Rex gloriae "Palestrina's two sections - Ve-nedictus and Agnus - are written as exact two-headed canons with free voices, creating a contrast of sincere and smooth to the more energetic sound of the previous and subsequent constructions. In a number of canonical masses of Palestrina, the opposite technique is also found: lyrical in content Crucifixus and Benedictus are based on non-imitative P., which contrasts with other (canonical) parts of the work.

Large polyphonic forms of strict style in thematic. respect can be divided into two categories: those with cantus firmus and those without it. The first ones were created more often at the early stages of the development of the style, while at the subsequent stages the cantus firmus gradually begins to disappear from creativity. practices, and large forms are created on the basis of the free development of thematic. material. At the same time, cantus firmus becomes the basis of instr. prod. 16 - 1st floor. 17th century (A. and J. Gabrieli, Frescobaldi and others) - ricercara and others and receives a new embodiment in the choral arrangements of Bach and his predecessors.

Forms, in which there is a cantus firmus, are cycles of variations, since the same theme is carried out in them several times. times in different contrapuntal environment. Such a large form usually has introductory-intermedia sections where the cantus firmus is absent, and the presentation is based either on its intonations or on neutral ones. In some cases, the ratio of the sections containing the cantus firmus with the introductory-intermediate ones obey certain numerical formulas (the masses of J. Okegem, J. Obrecht), while in others they are free. The length of the introductory-intermediate and cantus firmus constructions can vary, but it can also be constant for the entire work. The latter include, for example, the mass "Ave Maria" of Palestrina, mentioned above, where both types of constructions have 21 measures each (in conclusions, the last sound is sometimes stretched over several measures), and this is how the whole form is formed: 23 times the cantus firmus is performed and so many same introductory-intermedia constructions. P. of a strict style came to a similar form as a result of lengthy. evolution of the very principle of variation. In a number of productions cantus firmus carried out the borrowed melody in parts, and only in conclusion. section it appeared in full (Obrecht, masses "Maria zart", "Je ne demande"). The latter was a thematic technique. synthesis, very important for the unity of the whole composition. Changes, usual for P. of a strict style, made in the cantus firmus (rhythmic increase and decrease, circulation, rakhodnoe movement, etc.), concealed, but did not destroy the variation. Therefore, the variational cycles appeared in a very heterogeneous form. Such, for example, is Obrecht's "Fortuna desperate" mass cycle: the cantus firmus, taken from the middle voice of the chanson of the same name, is divided into three parts (ABC) and then the cantus is introduced from its upper voice (DE). General structure cycle: Kyrie I - A; Kyrie II - A B C; Gloria - in the AC (in A - in the crawling movement); Credo - CAB (C - in the rake movement); Sanctus - A B C D; Osanna - ABC; Agnus I - A B C (and the same in reduction); Agnus III - D E (and the same in reduction).

Variation is presented here in the form of identity, in the form of germination, and even in the form of renewal, since in Sanctus and Agnus III the cantus firmus changes. Similarly, in the mass "Fortuna desperate" by Josquin Deprez, three types of variation are used: the cantus firmus is first taken from the middle voice of the same chanson (Kyrie, Gloria), then from the upper (Credo) and from the lower voice (Sanctus), in the 5th part of the mass, the upper voice of the chanson (Agnus I) is used, and in conclusion (Agnus III) the cantus firmus returns to the first melody. If we designate each cantus firmus with a symbol, then we get the scheme: A B C B1 A. The form of the whole is therefore based on different types variation and also involves repetitiveness. The same method is used in Josquin Deprez's Mass "Malheur me bat".

Opinion on neutralization thematic. material in polyphonic. prod. strict style due to the stretching of durations in the voice leading the cantus firmus, is only partly true. In many In some cases, composers resorted to this technique only in order to gradually approach the true rhythm of everyday melody, lively and direct, from long durations, to make its sound, as it were, the culmination of the thematic. development.

Thus, for example, the cantus firmus in Dufay's mass "La mort de Saint Gothard" successively passes from long sounds to short ones:

As a result, the melody sounded, apparently, in the rhythm in which it was known in everyday life.

The same principle is used in the mass "Malheur me bat" by Obrecht. We present her cantus firmus together with the published source - three-headed. Okeghem chanson of the same name:

I. Obrecht. Mass "Malheur me bat".

J. Okegem. Chanson "Malheur me bat".

The effect of gradual discovery of the true basis of production. was extremely important in the conditions of that time: the listener suddenly recognized a familiar song. The secular lawsuit came into conflict with the requirements for the Church. music by the clergy, which caused the persecution of churchmen against the strict-style P. From a historical point of view, the most important process of releasing music from the power of religions took place. ideas.

