Part I. Questions of poetics

ACT, or ACTION- a relatively completed part of a literary dramatic work or its theatrical performance. The division of a performance into A. was first carried out in the Roman theater. The tragedies of ancient authors, classicists, and romantics were usually constructed in 5 A. In the realistic drama of the 19th century, along with the five-act play, four- and three-act plays appeared (A.N. Ostrovsky, A.P. Chekhov). A one-act play is typical for vaudeville. In modern dramaturgy, there are plays with different numbers of A.

ALLEGORY- an allegorical expression of an abstract concept, judgment or idea through a specific image.

For example, hard work is in the image of an ant, carelessness is in the image of a dragonfly in I.A. Krylov’s fable “The Dragonfly and the Ant.”

A. is unambiguous, i.e. expresses a strictly defined concept (compare with the polysemy of a symbol). Many proverbs, sayings, fables, and fairy tales are allegorical.

ALLITERATION- repetition of consonant sounds in the same or similar combination in order to enhance the expressiveness of artistic speech.

Howsl hello dreml It's a dark gardenh el new,

Embraced by the bliss of the nightl atb Ouch,

Through mebl they have flowersb el ennaya.

Howsl the moon is shining like hellh Ol wow!...

(F.I. Tyutchev)

In the above example, A. (sl - ml - zl - forehead - bl - bl - sl - zl) helps to convey pleasure in the beauty of a blooming garden.

AMPHIBRACHIUS- in syllabic-tonic verse - a poetic meter, the rhythm of which is based on the repetition of a three-syllable foot with stress on the second syllable:

Once upon a time in the cold winter time

I came out of the forest; it was bitterly cold.

(N.A. Nekrasov. “Frost, Red Nose”)

ANAPAEST- in syllabic-tonic verse - a poetic meter, the rhythm of which is based on the repetition of a three-syllable foot with stress on the third syllable:

Name me such an abode,

I've never seen such an angle

Where would your sower and guardian be?

Where would a Russian man not moan?

(N.A. Nekrasov. “Reflections at the Main Entrance”)

ANAPHORA, or UNITY- stylistic figure; repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginning of adjacent lines or stanzas (in verse), at the beginning of adjacent phrases or paragraphs (in prose).

I swear I am the first day of creation.

I swear his last day

I swear the shame of crime

And eternal truth triumph.

(M.Yu. Lermontov. “Demon”)

By analogy with lexical a., they sometimes talk about phonic a. (repetition of the same sounds at the beginning of words), about compositional a. (repetition of the same plot motifs at the beginning of episodes).

ANTITHESIS- in a work of art there is a sharp contrast of concepts, images, situations, etc.:

You are rich, I am very poor;

You are a prose writer, I am a poet;

You are blushing like poppies,

I am like death, skinny and pale.

(A.S. Pushkin. “You and Me”)

A. can be the basis of the composition of the entire work. For example, in L.N. Tolstoy’s story “After the Ball,” the scenes of the ball and the execution are contrasted.

ANTONYMS- words with opposite meanings. A. are used to emphasize the difference between phenomena. A.S. Pushkin characterizes Lensky and Onegin as follows:

They got along. Wave and stone

Poetry and prose, ice and fire

Not so different from each other.

("Eugene Onegin")

A. are also used to convey the internal complexity, inconsistency of a phenomenon or feeling:

All this would be funny

If only it weren't so sad.

(M.Yu. Lermontov. “A.O. Smirnova”)

ARCHAISM- a word that is outdated in its lexical meaning or grammatical form. A. are used to convey the historical flavor of the era, as well as for the artistic expressiveness of the speech of the author and hero: they, as a rule, give it solemnity. For example, A.S. Pushkin, speaking about the tasks of the poet and poetry, achieves sublime pathos with the help of A.:

Rise up , prophet, andsee , Andtake heed ,

Be fulfilled by my will,

And, bypassing the seas and lands,

Verb burn people's hearts.

("Prophet")

Sometimes A. are introduced into a work for a humorous or satirical purpose. For example, A.S. Pushkin in the poem “Gavriliad” creates a satirical image of St. Gabriel, combining A. (“bowed down,” “rose up,” “river”) with lowered words and expressions (“grabbed him in the temple,” “hit him straight.” in the teeth").

ASSONANCE- repetition of the same or similar vowel sounds in order to enhance the expressiveness of artistic speech. The basis of arithmetic is made up of stressed vowels; unstressed vowels can only serve as peculiar sound echoes.

"On this moonlit night

We love to see our work!”

In this phrase, the insistent repetition of sounds OU creates the impression of groaning, crying of people tortured by hard work.

ARCHETYPE- in modern literary criticism: a prototype, a model of the world and human relations, as if unconsciously “dormant” in the collective memory of humanity, going back to its common primitive ideas (e.g. old age - wisdom; motherhood - protection). A. manifests itself in individual motifs or in the plot of the work as a whole. The images and motifs of the folklore of the peoples of the world are archetypal. Conscious or unconscious transformed (altered) archetypicality is inherent in the work of individual writers. Its opening during analysis enhances the perception of the artistic image in all its innovative originality, acutely perceptible as if “against the background” of its eternal (archetypal) essence. For example, the motif of the transformation of a person by an evil force into some other creature (inherent in various folklore systems) in literature emphasizes the tragedy and fragility of human destiny (F. Kafka, “The Metamorphosis”).

APHORISM- a deep generalizing thought, expressed with extreme brevity in a polished form:

The habit was given to us from above.

She is a substitute for happiness.

A. differs from a proverb in that it belongs to some author.

BLANK VERSE- syllabic-tonic unrhymed verse. B.S. especially common in poetic dramaturgy (usually iambic pentameter), because convenient for conveying conversational intonations:

Everyone says: there is no truth on earth.

But there is no higher truth. For me

So it's clear, like a simple scale.

(A.S. Pushkin. “Mozart and Salieri”)

In the lyrics of B.S. occurs, but less frequently. See: “Again I visited...” by A.S. Pushkin, “Can I hear your voice...” by M.Yu. Lermontov.

ASYNDETON, or ASYNDETON- stylistic figure; skipping conjunctions that connect homogeneous words or sentences in phrases. B. can impart dynamism, drama, and other shades to the depicted:

Swede, Russian stabs, chops, cuts,

Drumming, clicks, grinding,

The thunder of guns, stomping, neighing, groaning...

(A.S. Pushkin. “Poltava”)

EUPHONY, or EUPHONY- the sound of words is pleasant to the ear, giving additional emotional coloring poetic speech.

The mermaid swam along the blue river

Illuminated by the full moon:

And she tried to splash to the moon

Silvery foam waves.

(M.Yu. Lermontov. “Mermaid”)

Here the words sound softly, smoothly, imparting a special lyrical harmony to the verse. B. is created by all types of sound repetitions (rhyme, alliteration, assonance), as well as the intonation of phrases. Requirements for poetry vary depending on the genre, individual poetic tastes or literary movement (for example, futurists considered sharp sound combinations to be euphonious).

BARBARISM- a word of foreign origin that has not become an organic property of the national language in which it is used. For example, the Russified words “diploma” and “maternity leave” (from French) are not barbarisms, but the words “madame”, “pardon” (from French) are barbarisms.

Monsieur l "Abbe , poor Frenchman.

So that the child does not get tired,

I taught him everything jokingly.

(A.S. Pushkin. “Eugene Onegin”)

In Russian literature, V. are used when it is necessary to accurately name the phenomenon being described (in the absence of a corresponding Russian word), to convey the peculiarities of life of people of other nationalities, to create a satirical image of a person who worships everything foreign, etc.

EXTRA-SCRIPT ELEMENTS OF THE COMPOSITION- when interpreting the plot as action - those passages literary work, which do not advance the development of the action. To W.E.C. include various descriptions of the hero’s appearance (portrait), nature (landscape), description of the home (interior), as well as monologues, dialogues of the characters and lyrical digressions of the author. Thus, the second chapter of A.S. Pushkin’s novel “Eugene Onegin” begins with a detailed description of the village, and then the house where the hero settled. V.E.K. They allow us to reveal the character of the characters in a more multifaceted and detailed way (since their essence is manifested not only in their actions, but also in their portrait, in their perception of nature, etc.). V.E.K. They also create a background for what is happening.

FREE VERSE- syllabic-tonic rhymed verse in which the lines have different lengths (unequal number of feet). Particularly common is free iambic (with feet fluctuating from 1 to 6), which is also called fable verse, because most often found in works of this genre.

Bear (1 foot)

Caught in the net, (2 stops)

Jokes about death from afar, as boldly as you want: (6 stops)

But death up close is a completely different matter! (5 stops)

(I.A. Krylov. “Bear in the Net”)

VULGARISM- a rude word that does not meet the literary norm. V. are sometimes introduced into the hero’s speech in order to characterize him. For example, Sobakevich conveys his attitude towards city officials in these words: “All are sellers of Christ. There is only one decent person there: the prosecutor; and even that one, to tell the truth, is a pig” (N.V. Gogol. “Dead Souls”).

HYPERBOLA- artistic exaggeration of the real properties of an object or phenomenon to such an extent that in reality they cannot have. A variety of properties are hyperbolized: size, speed, quantity, etc. For example: “Hare pants as wide as the Black Sea” (N.V. Gogol, “How Ivan Ivanovich and Ivan Nikiforovich quarreled”). G. is used especially widely in Russian epics.

GRADATION- stylistic figure; gradual increase (or, on the contrary, weakening) of the emotional and semantic meaning of words and expressions: “I knew him to be in love tenderly, passionately, madly...” (N.V. Gogol. “Old World Landowners”). G. is able to convey the development of any feeling of the hero, his emotional excitement or reflect the dynamism of events, the drama of situations, etc.

GROTESQUE- extreme exaggeration, giving the image a fantastic character. G. assumes the internal interaction of contrasting principles: the real and the fantastic; tragic and comic; sarcastic and humorous. G. always sharply violates the boundaries of plausibility, giving the image conventional, bizarre, strange forms. For example, the veneration of one of Gogol’s heroes is so great that he worships his own nose, which was torn away from his face and became an official higher in rank than him (“The Nose”). Widely used by G. M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, V. V. Mayakovsky and others.

DACTYL- in syllabic-tonic verse - a poetic meter, the rhythm of which is based on the repetition of a three-syllable foot with stress on the first syllable:

Glorious autumn! Healthy, vigorous

The air invigorates tired forces.

(N.A. Nekrasov. “Railroad”)

COUPLET- the simplest stanza, consisting of two rhymed verses:

The prince bathes his horse in the sea;

He hears: “Tsarevich! Look at me!

The horse snorts and pricks his ears.

It splashes and splashes and floats away.

(M.Yu. Lermontov. “The Sea Princess”)

DIALECTISM- a non-literary word or expression characteristic of the speech of people living in a certain area (in the North, in the South, in a certain region). D., as a rule, have correspondences in the literary language. So, in villages where Cossacks live, they say: “baz” (yard), “kuren” (hut); in the North they say: “basko” (beautiful), “parya” (guy). Writers turn to D. to create a convincing, realistic image of the hero. In Russian literature, D. N. A. Nekrasov, N. S. Leskov, M. A. Sholokhov, A. T. Tvardovsky and others were widely used. D. are partly capable of performing the function of historical coloring (V. M. Shukshin. “I I came to give you freedom...").

