Chukchi customs and traditions briefly. How modern Chukchi live

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northernmost region Far East- Chukotka Autonomous Okrug. On its territory there are several indigenous peoples who came there millennia ago. Most of all in Chukotka there are Chukchi themselves - about 15 thousand. FROM long time ago they roamed all over the peninsula, herded deer, hunted whales and lived in yarangas.
Now many reindeer herders and hunters have turned into housing and communal services workers, and yarangas and kayaks have been replaced with ordinary houses with heating.
Cucumbers for 600 rubles per kilogram and a dozen eggs for 200 are modern consumer realities in remote areas of Chukotka. Fur production is closed, because it did not fit into capitalism, and the extraction of venison, although it is still going on, is subsidized by the state - reindeer meat cannot compete even with expensive beef, which is brought from the "mainland". Similar story- with the repair of housing stock: construction companies it is unprofitable to take on repair contracts, since the lion's share of the estimate is the cost of transporting materials and workers off-road. Youth leaving the villages and serious health problems are Soviet system collapsed, and a new one was not really created.

The ancestors of the Chukchi appeared in the tundra before our era. Presumably, they came from the territory of Kamchatka and the current Magadan region, then moved through the Chukotka Peninsula towards the Bering Strait and stopped there.

Faced with the Eskimos, the Chukchi adopted their sea animal hunting, subsequently driving them out of the Chukchi Peninsula. At the turn of the millennium, the Chukchi learned reindeer husbandry from the nomads of the Tungus group - Evens and Yukaghirs.

“Now it is not easier to get into the camps of the reindeer herders of Chukotka than in the time of Tan Bogoraz (a famous Russian ethnographer who described the life of the Chukchi at the beginning of the 20th century).
You can fly to Anadyr, and then to the national villages by plane. But then from the village to get to a specific reindeer herding brigade in right time very difficult,” explains Puya. Reindeer herders' camps are constantly moving, and long distances. There are no roads to get to their places of parking: they have to move on caterpillar all-terrain vehicles or snowmobiles, sometimes on reindeer and dog teams. In addition, reindeer herders strictly observe the dates of migrations, the time of their rituals and holidays.

Vladimir Puya

Hereditary reindeer breeder Puya insists that reindeer herding is “ business card» region and indigenous people. But now the Chukchi basically do not live the way they used to: crafts and traditions are fading into the background, and they are being replaced by the typical life of remote regions of Russia.
“Our culture suffered a lot in the 1970s when the authorities felt it was expensive to run high schools with full staff in every village,” says Puya. – Boarding schools were built in regional centers. They were classified not as urban institutions, but as rural ones - in rural schools, salaries are twice as high. I myself studied at such a school, the quality of education was very high. But children were torn away from life in the tundra and seaside: we returned home only for summer vacation. And so they lost the complex, cultural development. There was no national education in boarding schools, even the Chukchi language was not always taught. Apparently, the authorities decided that the Chukchi are Soviet people, and we don’t need to know our culture.”

The life of reindeer herders

The geography of the Chukchi at first depended on the movement of wild deer. People wintered in the south of Chukotka, and in the summer they left the heat and midges to the north, to the shores of the Arctic Ocean. The people of reindeer herders lived generic system. They settled on lakes and rivers. The Chukchi lived in yarangas. The winter yaranga, which was sewn from reindeer skins, was stretched over a wooden frame. Snow from under it was cleaned to the ground. The floor was covered with branches, on which skins were laid in two layers. An iron stove with a chimney was installed in the corner. They slept in yarangas in animal skins.

But Soviet authority, who came to Chukotka in the 30s of the last century, was dissatisfied with the "uncontrolled" movement of people. Indigenous people were told where to build a new - semi-stationary - dwelling. This was done for the convenience of transporting goods by sea. The same was done with the camps. At the same time, new jobs arose for the indigenous people, and hospitals, schools, and houses of culture appeared in the settlements. The Chukchi were taught writing. And the reindeer herders themselves lived almost better than all other Chukchi - until the 80s of the XX century.

Now residents of Konergino send letters by post, buy in two stores (Nord and Katyusha), call “to the mainland” from the only landline phone in the entire village, sometimes go to the local culture club, and use the outpatient clinic. However, the houses in the village are in disrepair and overhaul are not subject. “Firstly, we are not given much money, and secondly, due to the complex transport scheme, it is difficult to deliver materials to the village,” Alexander Mylnikov, the head of the settlement, said several years ago. According to him, if earlier the housing stock in Konergino was repaired by public utilities, now they have neither building materials nor work force. “It is expensive to deliver building materials to the village, the contractor spends about half of the allocated funds on transportation costs. The builders refuse, it is unprofitable for them to work with us,” he complained.

About 330 people live in Konergino. Of these, about 70 children: most go to school. Fifty local residents work in the housing and communal services, and 20 educators, teachers, nannies and cleaners work at the school, along with the kindergarten. Young people do not stay in Konergino: school graduates go to study and work in other places. The depressive state of the village is illustrated by the situation with the traditional crafts that the Konergins were famous for.

“We no longer have sea hunting. According to capitalist rules, it is not profitable,” says Puya. - The fur farms closed, and the fur trade was quickly forgotten. In the 1990s, fur production in Konergino collapsed.” Only reindeer herding remained: in Soviet time and until the middle of the 2000s, while Roman Abramovich remained as governor of the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, it was successful here.

There are 51 reindeer herders in Konergino, 34 of them in teams in the tundra. According to Puyi, the incomes of reindeer herders are extremely low. “This is a loss-making industry, there is not enough money for salaries. The state covers the lack of funds so that the salary is higher than the subsistence minimum, which is 13,000 in our country. The reindeer farm, in which the workers are, pays them about 12.5 thousand. The state pays up to 20,000 extra so that the reindeer herders do not starve to death,” Puya complains.

When asked why it is impossible to pay more, Puya replies that the cost of venison production in different farms varies from 500 to 700 rubles per kilogram. And wholesale prices for beef and pork, which are imported "from the mainland", start at 200 rubles. The Chukchi cannot sell meat for 800-900 rubles and are forced to set the price at the level of 300 rubles - at a loss. “There is no point in the capitalist development of this industry,” says Puya. “But this is the last thing left in the national villages.”

Eugene Kaipanau, 36-year-old Chukchi, was born in Lorino in the family of the most respected whaler. "Lorino" (in Chukchi - "Lauren") is translated from Chukchi as "found encampment". The settlement stands on the shore of the Mechigmen Bay of the Bering Sea. A few hundred kilometers away are the American islands of Krusenstern and St. Lawrence; Alaska is also very close. But planes fly to Anadyr once every two weeks - and then only if the weather is good. Lorino is covered from the north by hills, so there are more calm days here than in neighboring villages. True, despite the relatively good weather, in the 90s, almost all Russian residents left Lorino, and since then only Chukchi live there - about 1,500 people.