The variational method of thematic development extended not only to a large composition, but also to its parts: cantus firmus in the form of a separate. small revolutions ostinato was repeated, and subvariation cycles were formed inside the large form, especially frequent in the production. Obrekht. For example, Kyrie II of the mass "Malheur me bat" is a variation on the short theme ut-ut-re-mi-mi-la, and Agnus III in the mass "Salve dia parens" is a variation on the short formula la-si-do-si , gradually shrinking from 24 to 3 cycles.

Single repetitions immediately following their "theme" form the gender of a two-sentence period, which is very important from the historical point of view. point of view, because prepares a homophonic form. Such periods, however, are very fluid. They are rich in products. Palestrina (see the example on column 345), they are also found in Obrecht, Josquin Despres, Lasso. Kyrie from Op. the last "Missa ad imitationem moduli "Puisque j" ai perdu"" is a period of the classical type of two sentences of 9 bars.

So inside the muses. forms of strict style, principles were brewing, to-rye in the later classic. music, not so much in polyphonic as in homophonic-harmonic, were the main ones. Polyphonic prod. sometimes they included chord episodes, which also gradually prepared the transition to homophony. The tonal relations also evolved in the same direction: the expositional sections of the forms in Palestrina, as the finalist of the strict style, clearly gravitate towards the tonic-dominant relations, then a departure towards the subdominant and a return to the main system are noticeable. In the same spirit, the sphere of large-form cadences unfolds: the middle cadences usually end authentically in the key of the 5th style, the final cadences on the tonic are often plagal.

Small forms in strict style poetry were dependent on the text: within the stanza of the text, development took place through the repetition (imitation) of the theme, while changing the text entailed updating the thematic. material, which, in turn, could be presented imitatively. Music promotion. forms occurred as the text progressed. This form is especially characteristic of the motet of the 15th-16th centuries. and received the name motet form. The madrigals of the 16th century were also constructed in this way, where a form of the reprise type occasionally appears, for example. in the Palestrina madrigal "I vaghi fiori".

The large forms of the strict-style P., where the cantus firmus is absent, develop according to the same motet type: each new phrase of the text leads to the formation new muses. themes developed by imitation. With a short text, it is repeated with new muses. themes that bring a variety of shades will express. character. The theory does not yet have other generalizations about the structure of this kind of polyphonic. forms.

The link between the strict and free style P. can be considered the work of the composers of the con. 16th-17th centuries J. P. Sweelinka, J. Frescobaldi, G. Schutz, C. Monteverdi. Sweelinck often used variational techniques of a strict style (a theme in magnification, etc.), but at the same time, he widely represented modal chromatisms, possible only in a free style; "Fiori musicali" (1635) and other organ op. The Frescobaldi contain variations on the cantus firmus in various modifications, but they also contain rudiments of fugue forms; the diatonicism of the old modes was colored by chromatisms in the themes and their development. At Monteverdi otd. production, ch. arr. ecclesiastical, bear the stamp of a strict style (the Mass "In illo tempore", etc.), while madrigals almost break with it and should be attributed to a free style. Contrasting P. in them is associated with characteristic. intonations that convey the meaning of the word (joy, sadness, sigh, flight, etc.). Such is the madrigal "Piagn" e sospira "(1603), where the initial phrase "I cry and sigh" is especially emphasized, contrasting with the rest of the story:

In instr. prod. 17th century - suites, ancient sonatas da chiesa, etc. - usually had polyphonic. parts or at least polyphonic. techniques, incl. fugue order, which prepared the formation of instr. fugues stand on their own. genre or in conjunction with the prelude (toccata, fantasy). The work of I. Ia. Froberger, G. Muffat, G. Purcell, D. Buxtehude, I. Pachelbel, and other composers was an approach to the high development of the free style in literary production. J. S. Bach and G. F. Handel. P. free style is stored in the wok. genres, but its main conquest - instr. music, by the 17th century. separated from the vocal and rapidly developing. Melodika - main. factor P. - in instr. genres was freed from the restrictive conditions of the wok. music (the range of singing voices, the convenience of intonation, etc.) and in its new form contributed to the diversity of polyphonic. combinations, the breadth of polyphony. compositions, in turn affecting the wok. P. Ancient diatonic. frets gave way to two dominant - major and minor. Dissonance, which became the strongest means of modal tension, received great freedom. Mobile counterpoint and imitation began to be used more fully. forms, among which there was an appeal (inversio, moto contraria) and an increase (augmentation), but the rakhodny movement and its appeal almost disappeared, dramatically changing the whole look and expressing the meaning of a new, individualized theme of free style. The system of variational forms based on cantus firmus, gradually faded away, replaced by a fugue that matured in the bowels of the old style. musical composition fugue is the only kind of fugue that has always been able to withstand all sorts of whims of fashion. Whole centuries could not in any way force it to change its form, and the fugues, composed a hundred years ago, are still as new as if they were composed in our days, "said F.V. Marpurg.