DIALOGUE- exchange of remarks between two or more persons in a literary work. D. is especially widely used in drama, and is also used in epic works (for example, D. Chichikov and Sobakevich).

JARGON, or ARGO- a non-literary artificial language, understandable only to k.-l. a circle of dedicated people: a certain social stratum (secular Zh., thief Zh.), people united by a common pastime (gambling Zh.), etc. For example: “And the “hooks” are a damn flock!..” (I.L. Selvinsky. “The Thief”). "Hooks" here means "police". Writers turn to J. to convey the hero’s social affiliation, emphasize his spiritual limitations, etc.

TIE- an episode of the plot that depicts the emergence of a contradiction (conflict) and, to some extent, determines the further development of events in the work. For example, and " Noble nest"I.S. Turgenev 3. is the flared love of Lavretsky and Lisa, colliding with the inert morality of the environment. 3. may be motivated by previous exposure (this is 3. in the named novel) and can be sudden, unexpected, “opening” the work, which gives special poignancy to the development of the action. This 3. is often used, for example, by A.P. Chekhov (“Spouse”).

ABSOLUTE LANGUAGE, or ABSOLUTELY- a purely emotional language, based not on the meaning of words, but on a set of sounds that seem to express a certain state of the poet. Nominated by futurist writers (1910-20 in Russian literature). 3. Ya is, of course, the destruction of art as a form of knowledge and reflection of reality. Eg:

Alebos,

Tainobos.

Bezwe!

Boo Boo,

Baoba,

Decrease!!!

(A.E. Kruchenykh. “Vesel zau”)

To some extent, the zaum served as a search for new artistic means, for example, the author’s neologisms (“winged with the golden writing of the thinnest wings...” - this is what V. Khlebnikov says about the grasshopper).

ONOMATOPOEIA- the desire to use sounds to hint at the sound characteristics of a person. specific phenomenon of reality. 3. does artistic image more expressive. In a humorous story by A.P. Chekhov, an old train is described as follows: “The mail train... is rushing at full speed... The locomotive whistles, puffs, hisses, sniffles... “Something will happen, something will happen!” - the carriages, trembling from old age, knock... Ogogogo - oh - oh! - picks up the locomotive." ("In the wagon"). 3. is used especially often in poetry (S. Cherny. “Easter Chime”).

INVERSION- stylistic figure; unusual (from the point of view of grammar rules) word order in a sentence or phrase. Successful I. gives the created image greater expressiveness. The poet emphasizes the youth and lightness of Onegin, who is hurrying to the long-started ball, with the following inversion:

He passes the doorman with an arrow

He flew up the marble steps.

(A.S. Pushkin. “Eugene Onegin”)

ALLEGORY- an expression containing a different, hidden meaning. For example, about small child: “What a big man is coming!” I. enhances the expressiveness of artistic speech and is the basis of tropes. Particularly striking types of fiction are allegory and Aesopian language.

INTONATION- the melody of spoken speech, which allows you to convey the subtlest semantic and emotional shades of a particular phrase. Thanks to I. same statement (e.g. greeting “Hello, Maria Ivanovna!”) may sound businesslike, or flirtatious, or ironic, etc. I. is created in speech by raising and lowering the tone, pauses, tempo of speech, etc. In writing, the main features of I. are conveyed using punctuation, explanatory words of the author regarding the speech of the characters . I. plays a special role in poetry, where it can be melodious, declamatory, colloquial, etc. The creation of the intonation of a verse involves poetic meters, line length, rhyme, clause, pauses, and stanzas.

INTRIGUE- a complex, intense, tangled knot of events that underlies the development of a dramatic (less often, epic) work. I. is the result of a thoughtful, persistent, often secret struggle of the characters (for example, plays by A.N. Ostrovsky, novels by F.M. Dostoevsky).

PUN- a play on words based on the identical or very similar sound of words with different meanings. K. are based on homonyms or comic etymology. K. usually characterizes the hero as a witty, lively person: “I came to Moscow, I cry and cry” (P.A. Vyazemsky. “Letter to my wife”, 1824).

KATREN, or QUATRAIN- the most popular stanza in Russian versification. The rhyming of lines in K. can be different:

1. abab (cross):

Don’t be shy for your dear fatherland...

The Russian people have endured enough.

He took out this railway too -

He will endure everything that God does not send!

(N.A. Nekrasov. “Railroad”)

2. aabb (adjacent):

I can't wait for freedom,

And prison days are like years;

And the window is high above the ground.

And there is a sentry at the door!

(M.Yu. Lermontov. “The Neighbor”)

3. abba (waist):

God help me, my friends,

And in storms and in everyday grief,

In a foreign land, in a deserted sea

And in the dark abysses of the earth.

COMPOSITION- this or that construction of a work of art, motivated by its ideological concept. K. is a certain arrangement and interaction of all components of works: plot (i.e., development of action), descriptive (landscape, portrait), as well as monologues, dialogues, author's lyrical digressions, etc. Depending on artistic goals, techniques and the principles underlying K. can be very diverse. So, for example, the basis for the arrangement of paintings in Leo Tolstoy’s story “After the Ball” is contrast, which well conveys the main idea about the inhumane essence of the outwardly respectable and brilliant colonel. And in “Dead Souls” one of the compositional techniques is the repetition of similar situations (Chichikov’s arrival to another landowner, meeting the hero, lunch) and descriptions (estate landscape, interior, etc.). This technique allows us to convey the idea of ​​the diversity of the characters of the landowners and at the same time their uniformity, which consists in the meaninglessness of an idle existence at the expense of the peasants. In addition, the idea is raised about Chichikov’s many-sided opportunism. The composition of epic works is especially diverse in its components; In classical dramatic works, the plot, monologues, and dialogues play a particularly significant role; In K. lyrical works, as a rule, there is no plot beginning.

CLIMAX- that point in the development of the plot when the conflict reaches its highest tension: the clash of opposing principles (socio-political, moral, etc.) is felt especially acutely, and the characters in their essential features are revealed to the greatest extent. For example, in “The Noble Nest” by I.S. Turgenev, the contradiction between the love of the heroes and the laws of the social environment reaches a special intensity in the episode depicting the arrival of Lavretsky’s wife Varvara Pavlovna. This is K. novel, because The outcome of the conflict depends on how the main characters behave: will Lavretsky and Lisa be able to defend their feelings or not?

VOCABULARY- vocabulary of the language. When turning to this or that L., the writer is guided primarily by the tasks of creating an artistic image. For these purposes, it is important for the author to choose an accurate and apt word (see: synonyms, antonyms), the ability to use its figurative meaning (see: tropes), as well as lexical and stylistic shades (see: archaisms, colloquialisms, jargons, etc.) . Features of L. in the hero’s speech serve as a means of characterizing him. For example, Manilov’s speech contains many endearing words (“darling”, “mouth”) and epithets expressing the highest (even “twice the highest”) degree of k.-l. qualities (“most venerable”, “most amiable”), which speaks of the sentimentality and enthusiasm of his character (N.V. Gogol. “Dead Souls”). Literary analysis of a literary work should lead to an understanding of the character of the hero and author's attitude to what is depicted.

AUTHOR'S LYRICAL DISCLOSURE- the author’s deviation from the direct plot narrative, which consists in expressing his feelings and thoughts in the form of lyrical inserts on topics that have little (or nothing) to do with the main theme of the work. L.O. allow you to express the author’s opinion on important issues of our time and express thoughts on certain issues. L.O. found in both poetry and prose. For example, in the second chapter of A.S. Pushkin’s novel “Eugene Onegin,” the story of Tatyana, who has fallen in love, is suddenly interrupted, and the author expresses his opinion on issues of classicist, romantic and realistic art (the principles of which he affirms in the novel. Then again there is a story about Tatyana An example of a lyrical digression in prose can be the author’s thoughts about the future of Russia in N.V. Gogol’s “Dead Souls” (see the end of Chapter XI).

LITOTES- artistic understatement of the real properties of an object or phenomenon to such an extent that in reality they cannot possess. For example: Chichikov’s stroller is “light as a feather” (N.V. Gogol. “Dead Souls”). A variety of properties can be downplayed: size, thickness, distance, time, etc. L. increases expressiveness artistic speech.

METAPHOR- one of the main tropes of artistic speech; hidden comparison of an object or phenomenon based on the similarity of their characteristics. In mathematics (as opposed to comparison), the word does not denote both objects (or phenomena) that are being compared, but only the second, the first is only implied.

Bee for field tribute

Flies from a wax cell.

(A.S. Pushkin. “Eugene Onegin”)

In this example, there are two M.: the beehive is compared by similarity with a cell, nectar - with tribute, although the concepts of “beehive” and “nectar” themselves are not named. Grammatically M. Can be expressed by different parts of speech: noun (examples given), adjective ("fire kiss"), verb (“a kiss sounded on my lips” - M.Yu. Lermontov. “Taman”), participle (“A bee crawls into every carnation of fragrant lilac, singing” - A.A. Fet). If the image is revealed through several metaphorical expressions, then such a metaphor is called expanded: see the poem “In the worldly, sad and boundless steppe” by A.S. Pushkin, “The Cup of Life” by M.Yu. Lermontov.

METONYMY- transfer of meaning from one phenomenon to another not on the basis of the similarity of their characteristics (which is noted in the metaphor), but only according to s.l. their adjacent connections. Depending on the specific nature of the contiguity, many types of M are distinguished. Let's name the most common ones.

1. Content is called instead of containing: “The flooded stove is cracking” (A.S. Pushkin. “Winter Evening”);

3. The material from which a thing is made is called instead of the thing itself: “The amber smoked in his mouth” (A.S. Pushkin. “The Bakhchisarai Fountain”);

4. The place where people are is called instead of the people themselves: “The steam and the chairs - everything is boiling” (A.S. Pushkin. “Eugene Onegin”).

MULTI-UNION, or POLYSYNDETHONE- stylistic figure; a special construction of a phrase in which all (or almost all) homogeneous members of a sentence are connected by the same conjunction. M. can impart gradualism, lyricism, and other shades to artistic speech. “The whole earth is in a silver light, and the wonderful air is cool and sultry, and full of bliss, and moves an ocean of fragrances...” (N.V. Gogol. “May Night”).

Oh! Summer is red! I would love you.

If only it weren't for the heat, the dust, the mosquitoes, and the flies.

(A.S. Pushkin. “Autumn”)

MONOLOGUE- a fairly long speech by the hero in a literary work. M. is especially significant in drama, used in epic works, and manifests itself in a unique way in lyric poetry (M. of the lyrical hero). M. conveys the character’s feelings, thoughts, includes messages about his past or future, etc. M. can be pronounced out loud (direct M.) or mentally (internal M). An example is the famous M. Onegin addressed to Tatyana, which begins with the words: “Whenever I wanted to limit my life to the home circle...” (A.S. Pushkin. “Eugene Onegin”, Chapter IV, stanzas XIII-XVI ).

NEOLOGISM- a newly formed word or phrase in a language, created to designate a new object or phenomenon, e.g. "computer virus". Writers create their own individual narratives in order to enhance the imagery and emotionality of artistic speech, especially poetic speech. For example, the poet conveys his impression of a silent city street: “...the squat buildings of Otserkveneli, like yesterday” (L. Martynov. “New Arbat”). N. can be found in many writers of the 19th and 20th centuries. Some of them, very accurately expressing k.-l. a feeling or phenomenon has forever become part of the Russian language: “industry”, “phenomenon” (N.M. Karamzin); “Slavophile” (K.N. Batyushkov): “hunt” (N.M. Zagoskin); “to shy away” (F.M. Dostoevsky).