Houses in Lorino - rickety wooden buildings with peeling walls and faded paint. In the center of the village there are several cottages built by Turkish workers - thermally insulated buildings with cold water, which is considered a privilege in Lorino (if you run ordinary pipes through cold water, it will freeze in winter). Hot water throughout the settlement there is, because the local boiler house is open all year round. But there are no hospitals and clinics here - for several years now people have been sent for medical care by air ambulance or on all-terrain vehicles.

Lorino is known for its sea animal hunting. It is not for nothing that in 2008 the documentary film "Whaler" was filmed here, which received the TEFI prize. Hunting for a sea animal is still an important occupation for local residents. Whalers not only feed their families or earn money by donating meat to the local community of hunters, they also honor the traditions of their ancestors.

From childhood, Kaipanau knew how to slaughter walruses, fish and whales, and walk in the tundra. But after school, he went to Anadyr to study first as an artist, and then as a choreographer. Until 2005, while living in Lorino, he often went on tour to Anadyr or Moscow to perform with national ensembles. Due to constant traveling, climate change and flights, Kaipanau decided to finally move to Moscow. There he married, his daughters are nine months old. “I strive to instill my creativity and culture in my wife,” says Evgeny. “Although a lot of things seemed wild to her before, especially when she found out in what conditions my people live. I instill traditions and customs in my daughter, for example, I show national clothes. I want her to know that she is a hereditary Chukchi.”

Evgeny now rarely appears in Chukotka: he tours and represents the culture of the Chukchi around the world together with his ensemble "Nomad". In the eponymous ethnopark "Nomad" near Moscow, where Kaipanau works, he conducts thematic tours and shows documentaries about Chukotka, including Vladimir Puyi.

But life far from his homeland does not prevent him from knowing about many things happening in Lorino: his mother stayed there, she works in the city administration. So, he is sure that young people are drawn to those traditions that are lost in other regions of the country. “Culture, language, hunting skill. Young people in Chukotka, including young people from our village, are learning to hunt whales. We have people living this all the time,” says Kaipanau.

In the summer season, the Chukchi hunted whales and walruses, in the winter - seals. They hunted with harpoons, knives and spears. Whales and walruses were caught all together, and seals - one by one. The Chukchi fished with nets of whale and deer tendons or leather belts, nets and bits. In winter - in the hole, in summer - from the shore or from kayaks. In addition, up to early XIX For centuries, with the help of a bow, spears and traps, they hunted bears and wolves, sheep and elks, wolverines, foxes and arctic foxes. Waterfowl were killed with a throwing weapon (bola) and darts with a throwing board. From the second half of the 19th century, guns began to be used, and then firearms for whaling.

Products that are imported from the mainland cost a lot of money in the village. “They bring “golden” eggs for 200 rubles. I generally keep quiet about grapes,” adds Kaipanau. Prices reflect the sad socio-economic situation in Lorino. There are few places in the settlement where you can show professionalism and university skills. “But the situation of the people is, in principle, normal,” the interlocutor immediately clarifies. “After the arrival of Abramovich (from 2001 to 2008), things got much better: more jobs appeared, houses were rebuilt, medical and obstetric stations were established.” Kaipanau recalls how whalers he knew “came, took motor boats from the governor for free for fishing and left.” “Now they live and enjoy,” he says. The federal authorities, he said, also help the Chukchi, but not very actively.

Kaipanau has a dream. He wants to create educational ethnic centers in Chukotka, where indigenous peoples could re-learn their culture: build kayaks and yarangas, embroider, sing, and dance.
“In the ethnopark, many visitors consider the Chukchi an uneducated and backward people; think they don't wash and keep saying "however". They even sometimes tell me that I am not a real Chukchi. But we are real people.”

Every morning, Natalia, a 45-year-old resident of the village of Sireniki (who asked not to be named), wakes up at 8 am to go to work at a local school. She is a watchman and a technical worker.
Sireniki, where Natalya has been living for 28 years, is located in the Providensky urban district of Chukotka, on the coast of the Bering Sea. The first Eskimo settlement appeared here about three thousand years ago, and the remains of the dwellings of ancient people are still found in the vicinity of the village. In the 60s of the last century, the Chukchi joined the indigenous people. Therefore, the village has two names: from the Ekimos it is translated as "Valley of the Sun", and from the Chukchi - "Rocky Area".
Sireniki are surrounded by hills, and it is difficult to get here, especially in winter - only by snowmobile or helicopter. From spring to autumn, ships come here. From above, the village looks like a box of colorful candies: green, blue and red cottages, administration building, post office, kindergarten and dispensary. There used to be a lot of dilapidated wooden houses in Sireniki, but a lot has changed, says Natalya, with the arrival of Abramovich. “My husband and I used to live in a house with stove heating, we had to wash the dishes outside. Then Valera fell ill with tuberculosis, and his attending physician helped us to get a new cottage due to illness. Now we have a renovation.”

Clothes and food

Chukchi men wore kukhlyankas made of double reindeer skin and the same trousers. They pulled a bag made of kamus with sealskin soles over siskins - stockings made of dog skins. A double fawn hat was bordered in front with long-haired wolverine fur, which did not freeze from human breath in any frost, and fur mittens were worn on rawhide straps that were drawn into the sleeves. The shepherd was as if in a spacesuit. Clothing on women fit the body, below the knees it was tied, forming something like pants. They put it on over the head. Over the top, women wore a wide fur shirt with a hood, which they wore on special occasions like holidays or migrations.

The shepherd always had to protect the livestock of deer, so the livestock breeders and families ate in the summer as vegetarians, and if they ate the deer, then completely, right down to the horns and hooves. They preferred boiled meat, but they often ate it raw: the shepherds in the herd simply did not have time to cook. The settled Chukchi ate the meat of walruses, which were previously killed in huge quantities.

How do people live in Sireniki?

According to Natalia, it's normal. There are currently about 30 unemployed people in the village. In summer they gather mushrooms and berries, and in winter they catch fish, which they sell or exchange for other products. Natalya's husband receives a pension of 15,700 rubles, while living wage here it’s 15,000. “I myself work without part-time jobs, this month I’ll get about 30,000. We undoubtedly live an average life, but somehow I don’t feel that wages are rising,” the woman complains, recalling the 600 cucumbers brought to Sireniki rubles per kilogram.

Dome

Natalya's sister works on a rotational basis at the Dome. This gold deposit, one of the largest in the Far East, is located 450 km from Anadyr. Since 2011, 100% of Kupol's shares have been owned by the Canadian company Kinross Gold (ours is not up to such trifles).
“My sister used to work there as a maid, and now she gives out masks to miners who go down into the mines. They have a gym and a billiard room there! They pay in rubles (the average salary at Kupol is 50,000 rubles - DV), they transfer it to a bank card, ”says Natalya.

The woman knows a little about production, salaries and investments in the region, but often repeats: "The 'Dome' helps us." The fact is that the Canadian company that owns the deposit, back in 2009, created the Fund social development, he allocates money for socially significant projects. At least a third of the budget goes to support indigenous small peoples autonomous region. For example, Kupol helped publish a dictionary of the Chukchi language, opened courses in indigenous languages, and built a school for 65 children and a kindergarten for 32 in Sireniki.