The type of melody in P. of the free style is completely different than in the strict style. The unrestricted soaring of melodic-linear voices is caused by the introduction of instr. genres. "... In vocal writing, melodic shaping is limited by the narrow scope of voices and their lesser mobility compared to instruments," E. Kurt pointed out. "And historical development came to true linear polyphony only with the development of instrumental style, starting from the 17th century. In addition Togo, vocal works, not only due to the smaller volume and mobility of voices, generally tend to chord roundness. Vocal writing cannot have the same independence from the chord phenomenon as instrumental polyphony, in which we find examples of the freest connection of lines. "However, the same can be attributed to the vocal works of Bach (cantatas, masses), Beethoven ("Missa solemnis" ), as well as to polyphonic works of the 20th century.

Intonationally, the thematicism of P.'s free style was to a certain extent prepared by a strict style. These are the declamations. melodic revolutions with sound repetition, starting with a weak beat and going to a strong one for a second, third, fifth, and other intervals upwards, moves to a fifth from the tonic, outlining the modal foundations (see examples) - these and similar intonations later formed in free style "core" of the theme, followed by a "deployment" based on the general forms of melodic. movements (gamma-like, etc.). The fundamental difference between the themes of the free style and the themes of the strict style lies in their design into independent, monophonic-sounding and complete constructions, concisely expressing the main content of the product, while the thematicism in the strict style was fluid, set out in stretto in conjunction with other imitating voices and only in in combination with them, its content was revealed. The contours of the strict style theme were lost in the continuous movement and the entry of voices. In the following example, intonationally similar samples of strict and free style thematics are compared - from the mass "Pange lingua" by Josquin Despres and from Bach's fugue on a theme by G. Legrenzi.

In the first case, a two-headed is deployed. canon, head turns to-rogo flow into general melodic. forms of non-cadence movement, in the second - a clearly outlined theme is shown, modulating into the key of a dominant with a cadence completion.

Thus, despite the intonation. similarity, the thematic of both samples is very different.

The special quality of Bach's polyphonic thematism (meaning primarily the themes of fugues) as the pinnacle of P. free style consists in composure, richness of potential harmony, in tonal, rhythmic, and sometimes genre specificity. In polyphonic topics, in their one-headed. projection Bach generalized modal-harmonic. forms created by his time. These are: the TSDT formula, emphasized in the themes, the breadth of sequences and tonal deviations, the introduction of the II low ("Neapolitan") degree, the use of a reduced seventh, a reduced fourth, a reduced third and fifth, formed from the conjugation of an introductory tone in a minor with other steps of the mode. Bach's thematism is characterized by melodiousness, which comes from Nar. intonations and choral melodies; at the same time, the culture of instr is also strong in it. melodics. A melodious beginning may be characteristic of instr. themes, instrumental - vocal. important connection between these factors creates a hidden melody. line in the themes - it flows more measuredly, giving the theme melodious properties. Both intonations. sources are especially clear in those cases when the melodious "core" finds development in the rapid movement of the continuing part of the theme, in the "deployment":

J. S. Bach. Fugue C-dur.

J. S. Bach. Duo a-moll.

In complex fugues, the function of the "core" is often taken over by the first theme, the function of deployment - by the second ("The Well-Tempered Clavier", vol. 1, cis-moll fugue).

Fugue is usually classified as a genus of imitations. P., which is generally true, because a bright theme and its imitation dominate. But in general theory in terms of fugue, it is a synthesis of imitation and contrast P., because already the first imitation (answer) is accompanied by a counterposition that is not identical to the theme, and when other voices enter, the contrast is further enhanced.

J. S. Bach. Organ fugue a-moll.

This provision is especially important for Bach's fugue, where the opposition often claims to be the second theme. In the general structure of the fugue, as well as in the field of thematism, Bach reflected the main trend of his time - the trend towards sonata, suitable for his classic. stage - the sonata form of the Viennese classics; a number of his fugues approach the sonata structure (Kyrie I of the Mass in h-moll).

