The figurative meaning of the word first examples. Direct and figurative meaning of the word

The multiplicity of meanings of a word is that aspect of linguistics and linguistics that attracts the close attention of researchers, since each language is a mobile and constantly changing system. Every day new words appear in it, as well as new meanings of words already known. For their competent use in speech, it is necessary to monitor the processes of formation of new semantic shades in the Russian language.

Polysemantic words

These are lexical items that have two or more meanings. One of them is direct, and all the rest are portable.

It is important to note what place in the Russian language is occupied by polysemantic words. Direct and figurative meanings are one of the main aspects of the study of linguistics, since the phenomenon of polysemy covers more than 40% of the vocabulary of the Russian language. This happens because no language in the world is able to give its own specific designation to each specific subject and concept. In this regard, there is a discrepancy between the meanings of one word for several others. This is a natural process that occurs under the influence of factors such as associative thinking of people, metaphor and metonymy.

Aspects of polysemy: relations of meaning

Polysemy implies a certain system of meanings of a word. How does this system come about? How do such two components appear as the direct and figurative meaning of a word? First of all, any lexical unit is formed in the language with the formation of a new concept or phenomenon. Then, due to certain linguistic processes, additional meanings appear, which are called figurative. The main influence on the formation of new meanings is provided by the specific context in which the word is located. Many researchers note that polysemy is often impossible outside the linguistic context.

Words with direct and figurative meanings become such by linking to the context, and their use depends on the choice of meaning in each specific situation.

Aspects of polysemy: semantic relations

It is very important to distinguish between such concepts as polysemy and homonymy. Polysemy is a polysemy, a system of meanings attached to the same word, related to each other. Homonymy is a phenomenon of linguistics, covering words that are identical in form (spelling) and sound design (pronunciation). At the same time, such lexical units are not related in meaning and do not have a common origin from one concept or phenomenon.

The direct and figurative meaning of a word in the light of the semantic relationships between the various meanings attached to a particular word are the object of study by many scientists. The difficulty of studying this group of lexical units is that it is often difficult to find a common initial meaning for polysemantic words. It is also difficult to separate completely unrelated meanings that have many common features, but are only examples of homonymy.

Aspects of polysemy: categorical connection

Of particular importance for scientists in the aspect of the study of the topic "Direct and figurative meaning of the word" is the explanation of polysemy in terms of cognitive categorization. This theory suggests that the language system is an extremely flexible structure that can change due to the acquisition of new concepts about a phenomenon or object in the human mind.

Many researchers are inclined to believe that polysemy appears and develops according to certain laws, and is not due to spontaneous and unsystematic processes in the language. All the meanings of this or that word are initially in the mind of a person, and are also a priori embedded in the structure of the language. This theory already affects not only aspects of linguistics, but also psycholinguistics.

Direct value characteristic

All people have an intuitive idea of ​​what the direct and figurative meaning of the word is. Speaking in the language of the inhabitants, the direct meaning is the most common meaning that is embedded in a word; it can be used in any context, directly pointing to a specific concept. In dictionaries, the direct meaning always comes first. The numbers are followed by figurative values.

All lexical units, as mentioned above, can be divided into single-valued and multi-valued. Single-valued words are those that have only a direct meaning. This group includes terms, words with a narrow subject relatedness, new, not yet very common words, proper names. Perhaps, under the influence of the processes of development of the language system, the words of these categories may acquire additional meanings. In other words, lexical units, representatives of these groups, will not necessarily always be unambiguous.

Portable value characteristic

This topic will definitely be chosen by any teacher of the Russian language at school for certification. “The direct and figurative meaning of the word” is a section that occupies a very important place in the structure of the study of Russian speech, so it is worth talking about it in more detail.

Consider the figurative meaning of lexical units. A figurative is an additional meaning of a word that has appeared as a result of an indirect or direct nomination. All additional meanings are associated with the main meaning metonymically, metaphorically or associatively. For figurative meanings, the blurring of meanings and boundaries of usage is characteristic. It all depends on the context and style of speech in which the additional meaning is used.