Dictionary literary terms

A

Autology – an artistic technique of figuratively expressing a poetic idea not in poetic words and expressions, but in simple everyday ones.

And everyone looks with respect,

How again without panic

I slowly put on my pants

And almost new

From the point of view of the sergeant major,

Canvas boots...

Acmeism – a movement in Russian poetry in the first two decades of the 20th century, the center of which was the “Workshop of Poets” circle, and the main platform was the magazine “Apollo”. Acmeists contrasted the social content of art with the realism of material mother nature and sensual plastic-material clarity artistic language, abandoning the poetics of vague hints and the mysticism of symbolism in the name of a “return to the earth,” to the subject, to exact value words (A. Akhmatova, S. Gorodetsky, N. Gumilev, M. Zenkevich, O. Mandelstam).

Allegory- allegorical image of an abstract concept or phenomenon through a concrete image; personification of human properties or qualities. The allegory consists of two elements:
1. semantic - this is any concept or phenomenon (wisdom, cunning, kindness, childhood, nature, etc.) that the author seeks to depict without naming it;
2. figurative-objective - this is a specific object, a creature depicted in a work of art and representing a named concept or phenomenon.

Alliteration- repetition in poetic speech (less often in prose) of the same consonant sounds in order to enhance the expressiveness of artistic speech; one of the types of sound recording.

Evening. Seaside. Sighs of the wind.

The majestic cry of the waves.

A storm is coming. It hits the shore

A black boat alien to enchantment.

K.D.Balmont

Alogism – artistic device, emphasizing with contradictory phrases internal inconsistency certain dramatic or comic situations - to prove, as if by contradiction, a certain logic and, therefore, the truth of the position of the author (and after him the reader), who understands an illogical phrase as a figurative expression (the title of the novel by Yu. Bondarev “Hot Snow”).

Amphibrachium- a three-syllable poetic meter, in which the stress falls on the second syllable - stressed among unstressed ones - in the foot. Scheme: U-U| U-U...

The midnight blizzard was noisy

In the forest and remote side.

Anapaest- a three-syllable poetic meter, in which the stress falls on the last, third, syllable in the foot. Scheme: UU- | UU-…
People's houses are clean, bright,
But in our house it’s cramped, stuffy...

N.A. Nekrasov.

Anaphora- unity of command; repetition of a word or group of words at the beginning of several phrases or stanzas.
I love you, Petra's creation,
I love your strict, slender appearance...

A.S. Pushkin.

Antithesis - stylistic device, based on a sharp opposition of concepts and images, is most often based on the use of antonyms:
I am a king - I am a slave, I am a worm - I am a god!

G.R.Derzhavin

Antiphrase(s) – using words or expressions in a clearly contrary sense. "Well done!" - as a reproach.

Assonance- repeated repetition in poetic speech (less often in prose) of homogeneous vowel sounds. Sometimes assonance refers to an imprecise rhyme in which the vowels coincide, but the consonants do not coincide (hugeness - I’ll come to my senses; thirst - it’s a pity). Enhances the expressiveness of speech.
The room became dark.
The window obscures the slope.
Or is this a dream?
Ding dong. Ding dong.

I.P. Tokmakova.

Aphorism – a clear, easy-to-remember, precise, brief expression of a certain completeness of thought. Aphorisms often become individual lines of poetry or phrases of prose: “Poetry is everything! - a ride into the unknown." (V. Mayakovsky)

B

Ballad- narrative song with dramatic development a plot based on an unusual incident, one of the types of lyric-epic poetry. The ballad is based on an extraordinary story, reflecting the essential moments of the relationship between man and society, people among themselves, the most important features of a person.

Bard – a poet-singer, usually a performer of his own poems, often set to his own music.

Fable – a short poetic story-allegory of a moralizing nature.

Blank verse- unrhymed verses with metric organization (i.e., organized through a system of rhythmically repeating accents). Widely distributed in oral folk art and was actively used in the 18th century.
Forgive me, maiden beauty!
I will part with you forever,
Young girl, I’ll cry.
I'll let you go, beauty,
I'll let you go with ribbons...

Folk song.

Epics - Old Russian epic songs and tales, glorifying the exploits of heroes, reflecting historical events of the 11th - 16th centuries.

IN

Barbarism – a word or figure of speech borrowed from a foreign language. The unjustified use of barbarisms pollutes the native language.

Vers libre - modern system versification, which is a kind of boundary between verse and prose (it lacks rhyme, meter, traditional rhythmic ordering; the number of syllables in a line and lines in a stanza can be different; there is also no equality of emphasis characteristic of blank verse. Their features of poetic speech are divided into lines with a pause at the end of each line and weakened symmetry of speech (the emphasis falls on the last word lines).
She came in from the cold
Flushed,
Filled the room
The aroma of air and perfume,
In a ringing voice
And completely disrespectful to classes
Chatting.

Eternal image - an image from a work of classic world literature, expressing certain features of human psychology, which has become a common name of one type or another: Faust, Plyushkin, Oblomov, Don Quixote, Mitrofanushka, etc.

Inner monologue - the announcement of thoughts and feelings that reveal the character’s inner experiences, not intended for the hearing of others, when the character speaks as if to himself, “to the side.”

Vulgarism – simple, even seemingly rude, seemingly unacceptable expressions in poetic speech, used by the author to reflect the specific nature of the phenomenon being described, to characterize a character, sometimes similar to vernacular.

G

Hero lyrical- the image of the poet (his lyrical “I”), whose experiences, thoughts and feelings are reflected in the lyrical work. The lyrical hero is not identical to the biographical personality. The idea of ​​a lyrical hero is of a summary nature and is formed in the process of familiarization with the inner world that is revealed in lyrical works not through actions, but through experiences, mental states, and manner of speech expression.

Literary hero - character, protagonist of a literary work.

Hyperbola- remedy artistic image, based on excessive exaggeration; figurative expression, which consists in an exorbitant exaggeration of events, feelings, strength, meaning, size of the depicted phenomenon; an outwardly effective form of presenting what is depicted. Can be idealizing and humiliating.

Gradation- stylistic device, arrangement of words and expressions, as well as means of artistic representation in increasing or decreasing importance. Types of gradation: increasing (climax) and decreasing (anti-climax).
Increasing gradation:
Orata's bipod is maple,
The damask boots on the bipod,
The bipod's snout is silver,
And the horn of the bipod is red and gold.

Epic about Volga and Mikula
Descending gradation:
Fly! less fly! disintegrated into a grain of sand.

N.V.Gogol

Grotesque – a bizarre mixture in the image of the real and the fantastic, the beautiful and the ugly, the tragic and the comic - for a more impressive expression of creative intent.

D

Dactyl- a three-syllable poetic meter, in which the stress falls on the first syllable in the foot. Scheme: -UU| -UU...
Heavenly clouds, eternal wanderers!
The azure steppe, the pearl chain
You rush as if, like me, you are exiles,
From the sweet north to the south.

M.Yu.Lermontov

Decadence – a phenomenon in literature (and art in general) of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, reflecting the crisis of the transitional stage of social relations in the minds of some spokesmen for the sentiments of social groups whose ideological foundations were being destroyed by the turning points of history.

Artistic detail – detail that emphasizes the semantic authenticity of the work with material, eventual authenticity - concretizing this or that image.

Dialectisms – words borrowed by the literary language or by a specific author in his work from local dialects: “Well, go - and okay, you have to climb the hill, the house is nearby” (F. Abramov).

Dialogue - exchange of remarks, messages, live speech between two or more persons.

Drama – 1. One of three types of literature, defining works intended for stage embodiment. It differs from the epic in that it has not a narrative, but a dialogic form; from the lyrics - in that it reproduces the world external to the author. Divided into genres: tragedy, comedy, and also drama itself. 2. Drama is also called dramatic work, which does not have clear genre characteristics, but combines techniques from different genres; sometimes such a work is simply called a play.

E

Unity of people – the technique of repeating similar sounds, words, linguistic structures at the beginning of adjacent lines or stanzas.

Wait for the snow to blow

Wait for it to be hot

Wait when others are not waiting...

K. Simonov

AND

Literary genre - a historically developing type of literary work, the main features of which, constantly changing along with the development of the diversity of forms and content of literature, are sometimes identified with the concept of “type”; but more often the term genre defines the type of literature based on content and emotional characteristics: satirical genre, detective genre, a genre of historical essay.

Jargon, Also argo - words and expressions borrowed from the language of internal communication of certain social groups of people. The use of jargon in literature allows us to more clearly define the social or professional characteristics of the characters and their environment.

Lives of the saints - a description of the lives of people canonized by the church (“The Life of Alexander Nevsky”, “The Life of Alexy the Man of God”, etc.).

Z

Tie – an event that determines the occurrence of a conflict in a literary work. Sometimes it coincides with the beginning of the work.

Beginning – the beginning of a work of Russian folk literature - epics, fairy tales, etc. (“Once upon a time...”, “In the distant kingdom, in the thirtieth state...”).

Sound organization of speech- targeted use of elements of the sound composition of the language: vowels and consonants, stressed and unstressed syllables, pauses, intonation, repetitions, etc. Used to enhance artistic expression speech. The sound organization of speech includes: sound repetitions, sound writing, onomatopoeia.

Sound recording- a technique for enhancing the imagery of a text by constructing phrases and lines of poetry in a sound manner that would correspond to the reproduced scene, picture, or expressed mood. In sound writing, alliteration, assonance, and sound repetitions are used. Sound recording enhances the image of a certain phenomenon, action, state.

Onomatopoeia- a type of sound recording; the use of sound combinations that can reflect the sound of the described phenomena, similar in sound to those depicted in artistic speech ("thunder rumbles", "horns roar", "cuckoos crow", "echoes of laughter").

AND

Idea work of art – the main idea that summarizes the semantic, figurative, emotional content of a work of art.

Imagism – appeared in Russia after the October Revolution of 1917 literary movement, which declared the image to be an end in itself of the work, and not a means of expressing the essence of the content and reflecting reality. It broke up on its own in 1927. At one time, S. Yesenin joined this trend.

Impressionism- a direction in art of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, which asserted that the main task of artistic creativity is the expression of the artist’s subjective impressions of the phenomena of reality.

Improvisation – direct creation of a work in the process of performance.

Inversion- violation of the generally accepted grammatical sequence of speech; rearrangement of parts of a phrase, giving it special expressiveness; an unusual sequence of words in a sentence.
And the maiden's song is barely audible

Valleys in deep silence.

A.S. Pushkin

Interpretation – interpretation, explanation of an idea, theme, figurative system and other components of a work of art in literature and criticism.

Intrigue – system, and sometimes the mystery, complexity, mystery of events, on the unraveling of which the plot of the work is built.

Irony – kind of comic, bitter or, conversely, kind ridicule, exposing one or another phenomenon by ridicule negative traits it and thereby affirming the positive aspects foreseen by the author in the phenomenon.

Historical songs – a genre of folk poetry that reflects the folk idea of ​​authentic historical events in Rus'.

TO

Literary canon - symbol, image, plot, born of centuries-old folklore and literary traditions and has become, to a certain extent, normative: light is good, darkness is evil, etc.