Contrasting P. is represented in Bach not only by combinations of themes and oppositions with themes in the fugue, but also by counterpointing genre melodies: chorale and self-sustaining. accompanying voices, several. dec. melodies (eg, "Quodlibet" in the "Goldberg Variations"), finally, P.'s connection with homophonic harmonic. formations. The latter is constantly found in works that use basso continuo as an accompaniment to polyphonic. construction. Whatever form is used by Bach - an old sonata, an old two- or three-part, rondo, variations, etc. - the texture in them is most often polyphonic: imitations are constant. sections, canonical sequences, mobile counterpoint, etc., which in general characterizes Bach as a polyphonist. Historical the significance of Bach's polyphony lies in the fact that the main principles of thematism and thematic have been established in it. development, allowing to create highly artistic. samples full of philosophical depth and vital immediacy. Bach's polyphony was and remains a model for all subsequent generations.

What has been said about the thematicism and polyphony of Bach fully applies to the polyphony of Handel. Its basis, however, lay in the operatic genre, which Bach did not touch at all. Polyphonic Handel's forms are quite varied and historically significant. Of particular note is the dramaturgy. function of fugues in Handel's oratorios. Closely related to the dramaturgy of these works, the fugues are arranged strictly according to plan: in the starting Point (in the overture), in large mass scenes of generalizing content as an expression of the image of the people, in the conclusion. section of an abstractly jubilant character ("Hallelujah").

Although in the era of the Viennese classics (second half of the 18th and early 19th centuries) the center of gravity in the field of texture shifted towards homophony, still gradually occupied an important, although quantitatively smaller place than before, among them. In production J. Haydn and especially W. A. ​​Mozart often meet polyphonic. forms - fugues, canons, mobile counterpoint, etc. Mozart's texture is characterized by the activation of voices, the saturation of their intonation. independence. Formed synthetic. structures that combine sonata form with fugue, etc. Homophone forms include small polyphonic. sections (fugato, systems of imitations, canons, contrasting counterpuncture), but their chain forms a large polyphonic. a form of a dispersed character, systematically developing and in the vertex samples significantly influencing the perception of homophonic sections and the entire Op. generally. Among these peaks are the finale of the symphony "Jupiter" by Mozart (K.-V. 551), his own Fantasy in f-moll (K.-V. 608). The path to them lay through the form of the finals - Haydn's 3rd symphony, Mozart's G-dur quartet (K.-V. 387), the finals of his D-dur and Es-dur quintets (K.-V. 593, 614).

In production Beethoven's attraction to P. manifested itself very early and in his mature work led to the replacement of the sonata development by the fugue (finale of the sonata op. 101), the displacement of other forms of the finale by the fugue (sonatas op. 102 No 2, op. 106), the introduction of the fugue at the beginning of the cycle (quartet op. 131), in variation (op. 35, op. 120, finale of the 3rd symphony, Allegretto of the 7th symphony, finale of the 9th symphony, etc.) and to the complete polyphonization of the sonata form. The last of these methods was logical. a consequence of the growth of a large polyphonic. form that embraced all the constituent elements of the sonata allegro, when P. began to dominate its texture. These are the 1st parts of the sonata op. 111, 9th symphony. Fugue in Op. late period of Beethoven's work - an image of effectiveness as an antithesis to images of sorrow and reflection, but at the same time - and unity with them (sonata op. 110, etc.).

In the era of romanticism, painting received a new interpretation in the works of F. Schubert, R. Schumann, G. Berlioz, F. Liszt, and R. Wagner. Schubert gave song forms to fugue forms in vocal (masses, Miriam's Victory Song) and instrumental (f-moll fantasy, etc.) compositions; Schumann's texture is saturated with internal singing voices ("Kreisleriana" and others); Berlioz was attracted to contrasting themes. compounds ("Harold in Italy", "Romeo and Julia", etc.); in Liszt, P. is influenced by images that are opposite in nature - demonic (sonata h-moll, symphony "Faust"), mournfully tragic (symphony "Dante"), choral-peaceful ("Dance of Death"); the richness of the Wagnerian texture is in filling it with the movement of the bass and middle voices. Each of the great masters introduced into P. the features inherent in his style. P. used a lot of means and significantly expanded them in the 2nd floor. 19 - beg. 20th century I. Brahms, B. Smetana, A. Dvorak, A. Bruckner, G. Mahler, who preserved the classic. the tonal basis of the harmonica. combinations. P. was especially widely used by M. Reger, who recreated some of Bach's polyphonic. forms, eg. completion of the cycle of variations with a fugue, prelude and fugue as a genre; polyphonic completeness and variety were combined with compaction of harmonies. tissue and its chromatization. A new direction associated with dodecaphony (A. Schoenberg, A. Berg, A. Webern, etc.) breaks with the classical. tonality and for the series uses the forms used in the production. strict style (direct and sideways movements with their appeals). This similarity, however, is purely external due to the cardinal difference in thematics - a simple song melody taken from existing song genres (cantus firmus in a strict style), and an amelodic dodecaphone series. Western European music of the 20th century gave high samples of P. outside the system of dodecaphony (P. Hindemith, as well as M. Ravel, I. F. Stravinsky).