“My Valera also received a grant,” says Natalya. - Two years ago, Kupol allocated 1.5 million rubles to him for a huge 20-ton freezer. After all, the whalers will get the beast, there is a lot of meat - it will go bad. And now this camera saves. With the rest of the money, my husband and his colleagues bought tools for building kayaks.”

Natalya, a Chukchi and a hereditary reindeer herder, believes that the national culture is now being revived. He says that every Tuesday and Friday at the local village club rehearsals of the Northern Lights ensemble are held; courses of Chukchi and other languages are being opened (albeit in the district center - Anadyr); competitions are held like the Governor's Cup or a regatta in the Barents Sea. “And this year our ensemble is invited to a grand event - international festival! Five people will fly dance program. It will all be in Alaska, she will pay for the flight and accommodation, ”the woman says. She admits that the Russian state also supports the national culture, but she mentions the "Dome" much more often. Natalya does not know of a domestic fund that would finance the peoples of Chukotka.

Another key issue is healthcare. In Chukotka, as in others northern regions, says Nina Veysalova, representative of the Association of Indigenous Peoples of the North, Siberia and the Far East (AMNSS and Far East of the Russian Federation), respiratory diseases are very common. But, according to available information, TB dispensaries are closing in national settlements. Lots of cancer patients. The previously existing health care system ensured the identification, observation and treatment of sick people from among small peoples, which was enshrined in law. Unfortunately, today this scheme does not work. The authorities do not answer the question about the closure of TB dispensaries, but only report that in each district and locality Chukotka has preserved hospitals, outpatient clinics and feldsher-obstetric stations.

AT Russian society there is a stereotype: the Chukchi people drank themselves after they came to the territory of Chukotka " a white man- that is, from the beginning of the last century. The Chukchi have never drunk alcohol, their body does not produce an enzyme that breaks down alcohol - and because of this, the effect of alcohol on their health is more detrimental than that of other peoples. But according to Yevgeny Kaipanau, the level of the problem is greatly overestimated. “With alcohol [among the Chukchi], everything is the same as everywhere else. But they drink less than anywhere else,” he says. At the same time, says Kaipanau, the Chukchi really did not have an enzyme that breaks down alcohol in the past. “Now, although the enzyme has been developed, the people still don’t drink like the legends say,” sums up the Chukchi.

The opinion of Kaipanau is supported by Irina Samorodskaya, Doctor of Medical Sciences of the State Scientific Research Center for Criticism, one of the authors of the report “Mortality and proportion of deaths in economically active age from causes related to alcohol (drugs), myocardial infarction and coronary artery disease from all deaths aged 15-72 years” for 2013. According to Rosstat, the document says that the most high level mortality from alcohol-related causes is indeed in the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug - 268 people per 100 thousand. But these data, emphasizes Samorodskaya, refer to the entire population of the district. "Yes, indigenous people those territories are Chukchi, but not only they live there,” she explains. In addition, according to Samorodskaya, Chukotka is higher in all indicators of mortality than other regions - and this is not only alcohol mortality, but also other external causes. “It’s impossible to say that it was the Chukchi who died from alcohol right now, this is how the system works. First, if people don't want their deceased relative's death certificate to show an alcohol-related cause of death, it won't be shown. Second, the vast majority of deaths occur at home. And there, death certificates are often filled out by a district doctor or even a paramedic, which is why other reasons may be indicated in the documents - it’s easier to write that way ”

Finally, another serious problem in the region, according to Veysalova, is the relationship industrial companies with the indigenous people. “People come as conquerors, disturbing the peace and tranquility of the locals. I think that there should be a regulation on the interaction of companies and nations,” she says.

Language and religion

The Chukchi living in the tundra called themselves "chavchu" (reindeer). Those who lived on the shore - "ankalyn" (pomor). There is a common self-name of the people - "luoravetlan" ( real man), but it did not stick. About 11,000 people spoke Chukchi 50 years ago. Now their number is decreasing every year. The reason is simple: in Soviet times, writing and schools appeared, but at the same time, a policy of destroying everything national was pursued. Separation from their parents and life in boarding schools forced Chukchi children to know their native language less and less.

The Chukchi have long believed that the world is divided into upper, middle and lower. At the same time, the upper world (“cloudy land”) is inhabited by the “upper people” (in Chukchi - gyrgorramkyn), or the “people of the dawn” (tnargy-ramkyn), and the supreme deity among the Chukchi does not play a serious role. The Chukchi believed that their soul was immortal, believed in reincarnation, and shamanism was widespread among them. Both men and women could be shamans, but the shamans of the “transformed sex” were considered especially strong among the Chukchi - men who acted as housewives, and women who adopted the clothes, activities and habits of men.

All conclusions will be drawn by time and the Chukchi themselves.

We are all accustomed to consider the representatives of this people as naive and peaceful inhabitants of the Far North. Say, throughout their history, the Chukchi grazed herds of deer in permafrost, hunted walruses, and as an entertainment they beat tambourines in unison. The anecdotal image of a simpleton who says the word “however” all the time is so far from reality that it is really shocking. Meanwhile, in the history of the Chukchi there are many unexpected turns, and their way of life and customs still cause controversy among ethnographers. How are the representatives of this people so different from other inhabitants of the tundra?

Call themselves real people

The Chukchi are the only people whose mythology frankly justifies nationalism. The fact is that their ethnonym came from the word "chauchu", which in the language of the natives of the north means the owner a large number deer (rich man). This word was heard from them by the Russian colonialists. But this is not the self-name of the people.

"Luoravetlans" - this is how the Chukchi call themselves, which translates as "real people." They always treated neighboring peoples with arrogance, and considered themselves special chosen ones of the gods. Evenks, Yakuts, Koryaks, Eskimos in their myths were called by the Luoravetlans those whom the gods created for slave labor.

According to the 2010 All-Russian Population Census, the total number of Chukchi is only 15,908 people. And although this people was never numerous, skillful and formidable warriors under difficult conditions managed to conquer vast territories from the Indigirka River in the west to the Bering Sea in the east. Their land area is comparable to the territory of Kazakhstan.

Paint their faces with blood

Chukchi are divided into two groups. Some are engaged in reindeer herding (nomadic pastoralists), others hunt sea animals, for the most part they hunt walruses, since they live on the shores of the Arctic Ocean. But these are the main activities. Reindeer herders are also engaged in fishing, they hunt Arctic foxes and other fur-bearing animals of the tundra.

After a successful hunt, the Chukchi paint their faces with the blood of a killed animal, while depicting the sign of their ancestral totem. Then these people make a ritual sacrifice to the spirits.

Fought with the Eskimos

The Chukchi have always been skilled warriors. Imagine how much courage it takes to go out into the ocean on a boat and attack walruses? However, not only animals became victims of representatives of this people. They often made predatory campaigns against the Eskimos, moving to the neighboring North America across the Bering Strait in their boats made of timber and walrus skins.

From military campaigns, skilled warriors brought not only loot, but also slaves, giving preference to young women.

It is interesting that in 1947 the Chukchi once again decided to go to war against the Eskimos, then only miraculously managed to avoid international conflict between the USSR and the USA, because the representatives of both peoples were officially citizens of the two superpowers.