Particularly interesting are cases when a figurative meaning takes the place of the main one, displacing it from use. An example is the word "balda", which originally meant a heavy hammer, and now - a stupid, narrow-minded person.

Metaphor as a way of transferring meaning

Scientists distinguish different types of figurative meanings of a word depending on the way they are formed. The first one is a metaphor. The main meaning can be transferred by the similarity of features.

So, they distinguish similarities in shape, color, size, actions, feelings and emotional state. Naturally, this classification is conditional, since similar concepts can be metaphorically subdivided into the categories listed earlier.

This classification is not the only possible one. Other researchers distinguish metaphorical transfer by similarity, depending on the animation of the subject. Thus, the transfer of the properties of an animate object to an inanimate one, and vice versa, is described; animate to animate, inanimate to inanimate.

There are also certain models according to which metaphorical transfer occurs. Most often, this phenomenon refers to household items (a rag as a tool for washing the floor and a rag as a weak-willed, weak-willed person), professions (a clown as a circus performer and a clown as someone who behaves stupidly, trying to seem like the soul of the company), sounds characteristic of animals (mooing like a sound that a cow makes, and like a slurred speech of a person), diseases (an ulcer as a disease and as satire and evil irony in human behavior).

Metonymy as a way of transferring meaning

Another aspect that is important for studying the topic “Direct and figurative meaning of a word” is metonymic transfer by adjacency. It is a kind of substitution of concepts depending on the meanings inherent in them. For example, documents are often called papers, a group of children at school is called a class, and so on.

The reasons for this transfer of value can be as follows. Firstly, this is done for the convenience of the speaker, who seeks to shorten his speech as much as possible. Secondly, the use of such metonymic constructions in speech may be unconscious, because in Russian the expression "eat a bowl of soup" implies a figurative meaning, which is realized with the help of metonymy.

The use of words in a figurative sense

In practical classes in Russian, any teacher will certainly require examples to be given to the section being studied. “Polysemantic words: direct and figurative meanings” is a topic that is replete with visual illustrations.

Take the word "burdock". The direct meaning of this concept is a plant with large leaves. This word can also be used in relation to a person in the meaning of "narrow-minded", "stupid", "simple". This example is a classic use of metaphor to convey meaning. Adjacency transfer is also easily illustrated by the phrase "drink a glass of water." Naturally, we do not drink the glass itself, but its contents.

So, the topic of figurative meanings is intuitively clear to everyone. It is only important to understand how the direct meaning of the word is transformed.

A word can have both direct and figurative lexical meaning. Multi-valued words have a figurative meaning.

The direct meaning of the word is its main lexical meaning. It is directly directed to the designated object, phenomenon, action, sign, immediately causes an idea of ​​them and is least dependent on the context. Words often appear in the direct meaning.

The figurative meaning of the word- this is its secondary meaning, which arose on the basis of the direct one.

A toy, -and, and. 1. A thing that serves for the game. Kids toys. 2. trans. One who blindly acts according to someone else's will, an obedient instrument of someone else's will (disapproved). To be a toy in someone's hands.

The essence of the transfer of meaning is that the meaning is transferred to another object, another phenomenon, and then one word is used as the name of several objects at the same time. In this way, the ambiguity of the word is formed.

Depending on the basis of which sign the meaning is transferred, there are three main types of value transition:

• metaphor,
• metonymy,
• synecdoche.

The direct meaning of the word

The words of our speech call objects, their signs and actions. Unambiguous words directly correlate with the object of reality, directly name the object, its sign or process of action. it direct meaning the words.

In the flow of speech, such words immediately evoke an idea of ​​what they are called. Their meaning does not depend on the context, for example:

Over the forest, over the field, over the villages stretched the blue sky.

The sky beckons future astronauts.

Fluffy white clouds float lazily across the sky.

Most of the words of the Russian language appear in the direct meaning, for example:

daughter, house, grass, polite, huge.