Classicism – artistic movement that developed in European literature of the 17th century, based on recognition ancient art the highest example, the ideal, and the works of antiquity - the artistic norm. Aesthetics is based on the principle of rationalism and “imitation of nature.” Cult of the mind. A work of art is organized as an artificial, logically constructed whole. Strict plot and compositional organization, schematism. Human characters are depicted in a straightforward manner; positive and negative heroes are opposed. Actively addressing social and civil issues. Emphasized objectivity of the narrative. Strict hierarchy of genres. High: tragedy, epic, ode. Low: comedy, satire, fable. Mixing high and low genres is not allowed. The leading genre is tragedy.

Collision – generating a conflict that underlies the action of a literary work, a contradiction between the characters of the heroes of this work, or between characters and circumstances, the collisions of which constitute the plot of the work.

Comedy – a dramatic work that uses satire and humor to ridicule the vices of society and man.

Composition – arrangement, alternation, correlation and interrelation of parts of a literary work, serving the most complete embodiment of the artist’s plan.

Context – the general meaning (theme, idea) of the work, expressed in its entire text or in a sufficiently meaningful passage, cohesion, connection with which the quotation, and indeed any passage in general, should not lose.

Artistic conflict - figurative reflection in a work of art of the actions of the forces of struggle of interests, passions, ideas, characters, political aspirations, both personal and social. Conflict adds spice to the plot.

Climax – in a literary work, a scene, event, episode where the conflict reaches its highest tension and a decisive clash occurs between the characters and aspirations of the heroes, after which the transition to the denouement begins in the plot.

L

Legend – narratives that initially told about the lives of saints, then - religious-didactic, and sometimes fantastic biographies of historical, and even fairy-tale heroes, whose actions express the national character.

Leitmotif- an expressive detail, a specific artistic image, repeated many times, mentioned, passing through a separate work or the entire work of the writer.

Chronicles – handwritten Russian historical narratives telling about events in the life of the country by year; each story began with the word: “Summer... (year...)”, hence the name - chronicle.

Lyrics- one of the main types of literature, reflecting life through the depiction of individual (single) states, thoughts, feelings, impressions and experiences of a person caused by certain circumstances. Feelings and experiences are not described, but expressed. The center of artistic attention is the image-experience. The characteristic features of the lyrics are poetic form, rhythm, lack of plot, small size, a clear reflection of the experiences of the lyrical hero. The most subjective type of literature.

Lyrical digression - deviation from descriptions of events, characters in an epic or lyric-epic work, where the author (or lyrical hero, on whose behalf the story is being told) expresses his thoughts and feelings about what is being described, his attitude towards it, addressing directly the reader.

Litota – 1. The technique of downplaying a phenomenon or its details is a reverse hyperbole (the fabulous “boy as big as a finger” or “a little man... in big mittens, and himself as big as a fingernail” by N. Nekrasov).

2. Reception of the characteristics of a particular phenomenon not by direct definition, but by denial opposite definition:

The key to nature is not lost,

Proud work is not in vain...

V.Shalamov

M

Metaphor- figurative meaning of a word, based on the use of one object or phenomenon to another by similarity or contrast; a hidden comparison based on the similarity or contrast of phenomena, in which the words “as”, “as if”, “as if” are absent, but implied.
Bee for field tribute
Flies from a wax cell.

A.S. Pushkin

Metaphor increases the accuracy of poetic speech and its emotional expressiveness. A type of metaphor is personification.
Types of metaphor:
1. lexical metaphor, or erased, in which direct meaning completely destroyed; “it’s raining”, “time is running”, “clock hand”, “doorknob”;
2. a simple metaphor - built on the convergence of objects or on one of their common features: “hail of bullets”, “talk of waves”, “dawn of life”, “table leg”, “dawn is blazing”;
3. realized metaphor - literal understanding of the meanings of the words that make up the metaphor, emphasizing the direct meanings of the words: “But you don’t have a face - you’re only wearing a shirt and trousers” (S. Sokolov).
4. expanded metaphor - the spread of a metaphorical image over several phrases or the entire work (for example, A.S. Pushkin’s poem “The Cart of Life” or “He couldn’t sleep for a long time: the remaining husk of words clogged and tormented the brain, stabbed in the temples, there’s no way was to get rid of it" (V. Nabokov)
A metaphor is usually expressed by a noun, a verb, and then other parts of speech.

Metonymy- rapprochement, comparison of concepts by contiguity, when a phenomenon or object is designated using other words and concepts: “a steel speaker is dozing in a holster” - a revolver; “led swords at a plentiful pace” - led warriors into battle; “The little owl began to sing” - the violinist began to play his instrument.

Myths – works of folk fantasy that personify reality in the form of gods, demons, and spirits. Born in ancient times, preceding religious and especially scientific understanding and explanation of the world.

Modernism – designation of many trends, directions in art that determine the desire of artists to reflect modernity with new means, improving, modernizing - in their opinion - traditional means in accordance with historical progress.

Monologue – the speech of one of the literary heroes, addressed either to himself, or to others, or to the public, isolated from the remarks of other heroes, having independent meaning.

Motive- 1. The smallest element of the plot; the simplest, indivisible element of a narrative (a stable and endlessly repeating phenomenon). Numerous motifs make up various plots (for example, the motif of the road, the motif of the search for the missing bride, etc.). This value The term is more often used in relation to works of oral folk art.

2. “Stable semantic unit” (B.N. Putilov); “a semantically rich component of the work, related to the theme, idea, but not identical to them” (V.E. Khalizev); a semantic (substantive) element essential for understanding the author’s concept (for example, the motive of death in “The Tale of dead princess..." by A.S. Pushkin, the motive of cold in " easy breathing" - “Easy Breathing” by I.A. Bunin, the motif of the full moon in “The Master and Margarita” by M.A. Bulgakov).

N

Naturalism – direction in literature of the last third of the 19th century, which asserted an extremely accurate and objective reproduction of reality, sometimes leading to the suppression of the author’s individuality.

Neologisms – newly formed words or expressions.

Novella – small prose work, comparable to the story. The novella is more eventful, the plot is clearer, the plot twist leading to the denouement is clearer.

ABOUT

Artistic image - 1. Main in artistic creativity a way of perceiving and reflecting reality, a form of knowledge of life and expression of this knowledge specific to art; the purpose and result of the search, and then identifying, highlighting, underlining artistic techniques those features of a phenomenon that most fully reveal its aesthetic, moral, socially significant essence. 2. The term “image” sometimes denotes one or another trope in a work (the image of freedom - “the star of captivating happiness” by A.S. Pushkin), as well as one or another literary hero (the image of the wives of the Decembrists E. Trubetskoy and M. Volkonskaya N. Nekrasova).

Oh yeah- a poem of an enthusiastic nature (solemn, glorifying) in honor of some
either persons or events.

Oxymoron, or oxymoron- a figure based on a combination of words with opposite meanings for the purpose of an unusual, impressive expression of some new concept, representation: hot snow, a stingy knight, lush nature withering.

Personification- the depiction of inanimate objects as animate, in which they are endowed with the properties of living beings: the gift of speech, the ability to think and feel.
What are you howling about, night wind,
Why are you complaining so madly?

F.I.Tyutchev

Onegin stanza - stanza created by A.S. Pushkin in the novel “Eugene Onegin”: 14 lines (but not a sonnet) of iambic tetrameter with the rhyme ababvvggdeejj (3 quatrains alternately - with a cross, paired and sweeping rhyme and a final couplet: designation of the theme, its development, culmination , ending).

Feature article- a type of small form of epic literature, different from its other form, story, the absence of a single, quickly resolved conflict and the great development of descriptive images. Both differences depend on the specific issues of the essay. It touches not so much on the problems of developing the character of an individual in its conflicts with the established social environment, but rather on the problems of the civil and moral state of the “environment.” The essay can relate to both literature and journalism.

P

Paradox - in literature - the technique of a statement that clearly contradicts generally accepted concepts, either to expose those of them that, in the opinion of the author, are false, or to express one’s disagreement with the so-called “common sense”, due to inertia, dogmatism, and ignorance.

Parallelism- one of the types of repetition (syntactic, lexical, rhythmic); compositional technique, emphasizing the connection between several elements of a work of art; analogy, bringing together phenomena by similarity (for example, natural phenomena and human life).
In bad weather the wind
Howls - howls;
Violent head
Evil sadness torments.

V.A.Koltsov

Parcellation- dividing a statement with a single meaning into several independent, isolated sentences (in writing - using punctuation marks, in speech - intonation, using pauses):
Well? Don't you see that he's gone crazy?
Say it seriously:
Insane! What kind of nonsense is he talking about here!
The sycophant! father-in-law! and so menacing about Moscow!

A.S.Griboyedov

Pamphlet(English pamphlet) - a journalistic work, usually small in volume, with a sharply expressed accusatory nature, often a polemical orientation and a well-defined socio-political “address”.

Pathos – the highest point of inspiration, emotional feeling, delight, achieved in a literary work and in its perception by the reader, reflecting significant events in society and the spiritual upsurges of the heroes.

Scenery - in literature - the depiction of pictures of nature in a literary work as a means of figurative expression of the author’s intention.

Periphrase- using a description instead of your own name or title; descriptive expression, figure of speech, substitute word. Used to decorate speech, replace repetition, or carry the meaning of allegory.

Pyrrhic - an auxiliary foot of two short or unstressed syllables, replacing an iambic or trochaic foot; lack of stress in iambic or trochee: “I am writing to you...” by A.S. Pushkin, “Sail” by M.Yu. Lermontov.

Pleonasm- unjustified verbosity, the use of words that are unnecessary to express thoughts. In normative stylistics, Pleonasm is considered as speech error. In the language of fiction - as a stylistic figure of addition, serving to enhance the expressive qualities of speech.
“Elisha had no appetite for food”; “some boring guy... lay down... among the dead and personally died”; “Kozlov continued to lie silent, having been killed” (A. Platonov).

Tale – a work of epic prose, gravitating towards a sequential presentation of the plot, limited to a minimum of plot lines.

Repetition- a figure consisting of the repetition of words, expressions, song or poetic lines in order to attract special attention to them.
Every house is alien to me, every temple is not empty,
And everything is the same and everything is one...

M. Tsvetaeva

Subtext – the meaning hidden “under” the text, i.e. not expressed directly and openly, but arising from the narrative or dialogue of the text.

Permanent epithet- a colorful definition, inextricably combined with the word being defined and forming a stable figurative and poetic expression (“blue sea”, “white stone chambers”, “red maiden”, “clear falcon”, “sugar lips”).

Poetry- a special organization of artistic speech, which is distinguished by rhythm and rhyme - poetic form; lyrical form of reflection of reality. The term poetry is often used to mean “works of different genres in verse.” Conveys the subjective attitude of the individual to the world. In the foreground is the image-experience. It does not set the task of conveying the development of events and characters.

Poem- a large poetic work with a plot and narrative organization; a story or novel in verse; a multi-part work in which the epic and lyrical principles merge together. The poem can be classified as a lyric-epic genre of literature, since the narration of historical events and events in the lives of the heroes is revealed in it through the perception and assessment of the narrator. The poem deals with events of universal significance. Most poems glorify some human acts, events and characters.

Tradition – oral narration about real persons and reliable events, one of the varieties of folk art.

Preface – an article preceding a literary work, written either by the author himself or by a critic or literary scholar. The preface may include brief information about the writer, and some explanations about the history of the creation of the work, an interpretation of the author’s intention is proposed.