They robbed the Koryaks

The Chukchi in their history managed to pretty much annoy not only the Eskimos. So, they often attacked the Koryaks, taking away their deer. It is known that from 1725 to 1773 the invaders appropriated about 240 thousand (!) Heads of foreign cattle. Actually, the Chukchi took up reindeer herding after they robbed their neighbors, many of whom had to hunt for their livelihood.

Creeping up to the Koryak settlement at night, the invaders pierced their yarangas with spears, trying to immediately kill all the owners of the herd until they woke up.

Tattoos in honor of the killed enemies

The Chukchi covered their bodies with tattoos dedicated to the killed enemies. After the victory, the warrior applied to the back of the wrist right hand as many points as opponents he sent to the next world. On account of some experienced fighters, there were so many defeated enemies that the dots merged into a line running from the wrist to the elbow.

They preferred death to captivity

Chukchi women always carried knives with them. They needed sharp blades not only in everyday life, but also in case of suicide. Since captive people automatically became slaves, the Chukchi preferred death to such a life. Having learned about the victory of the enemy (for example, the Koryaks who came to take revenge), the mothers first killed their children, and then themselves. As a rule, they threw themselves at the chest on knives or spears.

The defeated warriors lying on the battlefield begged their opponents for death. Moreover, they did it in an indifferent tone. The only wish was - not to linger.

Won the war with Russia

The Chukchi are the only people of the Far North who fought with the Russian Empire and won. The first colonizers of those places were the Cossacks, led by Ataman Semyon Dezhnev. In 1652 they built the Anadyr prison. Behind them, other adventurers went to the lands of the Arctic. The militant northerners did not want to peacefully coexist with the Russians, and even more so - to pay taxes to the imperial treasury.

The war began in 1727 and lasted for over 30 years. Heavy fighting in difficult conditions, partisan sabotage, cunning ambushes, as well as mass suicides of Chukchi women and children - all this made the Russian troops falter. In 1763, the army units of the empire were forced to leave the Anadyr prison.

Soon ships of the British and French appeared off the coast of Chukotka. There was a real danger that these lands would be seized by long-standing opponents, having managed to negotiate with the local population without a fight. Empress Catherine II decided to act more diplomatically. She provided the Chukchi with tax breaks, and literally showered their rulers with gold. The Russian inhabitants of the Kolyma Territory were ordered "... so that they do not irritate the Chukchee in any way, under fear, otherwise, of liability in a military court."

Such a peaceful approach turned out to be much more effective than a military operation. In 1778, the Chukchi, appeased by the authorities of the empire, accepted Russian citizenship.

Poisoned arrows

The Chukchi were excellent with their bows. They lubricated arrowheads with poison, even a slight wound doomed the victim to a slow, painful and inevitable death.

Tambourines were covered with human skin

The Chukchi fought to the sound of tambourines, covered not with deer (as is customary), but with human skin. Such music terrified enemies. Russian soldiers and officers who fought with the natives of the north spoke about this. The colonialists explained their defeat in the war by the special cruelty of the representatives of this people.

Warriors could fly

Chukchi during hand-to-hand fights flew over the battlefield, landing behind enemy lines. How did they make jumps of 20-40 meters and then be able to fight? Scientists still do not know the answer to this question. Probably, skilled warriors used special devices like trampolines. This technique often allowed to win, because the opponents did not understand how to resist it.

Owned slaves

The Chukchi owned slaves until the 40s of the twentieth century. Women and men from poor families were often sold for debt. They did dirty and hard work, like the captured Eskimos, Koryaks, Evenks, Yakuts.

Swapped wives

The Chukchi entered into so-called group marriages. They included several ordinary monogamous families. Men could exchange wives. This form of social relations was an additional guarantee of survival in the harsh conditions of permafrost. If one of the participants in such an alliance died on a hunt, then there was someone to take care of his widow and children.

People of comedians

The Chukchi could live, find shelter and food if they had the ability to make people laugh. Folk comedians moved from camp to camp, amusing everyone with their jokes. They were respected and highly valued for their talent.

Invented diapers

The Chukchi were the first to invent the prototype of modern diapers. They used a layer of moss with reindeer hair as an absorbent material. The newborn was dressed in a kind of overalls, changing a makeshift diaper several times a day. Life in the harsh north forced people to be inventive.

Changed gender at the behest of the spirits

Chukchi shamans could change gender at the direction of the spirits. The man began to wear women's clothes and behave accordingly, sometimes he literally got married. But the shaman, on the contrary, adopted the behavior of the stronger sex. Such a reincarnation, according to the beliefs of the Chukchi, spirits sometimes demanded from their servants.

Old people died voluntarily

Chukchi old people, not wanting to be a burden on their children, often agreed to voluntary death. The well-known writer and ethnographer Vladimir Bogoraz (1865-1936), in his book “Chukchi”, noted that the reason for the emergence of such a custom was not at all a bad attitude towards the elderly, but difficult living conditions and lack of food.

Often, seriously ill Chukchi chose voluntary death. As a rule, such people were killed by strangulation by their next of kin.

The manuscript of K. G. Merck, dedicated to the Chukchi, was acquired in 1887 by the Imperial Public Library and is still kept in its manuscript department. These notes about the campaign through the Chukotka Peninsula (from St. Lawrence Bay to the Nizhne-Kolyma prison) are a description of the region and the ethnography of the peoples inhabiting it.

The manuscript of K. G. Merck, dedicated to the Chukchi, was acquired in 1887 by the Imperial public library and is still kept in its manuscript department. These notes about the campaign through the Chukotka Peninsula (from St. Lawrence Bay to the Nizhne-Kolyma prison) are a description of the region and the ethnography of the peoples inhabiting it.

We bring to your attention only selected excerpts from the researcher's manuscript.

The Chukchi are divided into deer and settled. All summer long, until the very autumn, reindeer live in several families together, near the settled camps, and their herds are driven to pastures closer to the sea coast at a distance of several days' journey from their temporary settlements. […] Those of the reindeer Chukchi who settle near the settled ones eat all summer only the meat of sea animals, thereby saving their herds. The Chukchi store meat and fat (blubber) of marine animals for the winter, as well as their skins, whalebone and other things that they need. […] Although the reindeer Chukchi give deer meat to the sedentary for the supplies received from them, which they slaughter especially for them, however, this, in fact, is not an exchange, but rather some kind of compensation at their discretion. […]

In language, the settled Chukchi also differ from the deer. The language of the latter is close to Koryak and only slightly differs from it. The settled Chukchi, although they understand the Koryak language, have their own language, divided into four dialects and completely different from Koryak. […]

As for God, they believe that a deity lives in the sky, which used to be on earth, to the latter they make sacrifices so that it keeps earthly devils from harming people. But they also make sacrifices for the same purpose to the devils themselves. However, their religious concepts are very incoherent. One can rather fall into error by asking the Chukchi about this than by observing their life with one's own eyes. However, it can be argued that they fear devils more than they trust any higher being. […]