The direct meaning of the word is its main lexical meaning.

The figurative meaning of the word

A word can have several lexical meanings that arise from the direct meaning. This new additional lexical meaning is called portable. It appears on the basis of the similarity of objects in appearance, on the basis of the action (function) performed, for example:

in the phrase "stone building" word "stone" names the material from which the building is composed, and denotes a direct sign of the object "strong, firm, immovable".

In the phrase "stone face" adjective "stone" stands for " harsh, unfeeling" or "evil" face. In this example, the word "stone" has a secondary figurative meaning formed on the basis of a direct meaning.

The essence of the transfer of meaning is that it passes to another object, another phenomenon or process along common points of contact in the meaning. Then one word is used as the name of several objects at the same time. This is how the ambiguity of words arises. Multi-valued words have a figurative meaning, for example:

• the blue sea - the sea of ​​wheat - the sea of ​​the people;
• light burden - light hand - light industry.

Types of figurative meanings of a word.

The meaning of a word. Direct and figurative meaning of the word.

Words in a language can have one, two or more lexical meanings.

Words that have the same lexical meaning called unambiguous or monosemic. These words include:

1) various terms (not all): subject, electron;

2) various thematic groups:

a) plant names (birch, poplar);

b) names of animals (minnow, jay);

c) names of people by occupation (doctor, livestock specialist, pilot).

At the same time, most words in Russian have many meanings. The development of polysemy of words is one of the active processes, due to which the vocabulary of the Russian literary language is replenished.

The word used in more than one sense, it is customary to call polysemous or polysemous(from Greek poly - many, sema - sign).

For example: according to the dictionary of D.N. Ushakov's word light

1. insignificant in weight (light leg);

2. easy to learn, solutions (easy lesson);

3. small, insignificant (light breeze);

4. superficial, frivolous (light flirting);

5. soft, accommodating (easy character);

6. laid-back, graceful (easy syllable);

7. smooth, smooth, sliding (easy gait).

One of these meanings is primary, initial, and the others are secondary, resulting from the development of the primary meaning.

The primary value is usually the direct value.

primary value - ϶ᴛᴏ the main meaning of the word, directly naming the object, action, property.

In the literal sense, the word appears out of context. For example: forest ʼʼa lot of trees growing in a large spaceʼʼ; in a figurative sense: a lot of ʼʼforest handsʼʼ, without understanding anything ʼʼdark forestʼʼ, building material ʼʼloggingʼʼ.

The figurative meaning is secondary. It arises on the basis of the similarity of objects in form, in color, in the nature of movement, on the basis of association, etc.

There are two basic types of figurative meaning of the word - metaphorical and metonymic. As a kind of metonymy - synekdokha.

Let's consider each separately.

metaphorical transfer.

The essence of this transfer is that the name of an object is transferred to another object, based on the similarity of these objects.

Similarity should be:

1. in form. For example, the word ʼʼbeardʼʼ we call a small beard of a person - ϶ᴛᴏ direct meaning. In a figurative sense, we call the ledges at the keys a beard. An apple is a fruit, a smooth apple.

2. by color similarity. Gold - ϶ᴛᴏ yellow precious metal͵ ʼʼgold of her hairʼʼ - hair color.

3. similarity in size. A pole is a long thin pole, a pole is a long thin man.

4. by sound similarity. Drum - beat the drum, drumming rain.

5. transfer by function: janitor - a person sweeping a yard, street; a device in the machine, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ, serves to clean the glass.

Metaphors are about general language- such a metaphorical meaning of the word, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ is widely used and known to all speakers: a nail head, a Christmas tree needle.

Individually - copyright are not common to the common language. Οʜᴎ are created by writers and poets and characterize his stylistic manner. For example , bonfire rowan red, birch th language of the grove, chintz sky (S. Yesenin). Started to rumble river life (Leonov).

metonymic transfer.

Its essence lies in the fact that the name from one subject to another is transferred on the basis of adjacency.