Prototype – a real person who served as a model for the author to create the image of a literary hero.

Play – a general designation for a literary work intended for stage performance - tragedy, drama, comedy, etc.

R

Interchange – the final part of the development of a conflict or intrigue, where the conflict of the work is resolved and comes to a logical figurative conclusion.

Poetic meter- a consistently expressed form of poetic rhythm (determined by the number of syllables, stresses or feet - depending on the system of versification); diagram of the construction of a poetic line. In Russian (syllabic-tonic) versification, there are five main poetic meters: two-syllable (iamb, trochee) and three-syllable (dactyl, amphibrach, anapest). In addition, each size can vary in the number of feet (4-foot iambic; 5-foot iambic, etc.).

Story - a short piece of prose mostly narrative character, compositionally grouped around a separate episode, character.

Realism – an artistic method of figuratively reflecting reality in accordance with objective accuracy.

Reminiscence – the use in a literary work of expressions from other works, or even folklore, that evoke some other interpretation from the author; sometimes the borrowed expression is slightly changed (M. Lermontov - “Lush city, poor city” (about St. Petersburg) - from F. Glinka “Wonderful city, ancient city” (about Moscow).

Refrain- repetition of a verse or a series of verses at the end of a stanza (in songs - chorus).

We are ordered to go into battle:

"Long live freedom!"

Freedom! Whose? Not said.

But not the people.

We are ordered to go into battle -

"Allied for the sake of nations"

But the main thing is not said:

Whose for the sake of banknotes?

Rhythm- constant, measured repetition in the text of the same type of segments, including minimal ones, - stressed and unstressed syllables.

Rhyme- sound repetition in two or more verses, mainly at the end. Unlike other sound repetitions, rhyme always emphasizes the rhythm and division of speech into verses.

A rhetorical question- a question that does not require an answer (either the answer is fundamentally impossible, or is clear in itself, or the question is addressed to a conditional “interlocutor”). A rhetorical question activates the reader’s attention and enhances his emotional reaction.
"Rus! Where are you going?"

"Dead Souls" by N.V. Gogol
Or is it new for us to argue with Europe?
Or is the Russian unaccustomed to victories?

"To the slanderers of Russia" A.S. Pushkin

Genus - one of the main sections in the taxonomy of literary works, defining three different forms: epic, lyric, drama.

Novel - an epic narrative with elements of dialogue, sometimes including drama or literary digressions, focusing on the history of an individual in a social environment.

Romanticism – a literary movement of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, which opposed itself to classicism as a search for forms of reflection that were more in line with modern reality.

Romantic hero– a complex, passionate personality, whose inner world is unusually deep and endless; it is a whole universe full of contradictions.

WITH

Sarcasm – caustic, sarcastic ridicule of someone or something. Widely used in satirical literary works.

Satire – a type of literature that exposes and ridicules the vices of people and society in specific forms. These forms can be very diverse - paradox and hyperbole, grotesque and parody, etc.

Sentimentalism – literary movement of the late 18th – early 19th centuries. It arose as a protest against the canons of classicism in art that had turned into dogma, reflecting the canonization of feudal social relations that had already turned into a hindrance to social development.

Syllabic versification e - syllabic system of versification, based on the equality of the number of syllables in each verse with obligatory stress on the penultimate syllable; equipoise. The length of a verse is determined by the number of syllables.
It's hard not to love
And love is hard
And the hardest thing
Loving love cannot be obtained.

A.D. Kantemir

Syllabic-tonic versification- syllabic stress system of versification, which is determined by the number of syllables, the number of stresses and their location in the poetic line. It is based on the equality of the number of syllables in a verse and the orderly change of stressed and unstressed syllables. Depending on the system of alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables, two-syllable and three-syllable sizes are distinguished.

Symbol- an image that expresses the meaning of a phenomenon in objective form. An object, an animal, a sign becomes a symbol when they are endowed with additional, extremely important meaning.

Symbolism – literary and artistic movement of the late 19th – early 20th centuries. Symbolism sought, through symbols in a tangible form, to embody the idea of ​​the unity of the world, expressed in accordance with its most various parts, allowing colors, sounds, smells to be represented one through the other (D. Merezhkovsky, A. Bely, A. Blok, Z. Gippius, K. Balmont, V. Bryusov).

Synecdoche – artistic technique of substitution for the sake of expressiveness - one phenomenon, subject, object, etc. – correlated with it by other phenomena, objects, objects.

Oh, you are heavy, Monomakh’s hat!

A.S. Pushkin.

Sonnet – a fourteen-line poem composed according to certain rules: the first quatrain (quatrain) presents an exposition of the theme of the poem, the second quatrain develops the provisions outlined in the first, in the subsequent terzetto (three-line verse) the denouement of the theme is outlined, in the final terzetto, especially in its final line, the denouement is completed , expressing the essence of the work.

Comparison- a pictorial technique based on the comparison of a phenomenon or concept (object of comparison) with another phenomenon or concept (means of comparison), with the goal of highlighting any particularly important artistic feature of the object of comparison:
Full of goodness before the end of the year,
Days are like Antonov apples.

A.T. Tvardovsky

Versification- the principle of rhythmic organization of poetic speech. Versification can be syllabic, tonic, syllabic-tonic.

Poem - small piece, created according to the laws of poetic speech; usually a lyrical work.

Poetic speech- a special organization of artistic speech, differing from prose in its strict rhythmic organization; measured, rhythmically organized speech. A means of conveying expressive emotions.

Foot- a stable (ordered) combination of a stressed syllable with one or two unstressed syllables, which are repeated in each verse. The foot can be two-syllable (iambic U-, trochee -U) and three-syllable (dactyl -UU, amphibrachium U-U, anapest UU-).

Stanza- a group of verses repeated in poetic speech, related in meaning, as well as in the arrangement of rhymes; a combination of verses that forms a rhythmic and syntactic whole, united by a certain rhyme system; additional rhythmic element of verse. Often has complete content and syntactic structure. The stanza is separated from one another by an increased interval.

Plot- a system of events in a work of art, presented in a certain connection, revealing the characters of the characters and the writer’s attitude to the depicted life phenomena; subsequence. The course of events that constitutes the content of a work of art; dynamic aspect of a work of art.

T

Tautology- repetition of the same words that are close in meaning and sound.
Everything is mine, said gold,
Damask steel said everything mine.

A.S. Pushkin.

Subject- a circle of phenomena and events that form the basis of the work; object of artistic depiction; what the author is talking about and what he wants to attract the attention of readers to.

Type - a literary hero who embodies certain features of a particular time, social phenomenon, social system or social environment (“extra people” - Eugene Onegin, Pechorin, etc.).

Tonic versification- a system of versification based on the equality of stressed syllables in poetry. The length of the line is determined by the number of stressed syllables. The number of unstressed syllables is arbitrary.

The girl sang in the church choir

About all those who are tired in a foreign land,

About all the ships that went to sea,

About everyone who has forgotten their joy.

Tragedy - a type of drama that arose from the ancient Greek ritual dithyramb in honor of the patron of viticulture and wine, the god Dionysus, who was represented in the form of a goat, then in the likeness of a satyr with horns and a beard.

Tragicomedy – a drama that combines features of both tragedy and comedy, reflecting the relativity of our definitions of the phenomena of reality.

Trails- words and expressions used in a figurative sense in order to achieve artistic expressiveness of speech. The basis of any trope is a comparison of objects and phenomena.

U

Default- a figure that gives the listener or reader the opportunity to guess and reflect on what could be discussed in a suddenly interrupted utterance.
But is it me, is it me, the sovereign’s favorite...
But death... but power... but the people's disasters....

A.S. Pushkin

F

Fable – a series of events that serve as the basis of a literary work. Often, the plot means the same thing as the plot; the differences between them are so arbitrary that a number of literary scholars consider the plot to be what others consider to be the plot, and vice versa.

Feuilleton(French feuilleton, from feuille - sheet, sheet) - a genre of artistic and journalistic literature, which is characterized by a critical, often comic, including satirical, beginning, and certainly relevance.

The final - part of the composition of a work that ends it. It may sometimes coincide with the denouement. Sometimes the ending is an epilogue.

Futurism – artistic movement in the art of the first two decades of the 20th century. The birth of futurism is considered to be the “Futurist Manifesto” published in 1909 in the Parisian magazine Le Figaro. The theorist and leader of the first group of futurists was the Italian F. Marienetti. The main content of futurism was the extremist revolutionary overthrow of the old world, its aesthetics in particular, up to language norms. Russian futurism opened with the “Prologue of Egofuturism” by I. Severyanin and the collection “A Slap in the Face of Public Taste,” in which V. Mayakovsky took part.

X

Literary character - a set of features of the image of a character, a literary hero, in which individual characteristics serve as a reflection of the typical, determined both by the phenomenon that makes up the content of the work and by the ideological and aesthetic intention of the author who created this hero. Character is one of the main components of a literary work.

Trochee- two-syllable poetic meter with stress on the first syllable.
The storm covers the sky with darkness,

U|-U|-U|-U|
Whirling snow whirlwinds;

U|-U|-U|-
Then, like a beast, she will howl, -U|-U|-U|-U|
Then he will cry like a child...

A.S. Pushkin

C

Quote - a statement by another author quoted verbatim in the work of one author - as confirmation of one’s thought with an authoritative, indisputable statement, or even vice versa - as a formulation requiring refutation, criticism.

E

Aesopian language - various ways to figuratively express this or that thought that cannot be expressed directly, for example, due to censorship.

Exposition – the part of the plot immediately preceding the plot that provides the reader with background information about the circumstances in which the conflict of the literary work arose.

Expression- emphasized expressiveness of something. Unusual artistic means are used to achieve expression.

Elegy- a lyrical poem that conveys deeply personal, intimate experiences of a person, imbued with a mood of sadness.

Ellipsis- a stylistic figure, an omission of a word whose meaning can be easily restored from the context. The meaningful function of ellipsis is to create the effect of lyrical “understatement,” deliberate negligence, and emphasized dynamism of speech.
The beast has a den,
The way for the wanderer,
For the dead - drogues,
To each his own.

M. Tsvetaeva

Epigram- short poem making fun of a person.

Epigraph – an expression prefixed by the author to his work or part of it. An epigraph usually expresses the essence of the author's creative intent.

Episode – a fragment of the plot of a literary work that describes a certain integral moment of action that makes up the content of the work.

Epistrophe – repetition of the same word or expression in a long phrase or period, focusing the reader’s attention, in poetry - at the beginning and end of stanzas, as if surrounding them.

I won't tell you anything

I won't alarm you at all...

Epithet- an artistic and figurative definition that emphasizes the most significant feature of an object or phenomenon in a given context; used to evoke in the reader a visible image of a person, thing, nature, etc.

I sent you a black rose in a glass

Golden as the sky, Ai...

An epithet can be expressed by an adjective, adverb, participle, or numeral. Often the epithet has a metaphorical character. Metaphorical epithets highlight the properties of an object in a special way: they transfer one of the meanings of a word to another word based on the fact that these words have a common feature: sable eyebrows, a warm heart, a cheerful wind, i.e. a metaphorical epithet uses the figurative meaning of a word.

Epiphora- a figure opposite to anaphora, repetition of the same elements at the end of adjacent segments of speech (words, lines, stanzas, phrases):
Baby,
We are all a little bit of a horse,
Each of us is a horse in our own way.