Creatures. contribution to the claim of P. was made by Russian. classics 19 - beg. 20th century Rus. prof. later Western European music entered the path of developed polyphony - its earliest form (1st half of the 17th century) was three-line, representing a combination of a melody borrowed from the Znamenny chant (the so-called "way") with voices attributed to it top and bottom ("top", "bottom"), very sophisticated in rhythmic. respect. Demestvo polyphony also belongs to the same type (the 4th voice was called "demestvo"). Three lines and demestvennoe polyphony were sharply criticized by contemporaries (I. T. Korenev) for the lack of harmonies. connection of votes and to con. 17th century exhausted themselves. Partes singing, which came from Ukraine in the beginning. 2nd floor. 17th century, was associated with the widespread use of imitation techniques. P., incl. strict presentation of topics, canons, etc. The theorist of this form was N. P. Diletsky. The partes style brought forward its own masters, the largest of which was V.P. Titov. Rus. P. in the 2nd floor. 18th century enriched classic. Western European fugue (M. S. Berezovsky - choral concert "Do not reject me in old age"). In the general system of imitation. P. in the beginning. 19th century at D.S. Bortnyansky, she received a new interpretation, arising from the songliness characteristic of his style. Classic Russian stage P. is associated with the work of M. I. Glinka. He combined the principles of folk-voice, imitation and contrast P. This was the result of the conscious aspirations of Glinka, who studied with the folk. musicians and mastered the theory of modern. him P. "The combination of western fugue with the conditions of our music" (Glinka) led to the formation of synthetic. forms (fugue in the introduction of the 1st act of "Ivan Susanin"). A further stage in the development of Russian. fugues - the subordination of her symphony. principles (fugue in the 1st suite of P. I. Tchaikovsky), monumentality of the general design (fugues in ensembles and cantatas by S. I. Taneev, piano fugues by A. K. Glazunov). Widely represented by Glinka, the contrasting P. is a combination of a song and a recitative, two songs or bright independent themes (the scene "In the hut" in the 3rd act of "Ivan Susanin", a reprise of the overture from the music to "Prince Kholmsky", etc.) - continued to develop with A. S. Dargomyzhsky; it is especially richly represented in the works of composers " mighty handful". Among the masterpieces of contrasting P. are the piano play by M. P. Mussorgsky "Two Jews - rich and poor", the symphonic picture "In Central Asia" by Borodin, the dialogue between Ivan the Terrible and Stesha in the 3rd edition of "The Maid of Pskov" by Rimsky-Korsakov , a number of treatments folk songs by A. K. Lyadov. Music saturation. fabrics with singing voices is extremely typical for production. A. N. Scriabin, S. V. Rachmaninov - from small forms of romance and FP. plays to large symphonies. canvases.

In the owls P. music and polyphonic. Forms occupy an exceptionally important place, which is associated with the general upsurge of poetry, which is characteristic of the music of the 20th century. Prod. N. Ya. Myaskovsky, S. S. Prokofiev, D. D. Shostakovich, V. Ya. Shebalin give examples of excellent possession of polyphonic. lawsuit aimed at identifying ideological arts. music content. The large polyphony inherited from the classics has found the widest application. form, in a cut polyphonic. episodes systematically lead to logical. top will express. character; the fugue form is also developed, which in Shostakovich’s work has become fundamental both in the large concepts of symphonies (4th, 11th) and chamber ensembles (quintet op. 49, quartets fis-moll, c-moll, etc.), and in solo works. for fp. (24 preludes and fugues op. 87). Thematism of Shostakovich's fugues in least stems from the folk-song source, and their form - from the couplet variation. Exclude. In the music of Prokofiev, Shostakovich, Shebalin, ostinato and the form of variations of the ostinato type associated with it have acquired importance, which also reflects the trend inherent in the entire modern. music.

P. in owls. music develops under the influence of the latest means of music. expressiveness. Her bright samples contain izv. K. Karaev (4th book of piano preludes, 3rd symphony, etc.), B. I. Tishchenko, S. M. Slonimsky, R. K. Shchedrin, A. A. Pyart, N. I. Peiko , B. A. Tchaikovsky. The polyphonic is especially distinguished. beginning in the music of Shchedrin, who continues to develop the fugue and polyphonic in general. forms and genre are independent. op. ("Basso ostinato", 24 preludes and fugues, "Polyphonic Notebook"), and as parts of larger symphonic, cantata and theatrical productions, where imitation. P. in conjunction with the contrast conveys an unusually broad picture of life phenomena.