As for sacrifices, the reindeer Chukchi sacrifice deer, and the sedentary Chukchi sacrifice dogs. When stabbed, they take a handful of blood from the wound and throw it towards the sun. Often I met such sacrificial dogs on the seashore, lying with their heads to the water, with the skin left only on the head and legs. This is a gift of the settled Chukchi to the sea for the sake of its appeasement and getting a happy voyage. […]

Their shamans shaman by night, sitting in their reindeer yurts in the dark and without much clothing. These activities must be regarded as a winter pastime during leisure hours, which, by the way, some women indulge in. However, not everyone knows how to shaman, but only some of the reindeer Chukchi and a few more of the settled ones. In this art, they are distinguished by the fact that during their actions they know how to answer or force others to answer in a changed or someone else's muffled voice, by which they deceive those present, portraying as if the devils answered their questions with their own lips. In illness or other circumstances, when they are addressed, shamans can direct the imaginary predictions of the spirits in such a way that the latter always demand one of the best deer of the herd as a sacrifice, which becomes their property with skin and meat. The head of such a deer is put on display. It happens that some of the shamans run in a circle in a trance, hitting a tambourine, and then, to show their skill, they cut their tongue or allow themselves to be stabbed in the body, not sparing their blood. […] Among the settled Chukchi, I met with the fact, according to them not so rare, that a male shaman, completely dressed in women's clothes, lived with a man as a good housewife.

Their dwellings are called yarangas. When the Chukchi stay longer in one place in summer and winter, the yarangas have a larger volume and correspond to the number of canopies that fit in them, which depends on the number of relatives living together. During migrations, the Chukchi divide the yaranga into several smaller parts to make it easier to install. […] For their warm canopies, the Chukchi use six or eight, and the wealthy up to 15 deer skins. The canopies are an uneven quadrilateral. To enter, lift the front part and crawl into the canopy. Inside you can kneel or bend over, why they only sit or lie in it. […] It cannot be denied that even in simple canopies, in the most extreme cold, one can sit naked, warming himself from the heat of a lamp and from the fumes of people. […]

In contrast to the yarangas of the reindeer Chukchi, the yarangas of the settled Chukchi are covered with walrus skins. The warm curtains of the settled Chukchi are bad, and there are always insects in them, since the Chukchi cannot often renew the curtains, and sometimes they are forced to use already abandoned ones.

Chukchi men wear short hair. They wet them with urine and cut them with a knife, both in order to get rid of the lice and so that the hair does not interfere with the fight.

As for the clothes of men, they fit snugly to the body and are warm. The Chukchi renew it for the most part by winter. […] The Chukchi usually wear trousers made of seal skins, less often of processed deer skin, with under trousers, mostly from the skins of young deer. They also wear trousers sewn from pieces of skin from wolf paws, on which even claws remain. Chukchi short stockings are made of seal skins and the Chukchi wear them with the wool inside until it's cold. In winter, they wear long-haired kamus stockings. In summer they wear short boots made of seal skins with hair inside, and against dampness - from deer skins. In winter, they mostly wear short boots made of skins. […] As insoles in boots, the Chukchi use dry soft grass, as well as shavings from a whalebone; Without such insoles, boots do not give any warmth. The Chukchi wear two fur kukhlyankas, the lower one remains with them for the whole winter. […] The head of the Chukchi is often left uncovered all summer, autumn and spring, if the weather permits. If they want to cover their heads, they wear a bandage that goes down to the forehead with a fringe of wolf fur. The Chukchi also protect their heads with Malachai. […] over the malachai they put on, especially in winter, a hood that lies rounded over the shoulders. However, they are worn by younger and wealthier men to give themselves a more beautiful look. […] Some Chukchi also wear on their heads, instead of malachai, a skin torn from the head of a wolf with a muzzle, ears and eye sockets.

In rainy weather and damp fog that they have most summer, the Chukchi wear raincoats with hoods over their clothes. These raincoats are quadrangular pieces of thin skin from the intestines of whales sewn across and look like a pleated bag. […] In winter, the Chukchi are forced to knock out their clothes every evening with a mallet carved from horns before entering the yurt in order to clear it of snow. They carry the beater with them in the sled. In their tight-fitting and well-covering clothes, the Chukchi are not afraid of any cold, although due to the severe frosts they have, especially with the wind, they freeze their faces. […]

The occupations of men among the reindeer Chukchi are very limited: to watch their herd, protect animals night and day, drive the herd behind the train during migrations, separate draft deer, catch the last ones from the circle, harness deer, drive deer into corals, smoke tobacco, make a weak fire , to choose comfortable spot for transfers. […]

One-year-old reindeer, which the Chukchi destined for a team, they castrate in various rather primitive ways. When suckers are slaughtered in autumn, females have a little milk for another three to four days. Chukchi milk was brought to us in a tied intestine. They milk the females by sucking, since they do not know any other method of milking, and this method reduces the taste of milk. […]

The Chukchi also teach their riding deer to urine, like the Koryaks. Deer are very fond of this drink, they allow themselves to be lured by it and by this they are taught to recognize their master by voice. They say that if you moderately water the deer with urine, then they become more resilient during migrations and get less tired, which is why the Chukchi carry a large basin made of leather with them to urinate into it. In summer, deer do not drink urine, as they do not have a desire for it. In winter, however, the deer are so eager to drink urine that they must be restrained from consuming it in large quantities at a time when women pour out or put out vessels of urine early in the morning from their yarangas. I saw two deer that had drunk too much urine in such intoxication that one of them looked like a dead one, .. and the second, which was very swollen and could not stand on its feet, was first dragged by the Chukchi to the fire so that the smoke unclenched its nostrils, then they tied it straps, buried up to his head in the snow, scratched his nose until it bled, but since all this did not help at all, they stabbed him.

Among the Chukchi, herds of deer are not as numerous as among the Koryaks. […] The Koryaks are also better at hunting wild deer and elk. As for arrows and bows, the Chukchi always have them with them, but they do not possess the dexterity of hitting, since they almost never practice this, but are content with how it comes out. […]

The occupations of the settled Chukchi are mainly hunting for marine animals. At the end of September, the Chukchi go hunting for walruses. They kill so many of them that even polar bears are not able to devour them all during the winter. […] On the walruses, the Chukchi go together by several people, run at them with a cry, throw a harpoon with the help of a thrower, while others pull a belt five fathoms long attached to the harpoon. If a wounded animal manages to go under water, the Chukchi overtake him and finish him in the chest with iron spears. […] If the Chukchi slaughter an animal on the water, or if a wounded animal rushes into the water and dies there, then they take only its meat, and the skeleton remains for the most part with fangs and sinks into the water. Meanwhile, it would be possible to pull out a skeleton with fangs and exchange it for tobacco, if the Chukchi did not spare labor for this. […]

They hunt bears with spears and claim that polar bears hunted on the water are easier to kill than brown ones, which are much more agile. […]

About their military campaigns. The Chukchi direct their raids mainly against the Koryaks, with whom they still cannot forget the enmity, and in former times they opposed the Yukaghirs, who with their help were almost destroyed. Their goal is to rob deer. Attacks on enemy yarangas always begin at dawn. Some rush at the yarangas with lassoes and try to destroy them, pulling out the racks, others at this time pierce the canopy of the yaranga with spears, and still others, quickly driving up to the herd on their light sleds, divide it into parts and steal it. […] For the same purpose, that is, robbery, settled Chukchi move to America on their canoes, attack camps, kill men and take women and children as prisoners; as a result of the attack on the Americans, they also receive part of the furs that they exchange with the Russians. Thanks to the sale american women Due to the reindeer Chukchi and other trade transactions, the settled Chukchi turn into reindeer and can sometimes roam with the reindeer, although they are never respected by the latter.