Adjacency is commonly understood here as spatial adjacency, proximity of an object͵ temporal adjacency, etc., ᴛ.ᴇ. objects named by the same word are completely different, but they are close in space, in time.

1. Transferring the name from the container to its contents: audience - a room for classes, people in it; class - students (class listened), room; plate - dishes, contents in a plate (I ate a bowl of soup).

2. Material - a product from it: crystal - a type of glass, a product from it; gold - she has gold in her ears.

3. Action is the result of that action: jam - the process of cooking, berries boiled in syrup.

5. Action - the object of this action: edition of the book - illustrated edition.

6. Action - means or instrument of action: harvesting vegetables - harvesting on the table.

7. action - place of action: exit from the house - stand at the entrance.

8. The plant is the fruit of the plant: pear, plum.

9. Animal - the fur or meat of an animal: chicken, mink, eggs.

10. An organ of the body is a disease of this body: stomach - grabbed the stomach, naughty heart.

11. The scientist is his image: Ampere, Volt.

12. Locality - a product invented, made there: Kashimir - a city in India, fabric; Boston is a city in England, fabric.

13. Time - events that took place at that time, year: it was 1918, 1941.

As a result of metonymy, a number of common nouns appeared, formed from proper names: volt, ampere, ohm, boston, mac.

Synecdoche.

This type of lexical transfer is based on the following principle: the name is transferred from part to whole and vice versa.

For example, ʼʼheadʼʼ is a part of the body of a person or animal.

This name should be transferred to the whole person.

to the whole Head hurts - a direct meaning.

Borya - bright head - figurative (synekdoha).

Herd of 20 heads.

Mouth - part of the face - direct meaning.

ʼʼWe have 5 mouths in our familyʼʼ - figurative.

A car is any mechanism, a passenger car.

From the whole Tool - any technical device (tool

on the part of labor) - direct meaning; gun is portable.

Synecdoche as a special type of transfer is combined with metonymy by many scientists and is perceived as its variety.

Some characteristic signs of a person are often used to refer to this person, to refer to him. This use of words for colloquial speech is especially characteristic: ʼʼI am behind the little blue hatʼʼ. ʼʼHey, beard, where are you going?ʼʼ

Little Red Riding Hood is a classic example of synecdoche.

Homework. Abstract by V.V. Vinogradov ʼʼThe main types of lexical meanings of wordsʼʼ, ʼʼIssues of linguisticsʼʼ 1953, No. 5.

Topic number 8. Vocabulary of the Russian language from the point of view of its origin.

Plan.

1.Originally Russian vocabulary.

2. Borrowed vocabulary.

3. Old Slavonicisms, their signs and use in modern Russian.

The vocabulary of the Russian language is one of the richest in the world and contains more than a quarter of a million words.

It is believed that in the Russian language there are 90% native and 10% borrowed vocabulary.

The vocabulary of the modern Russian language contains lexical layers of various historical eras.

To the original vocabulary include all words that came into modern Russian from the languages ​​of their ancestors. For this reason, the original Russian vocabulary is divided into 4 layers belonging to different eras. Let's consider each of them.

1.Indo-European vocabulary. Until III - II centuries BC.

In the 6th-5th millennium B.C. there was a single civilization, which was called Indo-European, and a single unwritten Indo-European language.

The words of this era are the most ancient. Οʜᴎ are known not only to Slavic, but also to other families of languages: Germanic, Romance, etc. For example, the word sky is found, in addition to Slavic, in Greek and Latin.

Vocabulary of Indo-European origin includes:

a) some words denoting kinship terms: mother, sister, brother, wife, daughter, son;

b) name of wild and domestic animals: wolf, goat, cat, sheep, bull;

in) the name of food products and vital concepts: sky, fire, house, month, name, water, meat;

G) name of actions and signs: see, share, eat, be, live, carry, white, vigorous, sick, alive, evil;

e) numerals: two, three, ten;

e) prepositions: without, before.