“The use of polyphony can only be welcomed, because the possibilities of polyphony are practically unlimited,” emphasized D. D. Shostakovich. “Polyphony can convey everything: the scope of time, and the scope of thought, and the scope of dreams, creativity.”

The terms "P." and "counterpoint" refer not only to the phenomena of music, but also to the theoretical. the study of these phenomena. As an accountant the discipline of P. is included in the system of muses. education. Scientific Theoreticians of the 15th and 16th centuries were engaged in the development of questions of P.: J. Tinktoris, Glarean, and J. Carlino. The latter described in detail the P.'s techniques - contrasting counterpoint, mobile counterpoint, etc. The system of attributing counterpoints to a given voice (cantus firmus) with a gradual decrease in duration and an increase in the number of sounds (a note against a note, two, three, four notes against a note, flowery counterpoint) continued to be developed by theorists 17th-18th centuries - J. M. Bononchini and others, in the work of J. Fuchs "Gradus ad Parnassum" (1725) reached its peak (the young W. A. ​​Mozart studied the book of strict writing from this book). In the same works we also find methods for studying the fugue, the theory of which is more fully expounded by F. V. Marpurg. First time is enough complete description J. S. Bach's style was given by I. Forkel. Mozart's teacher J. Martini insisted on the need to study counterpoint using canto fermo and cited samples from the literature on P. free style. The later manuals on counterpoint, fugue and the canon by L. Cherubini, Z. Dehn, I. G. G. Bellerman, E. Prout improved the system of teaching P. strict writing and the use of other polyphonic. forms. All R. 19th century a number of German theorists opposed the study of the foundations of a strict style, adopted, in particular, in the newly discovered Russian. conservatories. In his defense, G. A. Laroche published a series of articles. Proving the need for historical music method. Education, he at the same time characterized the role of P. in the history of music, in particular P. strict style. This idea was the impetus for the theoretical development and practice of pedagogical. activities of S. I. Taneyev, summarized by him in the work "Mobile counterpoint of strict writing" (Leipzig, 1909).

The most important stage in the theory of P. was the study of E. Kurt "Fundamentals of Linear Counterpoint" (1917, Russian translation - M., 1931), which revealed not only the principles of melodic. polyphony of J. S. Bach, but also gave the prospect of studying some aspects of free style P., previously forgotten.

Scientific work of owls. theorists are devoted to polyphonic. forms, their dramaturgy. roles and history evolution. Among them are "Fugue" by V. A. Zolotarev (M., 1932), "Polyphonic Analysis" by S. S. Skrebkov (M.-L., 1940), "Polyphony as a factor of shaping" by A. N. Dmitriev (L ., 1962), "The History of Polyphony" by V. V. Protopopov (issue 1-2, M., 1962-65), a number of departments. works on polyphonic otile N. Ya. Myaskovsky, D. D. Shostakovich, P. Hindemith and others.