There are also Koryaks and individual Yukaghirs among the Chukchi as workers. The Chukchi marry them to their poor women; and the settled also often take captive American women as wives. […]

The woman's hair is braided on the sides in two braids, which they mostly tie at the ends at the back. As for their tattoos, women tattoo with iron, partly triangular needles. Elongated pieces of iron are pierced above the lamp and given the shape of a needle, lowering the point into the moss from the lamps boiled and mixed with fat, then into graphite rubbed with urine. Graphite, with which the Chukchi rub the threads from the veins when tattooing, they find in abundance in pieces and on the river near their camp Puukhta. Tattooed with a needle with a dyed thread, as a result of which blackness remains under the skin. Slightly swollen place smeared with fat.

Even before the age of ten, they tattoo girls first in two lines - along the forehead and along the nose, then a tattoo follows on the chin, then on the cheeks, and when the girls get married (or about 17 years old), they tattoo the outside of the forearm to the neck with various linear figures. Less commonly, they indicate a tattoo in women on the shoulder blades or on the pubis. […]

Women's clothing fits the body, falls below the knees, where it is tied, forming, as it were, pants. They put it on over the head. Her sleeves do not taper, but remain free. They, like the neckline, are trimmed with dog fur. This garment is worn double. […] over the mentioned clothes, the Chukchi wear a wide fur shirt with a hood, reaching to the knees. They put it on on holidays, when visiting, and also during migrations. They put it on with the wool on the inside, and the more prosperous also wear the second one with the wool on the outside. […]

Women's occupations: taking care of food supplies, processing skins, sewing clothes.

Their food is from deer, which they slaughter in late autumn, while these animals are still fat. The Chukchi keep deer meat in pieces in reserve. While they live in one place, they smoke meat over the smoke in their yarangas, eat meat and ice cream, breaking it into small pieces on a stone with a stone hammer. […] Marrow fresh and frozen, fat and tongue they consider the most delicious. The Chukchi also use the contents of the stomach of a deer and its blood. […] Of the vegetation, the Chukchi use willows, of which there are two types here. […] In willows of both species, they rip off the bark of the roots, less often the bark of the trunks. They eat the bark with blood, whale oil, and wild meat. Boiled willow leaves are kept in sealsacks and eaten with bacon in winter. […] To dig up various roots, women use a walrus tusk hoe or a piece of deer antlers. Chukchi are also collected sea kale, which is eaten boiled with sour fat, blood and stomach contents of deer.

Marriage among the Chukchi. If the wooer has received the consent of the parents, then he sleeps with his daughter in the same canopy; if he manages to take possession of her, then the marriage is concluded. If the girl does not have a disposition towards him, then she invites several of her girlfriends to her for this night, who fight with the guest with female weapons - arms and legs.

Koryachka sometimes makes her boyfriend suffer for a long time. The groom has been trying in vain for several years to achieve his goal, although he remains in the yaranga, carries firewood, guards the flock and does not refuse any work, and others, in order to test the groom, tease him, even beat him, which he patiently endures until the moment feminine weakness does not reward him.

Sometimes the Chukchi allow sexual relations between children who grow up with parents or relatives for further marriage.

The Chukchi do not seem to take more than four wives, more often two or three, while the less prosperous are satisfied with one. If the wife dies, the husband takes her sister. younger brothers marry the widows of the elders, but to take the widow of the younger to the elder is contrary to their customs. The barren wife of the Chukchi is soon expelled without any claims from her relatives, and you often meet young women who have already been punished in this way. fourth husband. […]

During childbirth, Chukchi women do not have any help, and, they say, often die during this. During menstruation, women are considered unclean; men refrain from communicating with them, believing that this results in back pain.

Wife Exchange. If the husbands conspire in this way to seal their friendship, then they ask the consent of the wives, who do not refuse their request. When both sides have agreed in this way, the men sleep without asking, interspersed with other people's wives, if they live close to each other, or when they come to visit each other. The Chukchi exchange their wives for the most part with one or two, but there are examples when they receive such a relationship simultaneously with ten, since their wives, apparently, do not consider such an exchange undesirable. But women, especially among the reindeer Chukchi, are less likely to be prone to treason. They usually do not tolerate other people's jokes about this, take everything seriously and spit in the face or give free rein to their hands.

The Koryaks do not know of such an exchange of wives; they are jealous and betrayal of her husband was once punished by death, now - only by exile.

The children of the Chukchi, with this custom, obey other people's fathers. As for the mutual drinking of urine during the exchange of wives, this is a fiction, the reason for which could be the washing of the face and hands with urine. During the meager autumn migrations, such a guest often came to our hostess, and her husband then went to the wife of the latter or slept in another canopy. Both of them showed little ceremony, and if they wanted to satisfy their passions, they would escort us out of the canopy.

The settled Chukchi also exchange wives among themselves, but the deer do not exchange wives with the settled, and the deer do not marry the daughters of the settled, considering them unworthy of themselves. The wives of the deer would never agree to an exchange with the settled. However, this does not prevent the Reindeer Chukchi from sleeping with the wives of the settled, which their own wives do not look askance at, but the Reindeer Chukchi do not allow the settled to do the same. The settled Chukchi also provide their wives to strangers, but this is not proof of their friendship for them and not out of a desire to receive offspring from strangers. This is done out of self-interest: the husband gets a pack of tobacco, the wife gets a string of beads around her neck, a few strings of beads on her hand, and if they want to be luxurious, they also get earrings, and then the deal is made. […]

If Chukchi men feel the approach of death, they often order themselves to be stabbed to death - the duty of a friend; both brothers and sons are not upset by his death, but rather rejoice that he has found in himself enough courage not to expect a woman's death, as they say, but managed to escape from the torment of the devils.

The corpse of the Chukchi is dressed in clothes made of white or spotted deer fur. 24 hours the corpse remains in the yaranga, and before it is taken out of there, they try several times the head, raising it until they find it light; and while the head is heavy, it seems to them that the deceased has forgotten something on the ground and does not want to leave it, which is why they put some food, needles and the like in front of the deceased. They take out the corpse not through the door, but next to it, raising the edge of the yaranga. When the deceased is carried out, one goes and pours the remaining fat from the lamp, which burned for 24 hours near the corpse, onto the road, as well as paint from alder bark.

For burning, the corpse is taken several miles from the yaranga to a hill, before burning it is opened in such a way that the insides fall out. This is done to facilitate combustion.