2.Common Slavic vocabulary(proto-Slavic). From III - II centuries. BC. according to VI AD

These are words that arose during the period of linguistic unity of the Slavs. Οʜᴎ, as a rule, are known to all Slavic languages: Ukr.
Hosted on ref.rf
- spring, Polish - vrosna.

About 2 thousand words belong to this layer. Οʜᴎ make up 25% of the words of our daily communication. These include thematic groups:

1.name of agricultural implements: scythe, hoe, awl, sickle, harrow;

2.product of labor, plants: rye, cereals, flour, cranberries, maple, cabbage;

3.name of animals, birds, insects: hare, cow, fox, snake, woodpecker;

4.names of parts of the human body: eyebrow, head, tooth, knee, face, forehead;

5.kinship terms: grandson, son-in-law, mother-in-law, godfather;

6.the name of the dwelling, vital concepts: house, hut, porch, shop, oven, spring, winter, clay, iron, etc.;

7.abstract vocabulary: thought, happiness, evil, goodness, excitement, grief.

During this period, there are a large number

adjectives, denoting signs and qualities by color, size, shape: tall, long, large, black;

verbs denoting various labor processes: cut, saw, dig, weed;

verbs denoting actions and states: guess, warm, hold, dare, divide, doze off;

numerals: one, four, eight, one hundred, one thousand;

pronouns: you, we, you, what, everyone;

adverbs: inside, everywhere, yesterday, tomorrow.

Common Slavic words were the basis for the formation of many new words. For example, from the verb live in Russian created about 100 derived words.

3. East Slavic vocabulary. VI in - 14-15 century.

Around the 6th-7th century, the collapse of the common Slavic language into South Slavic, West Slavic and East Slavic (Old Russian) is attributed. The Old Russian language becomes the language of the Old Russian people, united in the 9th century into a single state - Kievan Rus.

East Slavic vocabulary - ϶ᴛᴏ words that arose in the period from the 6th to the 15th centuries, common among the languages ​​of the East Slavic group: Russian, Belarusian, Ukrainian. These words are not found in other Slavic languages. For example:

quite (Russian) zovsim (ukr.) zusim (bel.)

snowfall snowfall snowfall

kindness kindness kindness

The East Slavic layer represents a rather diverse vocabulary, reflecting in all its diversity the political, economic and cultural life of the Old Russian state.

In this period, many words appear on the basis of common Slavic vocabulary:

bullfinch (Russian)

snow< снiгур (укр.)

snagir (white)

compound numbers: eleven, forty, ninety;

compound words: hook-nosed, today;

suffix words - finch, blackberry, pantry.

4. Actually Russian vocabulary.

In the 14th century, in connection with the collapse of Kievan Rus, the Old Russian language breaks up into Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian. The Russian (Great Russian) nationality was formed.

Proper Russian vocabulary - ϶ᴛᴏ words that have arisen since the formation of the Russian people and continue to arise to the present.

Words and morphemes of primordially Russian origin served as the basis for the creation of Russian vocabulary proper. ᴛ.ᴇ. common Slavic, East Slavic:

1.almost all words with suffixes: chik / chik, nickname, - evidence, - lux, - ness

mason, wallet, teacher, mower;

2.many difficult words: steamship, plane, steelprogress;

3.words with prefixes on, before, behind and the suffix sya: to look, to wake up, to talk;

4.abbreviations: JSC - joint stock company, CJSC - closed joint stock company, LLC - limited liability company, PSC - private security company.

Types of figurative meanings of a word. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Types of figurative meanings of the word." 2017, 2018.

The main means of giving imagery to a word is its use in a figurative sense. The play of direct and figurative meaning generates both aesthetic and expressive effects of a literary text, makes this text figurative and expressive.

On the basis of the nominative (naming) function of the word and its connection with the subject in the process of cognition of reality, direct (basic, main, primary, initial) and figurative (derivative, secondary, indirect) meanings are distinguished.