Literature: Musician Grammar by Nikolai Diletsky, 1681, ed. St. Petersburg, 1910 (includes I. T. Korenev's treatise "Musikia. On Divine Singing"); Rezvoy M. D., Conducting voices, in the book: Encyclopedic Lexicon, ed. A. Plushara, v. 9, St. Petersburg, 1837; Gunke O. K., Guide to composing music, part 2, On counterpoint, St. Petersburg, 1863; Serov A.N., Music, music science, musical pedagogy, "Epoch", 1864, No. 16, 12, the same, in his book: Izbr. articles, vol. 2, M., 1957; Laroche G. A., Thoughts on musical education in Russia, "Russian Bulletin", 1869, vol. 82, the same, in his book: Collection of Musical Critical Articles, vol. 1, M., 1913; his own, The Historical Method of Teaching Music Theory, "Musical Leaflet", 1872-73, No 2-5, the same, in his book: Collection of Musical Critical Articles, vol. 1, M., 1913; Taneev S. I., Movable counterpoint of strict writing, Leipzig, (1909), M., 1959; his, From the scientific and pedagogical heritage, M., 1967; Myaskovsky N. Ya., Claude Debussy, Printemps, "Music", 1914, No 195 (reprinted - Articles, letters, memoirs, vol. 2, M., 1960); Asafiev B. V. (Igor Glebov), Polyphony and the organ in modern times, L., 1926; his own, Musical Form as a Process (kn. 1-2, M., 1930-47, (kn. 1-2), L., 1971; Sokolov N. A., Imitations on cantus firmus, L., 1928; Konyus G. A., A course of counterpoint of strict writing in frets, M., 1930; Skrebkov S. S., Polyphonic analysis, M.-L., 1940; his own, Textbook of polyphony, parts 1-2, M. - L., 1951, M., 1965; his own, Artistic principles musical styles, M., 1973; Garbuzov N. A., Old Russian folk polyphony, M.-L., 1948; Gippius E. V., About Russian folk polyphony in late XVIII- the beginning of the XIX century, "Soviet ethnography", 1948, No 2; Kulanovsky L. V., About Russian folk polyphony, M.-L., 1951; Pavlyuchenko S. A., Guide to the practical study of the foundations of inventive polyphony, M., 1953; his own Practical guide according to the counterpoint of strict Letters, L., 1963; Trambitsky V.N., Polyphonic Foundations of Russian Song Harmony, in the book: Soviet Music. Theoretical and critical articles, M., 1954; Vinogradov G.S., Characteristic features of the polyphonic skill of M.I. Glinka, in: Scientific and methodological notes of the Saratov state. conservatory, c. 1, Saratov, 1957; Pustylnik I. Ya., A practical guide to writing a canon, L., 1959, revised, 1975; his own, Movable counterpoint and free writing, M., 1967; Bogatyrev S. S., Reversible counterpoint, M., 1960; Evseev S.V., Russian folk polyphony, M., 1960; his own. Russian folk songs in the processing of A. Lyadov, M., 1965; Bershadskaya T.S., The main compositional patterns of the polyphony of the Russian folk peasant song, L., 1961; Nikolskaya L. B., On the polyphony of A. K. Glazunov, in the book: Scientific and methodological notes of the Ural State. conservatory, vol. 4. Sat. articles on music education, Sverdlovsk, 1961; Dmitriev A. N., Polyphony as a factor of shaping, L., 1962; Rotopopov V.V., The history of polyphony in its most important phenomena, vol. 1-2, M., 1962-65; his, The Procedural Significance of Polyphony in the Musical Form of Beethoven, in the book: Beethoven. Collection, vol. 2, M., 1972; his, Problems of form in polyphonic works of strict style, "SM", 1977, No 3; Etinger M., Harmony and polyphony. (Notes on the polyphonic cycles of Bach, Hindemith, Shostakovich), ibid., 1962, No 12; Dubovsky I. I., Imitation processing of Russian folk songs, M., 1963; his, The Simplest Patterns of the Russian Folk-Song Two-Three-Part Warehouse, M., 1964; Gusarova O., Dialogicality in the polyphony of P.I. Tchaikovsky, in: Scientific and methodological notes of the Kipvskaya conservatorii, Kipv, 1964; Tyulin Yu. N., Art of counterpoint, M., 1964; Klova V., Polifonija. Praktinis polifonijos vadovelis, Vilnius, 1966; Zaderatsky V., Polyphony as a principle of development in sonata form by Shostakovich and Hindemith, in: Questions musical form, in. 1, M., 1966; his own, Polyphony in instrumental works by D. Shostakovich, M., 1969; Methodical note and program of the course of polyphony, comp. X. S. Kushnarev (1927), in: From the history of Soviet musical education, L., 1969; Kushnarev X. S., On polyphony. Sat. articles, M., 1971; Chebotaryan G. M., Polyphony in the work of Aram Khachaturian, Yer., 1969; Koralsky A., Polyphony in the works of composers of Uzbekistan, in: Questions of Musicology, vol. 2, Tash., 1971; Bat N., Polyphonic forms in symphonic creativity P. Hindemith, in: Questions of musical form, vol. 2, M., 1972; her, On the polyphonic properties of melody in Hindemith's symphonic works, in: Questions of Music Theory, vol. 3, M., 1975; Kunitsyna I. S., The role of imitation polyphony in the dramaturgy of the musical form of the works of S. S. Prokofiev, in: Scientific and methodological notes of the Ural state. conservatory, vol. 7, Sverdlovsk, 1972; Roiterstein M. I., Practical polyphony, M., 1972; Stepanov A. A., Chugaev A. G., Polyphony, M., 1972; Tits M., A question requiring attention (on the classification of types of polyphony), "SM", 1973, No 9; Polyphony. Sat. theoretical articles, comp. K. Yuzhak, M., 1975; Evdokimova Yu., The problem of the primary source, "SM", 1977; no 3; Kurth E., Grundlagen des linearen Kontrapunkts..., Bern, 1917, 1946