In memory of the deceased, they surround the place where the corpse was burned, in the form of an oval with stones, which should resemble the figure of a person, a larger stone is placed at the head and at the feet, of which the upper one lies to the south and should represent the head. […] The reindeer, on which the deceased was taken, is immediately slaughtered on the spot, their meat is eaten, the head stone is smeared from below with bone marrow or fat, and the antlers are left in the same heap. Every year the Chukchi remember their dead; if the Chukchi are standing nearby at this time, then they slaughter deer at this place, and if they are far away, from five to ten sleds of relatives and friends annually go to this place, make fire, throw bone marrow into the fire, and say: "Eat this" , help themselves, smoke tobacco and put peeled horns on a pile.

Chukchi mourn for their dead children. In our yaranga, a girl died shortly before our arrival; her mother mourned her every morning before the yaranga, and the howling replaced the singing. […]

To add something more about these natives, let us say that the Chukchi are more often of medium height, but it is not so rare to find Chukchi whose height reaches six feet; they are slender, strong, hardy and live to a ripe old age. The settled in this respect are not much inferior to the deer. The harsh climate, the severe frosts to which they are constantly exposed, their partly raw, partly lightly cooked food, which they almost always have in abundance, and physical exercises, which they do not shy away from for almost an evening, as long as the weather permits, their few occupations give them the advantage of strength, health, and endurance. Among them you will not find a fat belly, like the Yakuts. […]

These men are brave when opposed by the masses, less afraid of death than cowardice. […] In general, the Chukchi are free, they exchange, not thinking about politeness; if they don't like something or what is offered in exchange seems too insignificant, then they easily spit on it. In theft, they have achieved great dexterity, especially settled ones. Being forced to live among them is a real school of patience. […]

The Chukchi seem amiable and helpful and demand in return everything they see and want; they do not know what is called disgusting; they send their need in their canopies, and what is most unpleasant about this is that they also force strangers, often even with a push, to pour urine into a cup; they crush lice with their teeth in a race with their wives - men from trousers, and women from hair.

A little more about the Chukchi beauties. Reindeer Chukchi women are chaste by habit; women of the sedentary represent them in this the complete opposite, but nature has provided the latter with more beautiful features. Both those and others are not very shy, although they do not understand this. In conclusion, another addition about the Koryaks. These natives are unattractive, small, and even on their faces their secret machinations are displayed; they forget every gift immediately upon receipt - they insult with death, like the Chukchi, and in general this seems more characteristic of Asia. One must always conform to their mood, so as not to make them enemies; you will not get anything from them by orders and cruelty; if they are sometimes punished with beatings, then you will not hear from them either cries or requests. Reindeer Koryaks are counting the blow worse than death; taking their own life is like going to bed for them. […] These natives are cowardly; they not only left to the mercy of fate the Cossacks of local prisons who got into trouble when the latter were more than once forced to act because of the Koryaks against the Chukchi, but even in those cases when the Cossacks had to flee with them, the Koryaks chopped off their fingers, so that the Cossacks could not hold on to the sledges. According to written evidence, in general, the Koryaks killed many more Cossacks sleeping than the Chukchi during the day with their arrows and spears.

However, is it not the reason for their behavior that the Cossacks of these remote regions consider them more as slaves created for them than as subjects under the scepter of the greatest monarchy, and treat them accordingly. Thoughtful bosses would have to prevent this if they did not think it easier to satisfy their own interests.

Their women apparently never comb their hair. The soiledness of their clothes should, as it were, serve as a guarantee of their chastity for jealous husbands, although their face, which can rarely lay claim to even a shadow of charm, never smiles when looking at a stranger.

K. G. Merck translated from German by Z. Titova

Even in ancient times, Russians, Yakuts and Evens called reindeer herders Chukchi. The name itself speaks for itself "chauchu" - rich in deer. Deer people call themselves that. And dog breeders are referred to as ankalyns.

This nationality was formed as a result of a mixture of Asian and American types. This is even confirmed by the fact that the Chukchi dog breeders and the Chukchi reindeer breeders have a different attitude to life and culture, various legends and myths speak about this.

Until now, the exact linguistic identity of the Chukchi language has not been determined, there are hypotheses that it is rooted in the language of the Koryaks and Itelmens, and the ancient Asian languages.

Culture and life of the Chukchi people

The Chukchi are accustomed to living in camps, which are removed and updated as soon as the reindeer food is over. In summer they descend closer to the sea. The constant need for resettlement does not prevent them from erecting sufficiently large dwellings. The Chukchi erect a large polygonal tent, which is covered with deer skins. In order for this structure to withstand strong gusts of wind, people support the entire hut with stones. At the back wall of this tent, a small structure is installed in which people eat, rest and sleep. In order not to get tired in their room, they undress almost naked before going to bed.

National Chukchi clothes are comfortable and warm attire. Men wear a double fur shirt, double fur trousers, also fur stockings and boots of identical material. The men's hat is somewhat reminiscent of a women's bonnet. Women's clothing also consists of two layers, only the pants and the upper part are sewn together. And in the summer, the Chukchi dress in lighter clothes - overalls made of deer suede and other bright fabrics. Beautiful ritual embroidery is often found on these dresses. Small children, newborns are dressed in a bag made of deer skins, in which there are slits for arms and legs.

The main and daily food of the Chukchi is meat, both cooked and raw. In its raw form, brains, kidneys, liver, eyes and tendons can be consumed. Quite often you can meet families where roots, stems and leaves are happy to eat. It is worth noting the special love of the Chukchi people for alcohol and tobacco.

Traditions and customs of the Chukchi people

The Chukchi are a people who keep the traditions of their ancestors. And it doesn't matter what group - reindeer breeders or dog breeders - they belong to.

One of the national Chukchi holidays is the Baydara holiday. Since ancient times, the kayak has been a means of obtaining meat. And in order for the waters to accept the Chukchi canoe for the next year, the Chukchi arranged a certain ceremony. The boats were removed from the jaws of the whale, on which she had lain all winter. Then they went to the sea and brought him a sacrifice in the form of boiled meat. After that, the canoe was placed near the dwelling and the whole family walked around it. The next day, the procedure was repeated and only after that the boat was lowered into the water.

Another Chukchi holiday is the Whale Festival. This holiday was held in order to apologize to the killed marine animals and make amends with Karetkun - the owner marine life. People changed into smart clothes, waterproof clothes made from walrus intestines and apologized to walruses, whales and seals. They sang songs that it was not the hunters who killed them, but the stones that fell from the rocks. After that, the Chukchi made a sacrifice to the master of the seas, lowering the skeleton of a whale into the depths of the sea. People believed that in this way they would resurrect all the animals they had killed.

Of course, one cannot fail to mention the deer festival, which was called Kilvey. He settled in the spring. It all started with the fact that deer were driven to human dwellings, yarangas, and at that time women kindled a fire. Moreover, the fire had to be produced, as well as many centuries ago - by friction. The Chukchi met the deer with enthusiastic cries, songs and shots in order to drive away evil spirits from them. And during the celebration, men slaughtered several adult deer to replenish food supplies intended for children, women and the elderly.