V.V. Mayakovsky

Epic – 1. One of three types of literature, the defining feature of which is the description of certain events, phenomena, characters. 2. This term is often used to describe heroic tales, epics, and fairy tales in folk art.

Essay(French essai - attempt, test, essay) - a literary work of small volume, usually prosaic, of free composition, conveying the author’s individual impressions, judgments, thoughts about a particular problem, topic, particular event or phenomenon. It differs from an essay in that in an essay the facts are only a reason for the author’s thoughts.

YU

Humor - a type of comic in which vices are not ridiculed mercilessly, as in satire, but the shortcomings and weaknesses of a person or phenomenon are kindly emphasized, recalling that they are often only a continuation or the reverse side of our merits.

I

Iambic- two-syllable poetic meter with stress on the second syllable.
The abyss has opened and is full of stars

U-|U-|U-|U-|
The stars have no number, the bottom of the abyss. U-|U-|U-|U-|

>>A brief dictionary of literary terms

Allegory- an allegorical description of an object or phenomenon for the purpose of its specific, visual representation.

Amphibrachium- a three-syllable meter of a verse, in a line of which groups of three syllables are repeated - unstressed, stressed, unstressed (-).

Anapaest- three-syllable verse size, in the lines of which groups of three syllables are repeated - two unstressed and stressed (-).

Ballad- a poetic story on a legendary, historical or everyday theme; The real in a ballad is often combined with the fantastic.

Fable- a short allegorical story of an instructive nature. The characters in the fable are often animals, objects, and which appear human qualities. Most often, fables are written in verse.

Hero (literary)- a character, character, artistic image of a person in a literary work.

Hyperbola- excessive exaggeration of the properties of the depicted object.

Dactyl- a three-syllable verse, in the lines of which groups of three syllables are repeated - stressed and two unstressed.

Detail (artistic)- expressive detail with the help of which an artistic image is created. A detail can clarify and clarify the writer’s intention.

Dialogue- a conversation between two or more persons.

Dramatic work or drama- a work intended to be staged.

Genre literary- manifestation in a more or less extensive group of works of common features of the image of reality.

Idea- the main idea of ​​a work of art.

Intonation- basic means of expression sounding speech, which allows you to convey the speaker’s attitude to the subject of speech and to the interlocutor.

Irony- subtle, hidden mockery. The negative meaning of irony is hidden behind the external positive form of the statement.

Comedy- a dramatic work based on humor, funny.

Comic- funny in life and literature. The main types of comics: humor, irony, satire.

Composition- construction, arrangement and interrelation of all parts of a work of art.

Legend- a work created by folk fantasy, which combines the real (events, personalities) and the fantastic.

Lyrical work- a work that expresses the author’s thoughts and feelings caused by various life phenomena.

Metaphor- transferring the properties and actions of some objects to others, similar to them but based on the principle of similarity.

Monologue- the speech of one person in a work.

Novella - narrative genre, close in volume to a story. The short story differs from the short story in the sharpness and dynamics of the plot.

Personification- transferring the characteristics and properties of living beings to non-living ones.

Description- a verbal image of something (landscape, portrait of a hero, interior view of a home, etc.).

Parody- a funny, distorted likeness of something; comic or satirical imitation of someone (something).

Pathos- V fiction: sublime feeling, passionate inspiration, elevated, solemn tone of the narrative.

Scenery- depiction of nature in a work of art.

Tale- one of the types epic works. In terms of the scope of events and characters, the story is more than a short story, but less than a novel.

Portrait- an image of the hero’s appearance (his face, figure, clothes) in the work.

Poetry- poetic works (lyrical, epic and dramatic).

Poem- one of the types of lyric-epic works: the poem has a plot, events (as in an epic work) and an open expression by the author of his feelings (as in lyrics).

Parable - short story, containing in an allegorical form a religious or moral teaching.

Prose- non-poetic works of art (stories, novellas, novels).

Prototype - real face, which served the writer as the basis for creating a literary image.

Story- a small epic work telling about one or more events from the life of a person or animal.

Narrator- the image of a person in a work of art, on whose behalf the story is told.

Rhythm- repetition of homogeneous elements (speech units) at regular intervals.

Rhyme- consonance of the endings of poetic lines.

Satire- ridiculing, exposing the negative aspects of life by depicting them in an absurd, caricatured form.

Comparison- comparison of one phenomenon or object with another.

Poem- a poetic line, the smallest unit of rhythmically organized speech. The word "verse" is often used to mean "poem".

Poem- a short poetic work in verse.

Poetic speech- unlike prose, speech is rhythmically ordered, consisting of similar sounding segments - lines, stanzas. Poems often have rhyme.

Stanza- in a poetic work, a group of lines (verses) that constitute a unity, with a certain rhythm, as well as a repeating arrangement of rhymes.

Plot- the development of action, the course of events in narrative and dramatic works, sometimes lyrical ones.

Subject- the range of life phenomena depicted in the work; what is said in the works.

Fantastic- works of art in which a world of incredible, wonderful ideas and images is created, born of the writer’s imagination.

Literary character- an image of a person in a literary work, created with a certain completeness and endowed with individual characteristics.

Trochee- two-syllable verse with stress on the first syllable.

Fiction- one of the types of art is the art of words. The word in fiction is a means of creating an image, depicting a phenomenon, expressing feelings and thoughts.

Artistic image- a person, object, phenomenon, picture of life, creatively recreated in a work of art.

Aesopian language- forced allegory, artistic speech, full of omissions and ironic hints. The expression goes back to the legendary image of the ancient Greek poet Aesop, the creator of the fable genre.

Epigram- a short satirical poem.

Epigraph- a short saying (proverb, quote) that the author places before the work or part of it to help the reader understand the main idea.

Episode- an excerpt of a work of art that is relatively complete.

Epithet- artistic definition an object or phenomenon, helping to vividly imagine the subject, to feel the author’s attitude towards it.

Epic work- a work of art in which the author tells about people, the world around us, and various events. Types of epic works: novel, story, short story, fable, fairy tale, parable, etc.

Humor- in a work of art: depiction of heroes in a funny, comic form; cheerful, good-natured laughter that helps a person get rid of shortcomings.

Iambic- two-syllable verse with stress on the second syllable

Simakova L. A. Literature: Handbook for 7th grade. behind-the-scenes initial deposits from my Russian beginning. - K.: Vezha, 2007. 288 pp.: ill. - Russian language.

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Acmeism – a movement in Russian poetry in the first two decades of the 20th century, the center of which was the “Workshop of Poets” circle, and the main platform was the magazine “Apollo”. The Acmeists contrasted the realism of material mother nature and the sensual, plastic-material clarity of artistic language with the social content of art, abandoning the poetics of vague hints and the mysticism of symbolism in the name of a “return to the earth,” to the subject, to the exact meaning of the word (A. Akhmatova, S. Gorodetsky , N. Gumilyov, M. Zenkevich, O. Mandelstam).

Allegory- allegorical image of an abstract concept or phenomenon through a concrete image; personification of human properties or qualities. The allegory consists of two elements:

1. semantic - this is any concept or phenomenon (wisdom, cunning, kindness, childhood, nature, etc.) that the author seeks to depict without naming it;

2. figurative-objective - this is a specific object, a creature depicted in a work of art and representing a named concept or phenomenon.

Alliteration- repetition in poetic speech (less often in prose) of the same consonant sounds in order to enhance the expressiveness of artistic speech; one type of sound recording:

Evening. Seaside. Sighs of the wind.
The majestic cry of the waves.
A storm is coming. It hits the shore
A black boat alien to enchantment.
K.D.Balmont

Alogism – an artistic device that uses phrases that contradict logic to emphasize the internal inconsistency of certain dramatic or comic situations - to prove, as if by contradiction, a certain logic and, therefore, the truth of the position of the author (and then the reader), who understands the illogical phrase as a figurative expression (the title of the novel by Yu. Bondarev "Hot Snow").

Amphibrachium- a three-syllable poetic meter, in which the stress falls on the second syllable - stressed among unstressed ones - in the foot. Scheme: U-U| U-U:

The midnight blizzard was noisy
In the forest and remote side.
A.A.Fet

Anapaest- a three-syllable poetic meter, in which the stress falls on the last, third, syllable in the foot. Scheme: UU- | UU-:

People's houses are clean, bright,
But in our house it’s cramped, stuffy...
N.A. Nekrasov.

Anaphora- unity of command; repetition of a word or group of words at the beginning of several phrases or stanzas:

I love you, Petra's creation,
I love your strict, slender appearance...
A.S. Pushkin.

Antithesis- a stylistic device based on a sharp contrast of concepts and images, most often based on the use of antonyms:

I am a king - I am a slave, I am a worm - I am a god!
G.R.Derzhavin

Assonance- repeated repetition in poetic speech (less often in prose) of homogeneous vowel sounds. Sometimes assonance refers to an imprecise rhyme in which the vowels coincide, but the consonants do not coincide (hugeness - I’ll come to my senses; thirst - it’s a pity). Enhances the expressiveness of speech.

The room became dark.
The window obscures the slope.
Or is this a dream?
Ding dong. Ding dong.
I.P. Tokmakova.

Aphorism – a clear, easy-to-remember, precise, brief expression of a certain completeness of thought. Aphorisms often become individual lines of poetry or phrases of prose: “Poetry is everything! - a ride into the unknown." (V. Mayakovsky)

Ballad- a narrative song with a dramatic development of the plot, the basis of which is an unusual incident, one of the types of lyric-epic poetry. The ballad is based on an extraordinary story, reflecting the essential moments of the relationship between man and society, people among themselves, the most important features of a person.

Bard – a poet-singer, usually a performer of his own poems, often set to his own music.

Blank verse- unrhymed verses with metric organization (i.e., organized through a system of rhythmically repeating accents). Widely distributed in oral folk art and was actively used in the 18th century.

Forgive me, maiden beauty!
I will part with you forever,
Young girl, I’ll cry.
I'll let you go, beauty,
I'll let you go with ribbons...
Folk song.

Vers libre- a modern system of versification, which represents a kind of border between verse and prose (it lacks rhyme, meter, traditional rhythmic ordering; the number of syllables in a line and lines in a stanza can be different; there is also no equality of emphasis characteristic of blank verse. Their poetic features speech remains divided into lines with a pause at the end of each line and weakened symmetry of speech (the emphasis falls on the last word of the line).

She came in from the cold
Flushed,
Filled the room
The aroma of air and perfume,
In a ringing voice
And completely disrespectful to classes
Chatting.
A.Blok

Eternal image - an image from a work of classic world literature, expressing certain features of human psychology, which has become a common name of one type or another: Faust, Plyushkin, Oblomov, Don Quixote, Mitrofanushka, etc.

Inner monologue - the announcement of thoughts and feelings that reveal the character’s inner experiences, not intended for the hearing of others, when the character speaks as if to himself, “to the side.”

Hero lyrical- the image of the poet (his lyrical “I”), whose experiences, thoughts and feelings are reflected in the lyrical work. The lyrical hero is not identical to the biographical personality. The idea of ​​a lyrical hero is of a summary nature and is formed in the process of familiarization with the inner world that is revealed in lyrical works not through actions, but through experiences, mental states, and manner of verbal self-expression.

Literary hero - character, protagonist of a literary work.