V. V. Protopopov

from the Greek poly - many, many and phone - sound, voice) - a type of musical polyphony based on the simultaneous combination of independent melodic lines (voices). P. logically opposes homophony (from the Greek homos - equal, general, melody with accompaniment) and heterophony (from the Greek heteros - another), characteristic of folk music and resulting from the simultaneous sounding of variants of one tune. In the music of the last centuries, these types of polyphony often merge, forming a mixed mode. In contrast to homophony, which flourished in modern times, suggesting the equivalence of voices, P. dominated the music of the Middle Ages (since the 9th century) and the Renaissance (choral P. of a strict style), reached its peak in the work of J. S. Bach and retains its significance in our time. Perceiving polyphonic music, the listener, as it were, is immersed in the contemplation of the entire musical fabric. In the interweaving of many voices, he discovers the beauty of the universe, unity in diversity, the contradictory fullness of the essential forces of man, the harmony of the improvisationally free structure of lines and the thoughtful orderliness of the whole. P.'s correspondence to the most profound properties of human thinking and worldview led to the use of this concept in a broad metaphorical and aesthetic sense (for example, Bakhtin's idea of ​​the polyphonic structure of the novel).

Great Definition

Incomplete definition ↓

POLYPHONY

from the Greek polys - numerous, phone - sound, voice) - the concept of musicology, meaning a type of polyphony in music, based on the harmonic equality of voices. Rethought by M. M. Bakhtin ("Problems of Dostoevsky's creativity", 1929), who gave it a broader philosophical and aesthetic meaning, characterizing not only the style of a literary novel, but also the method of cognition, the concept of the world and man, the way of relations between people, worldviews and cultures . P. is taken in close unity with other similar concepts - "dialogue", "counterpoint", "controversy", "discussion", "dispute", etc. The concept of Bakhtin's polyphonic dialogism rests, first of all, on his philosophy of man, according to which the very life of a person, his consciousness and relations with others are of a dialogic nature. At the heart of the human, according to Bakhtin, lies the interhuman, intersubjective and interindividual. Two human beings constitute the minimum of life and being. Bakhtin considers a person as a unique individuality and personality, the true life of which is accessible only to dialogical penetration into it. Concerning polyphonic novel, then its main feature is "a plurality of independent and unmerged voices and consciousnesses, a genuine polyphony of full-fledged voices", which is how it fundamentally differs from the traditional, monologue novel, in which it reigns supreme one world author's consciousness. In the polyphonic novel, completely new relations are established between the author and the characters he created: what the author used to do, the hero now does, illuminating himself from all possible sides. Here the author does not speak about the hero, but with the hero, giving him the opportunity to answer and object, waiving the monopoly right to final understanding and completion. At the same time, the author's consciousness is active, but this activity is aimed at deepening someone else's thought, at revealing all the meaning inherent in it. Bakhtin remains true to the dialogical approach when considering style, truth, and other problems. He is not satisfied with the well-known definition of style, according to which style is a person. According to the concept of dialogism, at least two people are needed to understand the style. Since the world of a polyphonic novel is not a single one, but represents a multitude of worlds of equal consciousnesses, this novel is multi-styled or even styleless, because in it a folk ditty can be combined with Schiller's dithyramb. Following Dostoevsky, Bakhtin opposes truth in the theoretical sense, truth-formula, truth-position taken outside living life. For him, truth is existential, it is endowed with a personal and individual dimension. He does not reject the concept of a single truth, but he believes that the need for a single and unified consciousness does not at all follow from it, it fully allows for a plurality of consciousnesses and points of view. At the same time, Bakhtin does not take the position of relativism, when everyone is his own judge and everyone is right, which is tantamount to saying that no one is right. A single truth, or "truth in itself", exists, it is a horizon towards which the participants in the dialogue are moving, and none of them can claim to be complete, complete, and even more so absolute truth. The dispute does not give birth, but brings closer to a single truth. Even consent, Bakhtin notes, retains its dialogic character, never leads to the merging of voices and truths into a single impersonal truth. In his concept of humanitarian knowledge as a whole, Bakhtin also proceeds from the principle of P. He believes that the methods of cognition of the humanities are not so much analysis and explanation as interpretation and understanding, which take the form of a dialogue of individuals. When studying a text, a researcher or critic should always see its author, perceiving the latter as a subject and entering into dialogic relations with him. Bakhtin extends the principle of P. and dialogue to relations between cultures. Arguing with supporters of cultural relativism, who see contacts of cultures as a threat to the preservation of their identity, he emphasizes that during a dialogic meeting of cultures "they do not merge and mix, each retains its unity and open integrity, but they are mutually enriched." The concept of P. Bakhtin has become a significant contribution to the development of modern. methodology of humanitarian knowledge, had a great influence on the development of the entire complex of the humanities.