The manuscript of K. G. Merck, dedicated to the Chukchi, was acquired in 1887 by the Imperial Public Library and is still kept in its manuscript department. These notes about the campaign through the Chukotka Peninsula (from St. Lawrence Bay to the Nizhne-Kolyma prison) are a description of the region and the ethnography of the peoples inhabiting it.

The manuscript of K. G. Merck, dedicated to the Chukchi, was acquired in 1887 by the Imperial Public Library and is still kept in its manuscript department. These notes about the campaign through the Chukotka Peninsula (from St. Lawrence Bay to the Nizhne-Kolyma prison) are a description of the region and the ethnography of the peoples inhabiting it.

We bring to your attention only selected excerpts from the researcher's manuscript.

Chukchi men wear short hair. They wet them with urine and cut them with a knife, both in order to get rid of the lice and so that the hair does not interfere with the fight.

In rainy weather and damp fog, which they experience most of the summer, the Chukchi wear raincoats with hoods over their clothes. These raincoats are quadrangular pieces of thin skin from the intestines of whales sewn across and look like a pleated bag. […] In winter, the Chukchi are forced to knock out their clothes every evening with a mallet carved from horns before entering the yurt in order to clear it of snow. They carry the beater with them in the sled. In their tight-fitting and well-covering clothes, the Chukchi are not afraid of any cold, although due to the severe frosts they have, especially with the wind, they freeze their faces. […]

They hunt bears with spears and claim that polar bears hunted on the water are easier to kill than brown ones, which are much more agile. […]

About their military campaigns. The Chukchi direct their raids mainly against the Koryaks, with whom they still cannot forget the enmity, and in former times they opposed the Yukaghirs, who with their help were almost destroyed. Their goal is to rob deer. Attacks on enemy yarangas always begin at dawn. Some rush at the yarangas with lassoes and try to destroy them, pulling out the racks, others at this time pierce the canopy of the yaranga with spears, and still others, quickly driving up to the herd on their light sleds, divide it into parts and steal it. […] For the same purpose, that is, robbery, settled Chukchi move to America on their canoes, attack camps, kill men and take women and children as prisoners; as a result of the attack on the Americans, they also receive part of the furs that they exchange with the Russians. Through the sale of American women to the Reindeer Chukchi and other trade deals, the settled Chukchi become Reindeer and may sometimes roam with the Reindeer, although they are never respected by the Reindeer.

There are also Koryaks and individual Yukaghirs among the Chukchi as workers. The Chukchi marry them to their poor women; and the settled also often take captive American women as wives. […]

Women's occupations: taking care of food supplies, processing skins, sewing clothes.

Their food is from deer, which they slaughter in late autumn, while these animals are still fat. The Chukchi keep deer meat in pieces in reserve. While they live in one place, they smoke meat over the smoke in their yarangas, eat meat and ice cream, breaking it into small pieces on a stone with a stone hammer. […] Marrow fresh and frozen, fat and tongue they consider the most delicious. The Chukchi also use the contents of the stomach of a deer and its blood. […] Of the vegetation, the Chukchi use willows, of which there are two types here. […] In willows of both species, they rip off the bark of the roots, less often the bark of the trunks. They eat the bark with blood, whale oil, and wild meat. Boiled willow leaves are kept in sealsacks and eaten with bacon in winter. […] To dig up various roots, women use a walrus tusk hoe or a piece of deer antlers. The Chukchi also collect seaweed, which is eaten boiled with sour fat, blood and stomach contents of deer.

Sometimes the Chukchi allow sexual relations between children who grow up with parents or relatives for further marriage.

The Chukchi do not seem to take more than four wives, more often two or three, while the less prosperous are satisfied with one. If the wife dies, the husband takes her sister. Younger brothers marry the widows of older brothers, but it is contrary to their customs to take the widow of the younger brother to the elder. The barren wife of the Chukchi is soon expelled without any claims from her relatives, and you often meet women who are still young, who in this way already got the fourth husband. […]

The Koryaks do not know of such an exchange of wives; they are jealous and betrayal of her husband was once punished by death, now - only by exile.

For burning, the corpse is taken several miles from the yaranga to a hill, before burning it is opened in such a way that the insides fall out. This is done to facilitate combustion.

Chukchi mourn for their dead children. In our yaranga, a girl died shortly before our arrival; her mother mourned her every morning before the yaranga, and the howling replaced the singing. […]

To add something more about these natives, let us say that the Chukchi are more often of medium height, but it is not so rare to find Chukchi whose height reaches six feet; they are slender, strong, hardy and live to a ripe old age. The settled in this respect are not much inferior to the deer. The harsh climate, the severe frosts to which they are constantly subjected, their partly raw, partly lightly cooked food, which they almost always have in abundance, and physical exercise, from which they do not shy away from almost an evening, as long as the weather permits, their few occupations give them the advantage of strength, health and stamina. Among them you will not find a fat belly, like the Yakuts. […]

A little more about the Chukchi beauties. Reindeer Chukchi women are chaste by habit; women of the sedentary represent them in this the complete opposite, but nature has provided the latter with more beautiful features. Both those and others are not very shy, although they do not understand this. In conclusion, another addition about the Koryaks. These natives are unattractive, small, and even on their faces their secret machinations are displayed; they forget every gift immediately upon receipt - they insult with death, like the Chukchi, and in general this seems more characteristic of Asia. One must always conform to their mood, so as not to make them enemies; you will not get anything from them by orders and cruelty; if they are sometimes punished with beatings, then you will not hear from them either cries or requests. Reindeer Koryaks consider a blow worse than death; taking their own life is like going to bed for them. […] These natives are cowardly; they not only left to the mercy of fate the Cossacks of local prisons who got into trouble when the latter were more than once forced to act because of the Koryaks against the Chukchi, but even in those cases when the Cossacks had to flee with them, the Koryaks chopped off their fingers, so that the Cossacks could not hold on to the sledges. According to written evidence, in general, the Koryaks killed many more Cossacks sleeping than the Chukchi during the day with their arrows and spears.

Their women apparently never comb their hair. The soiledness of their clothes should seem to serve as a guarantee of their chastity for jealous husbands, although their face, which can rarely claim even a shadow of charm, never smiles when looking at a stranger.

K. G. Merck translated from German by Z. Titova

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Geography of beef cattle breeding (cattle, pigs, sheep), poultry farming

Animal husbandry is a branch of agriculture that specializes in breeding domestic animals. The main purpose of the industry is...

Analysis of the market share of an enterprise is an effective tool for a successful business What share in sales is considered the norm

Market share of a company How to calculate a company's market share in practice? This question is often asked by beginner marketers. However,...

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First mode (wave) The first wave (1785-1835) formed a technological mode based on new technologies in textile...

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§one. General data Recall: sentences are divided into two-part, the grammatical basis of which consists of two main members - ...

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The Great Soviet Encyclopedia gives the following definition of the concept of a dialect (from the Greek diblektos - conversation, dialect, dialect) - this is ...

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