Hyperbola- a means of artistic representation based on excessive exaggeration; figurative expression, which consists in an exorbitant exaggeration of events, feelings, strength, meaning, size of the depicted phenomenon; an outwardly effective form of presenting what is depicted. Can be idealizing and humiliating.

Gradation- stylistic device, arrangement of words and expressions, as well as means of artistic representation in increasing or decreasing importance. Types of gradation: increasing (climax) and decreasing (anti-climax).
Increasing gradation:

Orata's bipod is maple,
The damask boots on the bipod,
The bipod's snout is silver,
And the horn of the bipod is red and gold.
Epic about Volga and Mikula

Descending gradation:

Fly! less fly! disintegrated into a grain of sand.
N.V.Gogol

Grotesque – a bizarre mixture in the image of the real and the fantastic, the beautiful and the ugly, the tragic and the comic - for a more impressive expression of creative intent.

Dactyl- a three-syllable poetic meter, in which the stress falls on the first syllable in the foot. Scheme: -UU| -UU:

Heavenly clouds, eternal wanderers!
The azure steppe, the pearl chain
You rush as if, like me, you are exiles,
From the sweet north to the south.
M.Yu.Lermontov

Decadence – a phenomenon in literature (and art in general) of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, reflecting the crisis of the transitional stage of social relations in the minds of some spokesmen for the sentiments of social groups whose ideological foundations were being destroyed by the turning points of history.

Artistic detail – detail that emphasizes the semantic authenticity of the work with material, eventual authenticity - concretizing this or that image.

Dialogue - exchange of remarks, messages, live speech between two or more persons.

Drama – 1. One of three types of literature, defining works intended for stage execution. It differs from the epic in that it has not a narrative, but a dialogic form; from the lyrics - in that it reproduces the world external to the author. It is divided into genres: tragedy, comedy, and drama itself. 2. Drama is also called a dramatic work that does not have clear genre characteristics, combining techniques of different genres; sometimes such a work is simply called a play.

Unity of people – the technique of repeating similar sounds, words, linguistic structures at the beginning of adjacent lines or stanzas.

Wait for the snow to blow

Wait for it to be hot

Wait when others are not waiting...

K. Simonov

Literary genre - a historically developing type of literary work, the main features of which, constantly changing along with the development of the diversity of forms and content of literature, are sometimes identified with the concept of “type”; but more often the term genre defines a type of literature based on content and emotional characteristics: satirical genre, detective genre, historical essay genre.

Tie – an event that determines the occurrence of a conflict in a literary work. Sometimes it coincides with the beginning of the work.

Beginning – the beginning of a Russian folk piece literary creativity- epics, fairy tales, etc. (“Once upon a time...”, “In the distant kingdom, in the thirtieth state...”).

Sound recording- a technique for enhancing the imagery of a text by constructing phrases and lines of poetry in a sound manner that would correspond to the reproduced scene, picture, or expressed mood. In sound writing, alliteration, assonance, and sound repetitions are used. Sound recording enhances the image of a certain phenomenon, action, state.

Onomatopoeia- a type of sound recording; the use of sound combinations that can reflect the sound of the described phenomena, similar in sound to those depicted in artistic speech (“thunder rumbles,” “horns roar,” “cuckoos crow,” “echoed laughter”).

The idea of ​​a work of art - the main idea that summarizes the semantic, figurative, emotional content of a work of art.

Imagism – a literary movement that appeared in Russia after the October Revolution of 1917, proclaiming the image as an end in itself of a work, and not as a means of expressing the essence of the content and reflecting reality. It broke up on its own in 1927. At one time, S. Yesenin joined this trend.

Impressionism- a direction in art of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, which asserted that the main task of artistic creativity is the expression of the artist’s subjective impressions of the phenomena of reality.

Improvisation – direct creation of a work in the process of performance.

Inversion- violation of the generally accepted grammatical sequence of speech; rearrangement of parts of a phrase, giving it special expressiveness; an unusual sequence of words in a sentence.

And the maiden's song is barely audible

Valleys in deep silence.

A.S. Pushkin

Interpretation – interpretation, explanation of ideas, themes, figurative systems and other components of a work of art in literature and criticism.

Intrigue – system, and sometimes the mystery, complexity, mystery of events, on the unraveling of which the plot of the work is built.

Irony – a kind of comic, bitter or, on the contrary, kind ridicule, by ridiculing this or that phenomenon, exposing its negative features and thereby confirming the positive aspects foreseen by the author in the phenomenon.

Classicism – artistic movement that developed in European literature 17th century, which is based on the recognition of ancient art as the highest example, ideal, and the works of antiquity as the artistic norm. Aesthetics is based on the principle of rationalism and “imitation of nature.” Cult of the mind. A work of art is organized as an artificial, logically constructed whole. Strict plot and compositional organization, schematism. Human characters are depicted in a straightforward manner; positive and negative heroes are contrasted. Actively addressing social and civil issues. Emphasized objectivity of the narrative. Strict hierarchy of genres. High: tragedy, epic, ode. Low: comedy, satire, fable. Mixing high and low genres is not allowed. The leading genre is tragedy.

Collision – generating a conflict that underlies the action of a literary work, a contradiction between the characters of the heroes of this work, or between characters and circumstances, the collisions of which constitute the plot of the work.

Comedy – a dramatic work that uses satire and humor to ridicule the vices of society and man.

Composition – arrangement, alternation, correlation and interrelation of parts of a literary work, serving the most complete embodiment of the artist’s plan.

Context – the general meaning (theme, idea) of the work, expressed in its entire text or in a sufficiently meaningful passage, cohesion, connection with which the quotation, and indeed any passage in general, should not lose.

Artistic conflict - figurative reflection in a work of art of the actions of the forces of struggle of interests, passions, ideas, characters, political aspirations, both personal and social. Conflict adds spice to the plot.

Climax – in a literary work, a scene, event, episode where the conflict reaches its highest tension and a decisive clash occurs between the characters and aspirations of the heroes, after which the transition to the denouement begins in the plot.

Leitmotif- an expressive detail, a specific artistic image, repeated many times, mentioned, passing through a separate work or the entire work of the writer.

Lyrics- one of the main types of literature, reflecting life through the depiction of individual (single) states, thoughts, feelings, impressions and experiences of a person caused by certain circumstances. Feelings and experiences are not described, but expressed. The center of artistic attention is the image-experience. The characteristic features of the lyrics are poetic form, rhythm, lack of plot, small size, a clear reflection of the experiences of the lyrical hero. The most subjective type of literature.

Lyrical digression - deviation from descriptions of events, characters in an epic or lyric-epic work, where the author (or the lyrical hero on whose behalf the story is told) expresses his thoughts and feelings about what is being described, his attitude towards it, addressing directly the reader.

Litota – 1. The technique of downplaying a phenomenon or its details is a reverse hyperbole (the fabulous “boy as big as a finger” or “a little man... in big mittens, and himself as big as a fingernail” by N. Nekrasov).

2. Reception of the characterization of a particular phenomenon not by a direct definition, but by the negation of the opposite definition:

The key to nature is not lost,

Proud work is not in vain...

V.Shalamov

Metaphor- figurative meaning of a word, based on the use of one object or phenomenon to another by similarity or contrast; a hidden comparison based on the similarity or contrast of phenomena, in which the words “as”, “as if”, “as if” are absent, but implied.

Bee for field tribute
Flies from a wax cell.
A.S. Pushkin

Metaphor increases the accuracy of poetic speech and its emotional expressiveness. A type of metaphor is personification. Types of metaphor:

1. lexical metaphor, or erased, in which the direct meaning is completely destroyed; “it’s raining”, “time is running”, “clock hand”, “doorknob”;

2. simple metaphor - built on the convergence of objects or on one of their common features: “hail of bullets”, “talk of waves”, “dawn of life”, “table leg”, “dawn is blazing”;

3. realized metaphor - literal understanding of the meanings of the words that make up the metaphor, emphasizing the direct meanings of the words: “But you don’t have a face - you’re only wearing a shirt and trousers” (S. Sokolov).

4. expanded metaphor - the spread of a metaphorical image over several phrases or the entire work (for example, A.S. Pushkin’s poem “The Cart of Life” or “He couldn’t sleep for a long time: the remaining husk of words clogged and tormented the brain, stabbed in the temples, there’s no way I had to get rid of it” (V. Nabokov)

A metaphor is usually expressed by a noun, a verb, and then other parts of speech.

Metonymy- rapprochement, comparison of concepts by contiguity, when a phenomenon or object is designated using other words and concepts: “a steel speaker is dozing in a holster” - a revolver; “led swords on abundant” - led warriors into battle; “The little owl began to sing” - the violinist began to play his instrument.

Myths – works of folk fantasy that personify reality in the form of gods, demons, and spirits. They were born in ancient times, preceding the religious and, especially, scientific understanding and explanation of the world.

Modernism – designation of many trends, directions in art that determine the desire of artists to reflect modernity with new means, improving, modernizing - in their opinion - traditional means in accordance with historical progress.

Monologue – the speech of one of the literary heroes, addressed either to himself, or to others, or to the public, isolated from the remarks of other heroes, having independent meaning.

Motive- 1. The smallest element of the plot; the simplest, indivisible element of a narrative (a stable and endlessly repeating phenomenon). Numerous motifs make up various plots (for example, the motif of the road, the motif of the search for the missing bride, etc.). This meaning of the term is more often used in relation to works of oral folk art.

2. “Stable semantic unit” (B.N. Putilov); “a semantically rich component of the work, related to the theme, idea, but not identical to them” (V.E. Khalizev); a semantic (content) element essential for understanding the author’s concept (for example, the motive of death in “The Tale of the Dead Princess...” by A.S. Pushkin, the motive of cold in “light breathing” - “Easy Breathing” by I. A. Bunin, motive full moon in “The Master and Margarita” by M.A. Bulgakov).

Naturalism – direction in literature of the last third of the 19th century, which asserted an extremely accurate and objective reproduction of reality, sometimes leading to the suppression of the author’s individuality.

Neologisms – newly formed words or expressions.

Novella – a short piece of prose comparable to a short story. The novella is more eventful, the plot is clearer, the plot twist leading to the denouement is clearer.

Artistic image - 1. The main way of perceiving and reflecting reality in artistic creativity, a form of knowledge of life and expression of this knowledge specific to art; the goal and result of the search, and then identifying, highlighting, emphasizing with artistic techniques those features of a phenomenon that most fully reveal its aesthetic, moral, socially significant essence. 2. The term “image” sometimes denotes one or another trope in a work (the image of freedom - “the star of captivating happiness” by A.S. Pushkin), as well as one or another literary hero (the image of the wives of the Decembrists E. Trubetskoy and M. Volkonskaya N. Nekrasova).

Oh yeah- a poem of an enthusiastic nature (solemn, glorifying) in honor of a person or event.

Oxymoron, or oxymoron- a figure based on a combination of words that are opposite in meaning for the purpose of an unusual, impressive expression of a new concept or representation: hot Snow, stingy knight, lush nature withering.

Personification- the depiction of inanimate objects as animate, in which they are endowed with the properties of living beings: the gift of speech, the ability to think and feel.

What are you howling about, night wind,
Why are you complaining so madly?
F.I.Tyutchev

Feature article - a literary work based on facts, documents, and observations of the author.

Paradox - in literature - the technique of a statement that clearly contradicts generally accepted concepts, either to expose those of them that, in the opinion of the author, are false, or to express one’s disagreement with the so-called “common sense”, due to inertia, dogmatism, and ignorance.

Parallelism- one of the types of repetition (syntactic, lexical, rhythmic); a compositional technique that emphasizes the connection between several elements of a work of art; analogy, bringing together phenomena by similarity (for example, natural phenomena and human life).

In bad weather the wind
Howls - howls;
Violent head
Evil sadness torments.
V.A.Koltsov

Scenery - in literature - the depiction of pictures of nature in a literary work as a means of figurative expression of the author’s intention.

Tale – a work of epic prose, gravitating towards a sequential presentation of the plot, limited to a minimum of plot lines.

Repetition- a figure consisting of the repetition of words, expressions, song or poetic lines in order to attract special attention to them.

Every house is alien to me, every temple is not empty,
And everything is the same and everything is one...
M. Tsvetaeva

Subtext – the meaning hidden “under” the text, i.e. not expressed directly and openly, but arising from the narrative or dialogue of the text.

Poetry- a special organization of artistic speech, which is distinguished by rhythm and rhyme - poetic form; lyrical form of reflection of reality. The term poetry is often used to mean “works of different genres in verse.” Conveys the subjective attitude of the individual to the world. In the foreground is the image-experience. It does not set the task of conveying the development of events and characters.

Poem- a large poetic work with a plot and narrative organization; a story or novel in verse; a multi-part work in which the epic and lyrical principles merge together. The poem can be classified as a lyric-epic genre of literature, since the narration of historical events and events in the lives of the heroes is revealed in it through the perception and assessment of the narrator. The poem deals with events of universal significance. Most poems glorify some human acts, events and characters.

Prototype – a real person who served as a model for the author to create the image of a literary hero.

Play – a general designation for a literary work intended for stage performance - tragedy, drama, comedy, etc.

Interchange – the final part of the development of a conflict or intrigue, where the conflict of the work is resolved and comes to a logical figurative conclusion.

Poetic meter- a consistently expressed form of poetic rhythm (determined by the number of syllables, stresses or feet - depending on the system of versification); diagram of the construction of a poetic line. In Russian (syllabic-tonic) versification, there are five main poetic meters: two-syllable (iamb, trochee) and three-syllable (dactyl, amphibrach, anapest). In addition, each size can vary in the number of feet (4-foot iambic; 5-foot iambic, etc.).

Story - a small prose work of a mainly narrative nature, compositionally grouped around a separate episode or character.

Realism – an artistic method of figuratively reflecting reality in accordance with objective accuracy.

Reminiscence – the use in a literary work of expressions from other works, or even folklore, that evoke some other interpretation from the author; sometimes the borrowed expression is slightly changed (M. Lermontov - “Lush city, poor city” (about St. Petersburg) - from F. Glinka “Wonderful city, ancient city” (about Moscow).

Refrain- repetition of a verse or a series of verses at the end of a stanza (in songs - chorus).

We are ordered to go into battle:

"Long live freedom!"

Freedom! Whose? Not said.

But not the people.

We are ordered to go into battle -

"Allied for the sake of nations"

But the main thing is not said:

Whose for the sake of banknotes?

Rhythm- constant, measured repetition in the text of the same type of segments, including minimal ones, - stressed and unstressed syllables.

Rhyme- sound repetition in two or more verses, mainly at the end. Unlike other sound repetitions, rhyme always emphasizes the rhythm and division of speech into verses.

A rhetorical question is a question that does not require an answer (either the answer is fundamentally impossible, or is clear in itself, or the question is addressed to a conditional interlocutor). A rhetorical question activates the reader’s attention and enhances his emotional reaction.

"Rus! where are you going?”
“Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol
Or is it new for us to argue with Europe?
Or is the Russian unaccustomed to victories?
“To the slanderers of Russia” A.S. Pushkin

Genus - one of the main sections in the taxonomy of literary works, defining three different forms: epic, lyric, drama.

Novel - an epic narrative with elements of dialogue, sometimes including drama or literary digressions, focusing on the history of an individual in a social environment.

Romanticism – a literary movement of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, which opposed itself to classicism as a search for forms of reflection that were more in line with modern reality.

Romantic hero– a complex, passionate personality, inner world which is unusually deep, endless; it is a whole universe full of contradictions.

Sarcasm – caustic, sarcastic ridicule of someone or something. Widely used in satirical literary works.

Satire – a type of literature that exposes and ridicules the vices of people and society in specific forms. These forms can be very diverse - paradox and hyperbole, grotesque and parody, etc.

Sentimentalism – literary movement of the late 18th – early 19th centuries. It arose as a protest against the canons of classicism in art that had turned into dogma, reflecting the canonization of feudal social relations that had already turned into a hindrance to social development.

Syllabic versification e - syllabic system of versification, based on the equality of the number of syllables in each verse with obligatory stress on the penultimate syllable; equipoise. The length of a verse is determined by the number of syllables.

It's hard not to love
And love is hard
And the hardest thing
Loving love cannot be obtained.
A.D. Kantemir

Syllabic-tonic versification- syllabic stress system of versification, which is determined by the number of syllables, the number of stresses and their location in the poetic line. It is based on the equality of the number of syllables in a verse and the orderly change of stressed and unstressed syllables. Depending on the system of alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables, two-syllable and three-syllable sizes are distinguished.

Symbol- an image that expresses the meaning of a phenomenon in objective form. An object, an animal, a sign becomes a symbol when they are endowed with additional, extremely important meaning.

Symbolism – literary and artistic movement of the late 19th – early 20th centuries. Symbolism sought through symbols in a tangible form to embody the idea of ​​the unity of the world, expressed in accordance with its most diverse parts, allowing colors, sounds, smells to represent one through the other (D. Merezhkovsky, A. Bely, A. Blok, Z. Gippius, K. Balmont , V. Bryusov).

Synecdoche – artistic technique of substitution for the sake of expressiveness - one phenomenon, subject, object, etc. – correlated with it by other phenomena, objects, objects.

Oh, you are heavy, Monomakh’s hat!

A.S. Pushkin.

Comparison- a pictorial technique based on the comparison of a phenomenon or concept (object of comparison) with another phenomenon or concept (means of comparison), with the goal of highlighting any particularly important artistic feature of the object of comparison:

Full of goodness before the end of the year,
Days are like Antonov apples.
A.T. Tvardovsky

Poem- a small work created according to the laws of poetic speech; usually a lyrical work.

Foot- a stable (ordered) combination of a stressed syllable with one or two unstressed syllables, which are repeated in each verse. The foot can be two-syllable (iambic U-, trochee -U) and three-syllable (dactyl -UU, amphibrachium U-U, anapest UU-).

Stanza- a group of verses repeated in poetic speech, related in meaning, as well as in the arrangement of rhymes; a combination of verses that forms a rhythmic and syntactic whole, united by a certain rhyme system; additional rhythmic element of verse. Often has complete content and syntactic structure. The stanza is separated from one another by an increased interval.

Plot- a system of events in a work of art, presented in a certain connection, revealing the characters of the characters and the writer’s attitude to the depicted life phenomena; subsequence. The course of events that constitutes the content of a work of art; dynamic aspect of a work of art.

Subject- a circle of phenomena and events that form the basis of the work; object of artistic depiction; what the author is talking about and what he wants to attract the attention of readers to.

Tonic versification- a system of versification based on the equality of stressed syllables in poetry. The length of the line is determined by the number of stressed syllables. The number of unstressed syllables is arbitrary.

The girl sang in the church choir

About all those who are tired in a foreign land,

About all the ships that went to sea,

About everyone who has forgotten their joy.

Tragedy - a type of drama that arose from the ancient Greek ritual dithyramb in honor of the patron of viticulture and wine, the god Dionysus, who was represented in the form of a goat, then in the likeness of a satyr with horns and a beard.

Tragicomedy – a drama that combines features of both tragedy and comedy, reflecting the relativity of our definitions of the phenomena of reality.

Trails- words and expressions used in a figurative sense in order to achieve artistic expressiveness of speech. The basis of any trope is a comparison of objects and phenomena.

Default- a figure that gives the listener or reader the opportunity to guess and reflect on what could be discussed in a suddenly interrupted utterance.

But is it me, is it me, the sovereign’s favorite...
But death... but power... but the people's disasters....
A.S. Pushkin

Fable – a series of events that serve as the basis of a literary work. Often, the plot means the same thing as the plot; the differences between them are so arbitrary that a number of literary scholars consider the plot to be what others consider to be the plot, and vice versa.

The final - part of the composition of a work that ends it. It may sometimes coincide with the denouement. Sometimes the ending is an epilogue.

Futurism – artistic movement in the art of the first two decades of the 20th century. The birth of futurism is considered to be the “Futurist Manifesto” published in 1909 in the Parisian magazine Le Figaro. The theorist and leader of the first group of futurists was the Italian F. Marienetti. The main content of futurism was the extremist revolutionary overthrow of the old world, its aesthetics in particular, down to linguistic norms. Russian futurism opened with the “Prologue of Egofuturism” by I. Severyanin and the collection “A Slap in the Face of Public Taste,” in which V. Mayakovsky took part.

Trochee- two-syllable poetic meter with stress on the first syllable: -U|-U|-U|-U|:

The storm covers the sky with darkness,
Whirling snow whirlwinds;
Then, like a beast, she will howl,
Then he will cry like a child...
A.S. Pushkin

Quote - a statement by another author quoted verbatim in the work of one author - as confirmation of one’s thought with an authoritative, indisputable statement, or even vice versa - as a formulation requiring refutation, criticism.

Exposition – the part of the plot immediately preceding the plot that provides the reader with background information about the circumstances in which the conflict of the literary work arose.

Expression- emphasized expressiveness of something. Unusual artistic means are used to achieve expression.

Elegy- a lyrical poem that conveys deeply personal, intimate experiences of a person, imbued with a mood of sadness.

Epigram- a short poem ridiculing a person.

Epigraph – an expression prefixed by the author to his work or part of it. An epigraph usually expresses the essence of the author's creative intent.

Episode – a fragment of the plot of a literary work that describes a certain integral moment of action that makes up the content of the work.

Epithet- an artistic and figurative definition that emphasizes the most significant feature of an object or phenomenon in a given context; used to evoke in the reader a visible image of a person, thing, nature, etc.

I sent you a black rose in a glass

Golden as the sky, Ai...

An epithet can be expressed by an adjective, adverb, participle, or numeral. Often the epithet has a metaphorical character. Metaphorical epithets highlight the properties of an object in a special way: they transfer one of the meanings of a word to another word based on the fact that these words have a common feature: sable eyebrows, a warm heart, a cheerful wind, i.e. a metaphorical epithet uses the figurative meaning of a word.

Essay - a literary work of small volume, usually prosaic, of free composition, conveying the author’s individual impressions, judgments, and thoughts about a particular problem, topic, particular event or phenomenon. It differs from an essay in that in an essay the facts are only a reason for the author’s thoughts.

Humor - a type of comic in which vices are not ridiculed mercilessly, as in satire, but the shortcomings and weaknesses of a person or phenomenon are kindly emphasized, recalling that they are often only a continuation or the reverse side of our merits.

Iambic- two-syllable poetic meter with stress on the second syllable: U-|U-|U-|U-|:

The abyss has opened and is full of stars

The stars have no number, the bottom of the abyss.