In the derivative meaning, the main, direct meaning and the new, indirect meaning, which appeared as a result of the transfer of the name from one object to another, are combined, coexist. If the word in direct meaning directly (directly) indicates a particular object, action, property, etc., naming them, then the words in portable meaning, the object is no longer called directly, but through certain comparisons and associations that arise in the minds of native speakers.

AIR– 1) ‘adj. to air (air jet)’;

2) ‘light, weightless ( airy dress)’.

The appearance of figurative meanings in a word makes it possible to save the lexical means of the language without endlessly expanding the vocabulary to designate new phenomena and concepts. If there are some common features between two objects, the name from one, already known, is transferred to another object, newly created, invented or known, which did not have a name before:

DIM- 1) ‘opaque, cloudy ( dull glass)’;

2) ‘matte, not shiny ( dull polish, dull hair)’;

3) ‘weak, not bright ( dim light, dim color)’;

4) ‘lifeless, inexpressive ( dull look, dull style)’.

D.N. Shmelev believes that the direct, basic meaning is one that is not determined by the context (the most paradigmatically conditioned and the least syntagmatically conditioned):

ROAD– 1) ‘way of communication, a strip of land intended for movement’;

2) ‘journey, trip’;

3) ‘route’;

4) ‘means of achieving some sl. goals'.

All secondary, figurative meanings depend on the context, on compatibility with other words: to pack(‘trip’), direct road to success, road to Moscow.

Historically, the relationship between direct, primary and figurative, secondary meaning may change. So, in the modern Russian language, the primary meanings for the words devour(‘eat, eat’), dense('dormant'), vale('valley'). Word thirst in our time, it has the main direct meaning ‘need to drink’ and figurative ‘strong, passionate desire’, but Old Russian texts indicate the primacy of the second, more abstract meaning, since the adjective is often used next to it water.

Value transfer paths

The transfer of meanings can be carried out in two main ways: metaphorical and metonymic.

Metaphor- this is the transfer of names according to the similarity of signs, concepts (metaphor - unexpressed comparison): pin stars; what crest won't you comb your head?

Signs of metaphorical transfer:

1. by color similarity gold leaves);
2. similarity of form ( ring boulevards);
3. by the similarity of the location of the object ( nose boats, sleeve rivers);
4. by similarity of actions ( rain drumming, wrinkles furrow face);
5. by the similarity of sensations, emotional associations ( gold character, velvet voice);
6. by similarity of functions ( electric candle in the lamp turn off/ignite light, wipers in car).

This classification is rather arbitrary. Proof - transfer on several grounds: leg chair(form, place); ladle excavator(function, form).

There are other classifications as well. For example, prof. Galina Al-dr. Cherkasova considers metaphorical transfer in connection with the category of animateness / inanimateness:

1. the action of an inanimate object is transferred to another inanimate object ( fireplace– ‘room stove’ and ‘electric heater’; wing- ‘birds’, ‘aircraft blade, mills’, ‘side extension’);
2. animate - also on an animate object, but of a different group ( bear, snake);
3. inanimate - to animate ( she is blossomed );
4. animate to inanimate ( escort- 'patrol ship').

The main tendencies of metaphorical transfer: figurative meanings appear in words that are socially significant at a given time. During the Great Patriotic War, everyday words were used as metaphors to define military concepts: comb through forest, get into boiler . Subsequently, on the contrary, military terms were transferred to other concepts: front works, take on armament . Sports vocabulary gives a lot of figurative meanings: finish, start, knight's move. With the development of astronautics, metaphors appeared high point, space velocity, dock. Currently, a large number of metaphors are associated with the computer sphere: mouse, archive, maternal pay etc.

There are models of metaphorical transfer in the language: certain groups of words form certain metaphors.

• professional characteristics of a person artist, craftsman, philosopher, shoemaker, clown, chemist);
• disease-related names ulcer, plague, cholera, delirium);
• names of natural phenomena when they are transferred to human life ( Spring life, hail tears);
• names of household items rag, mattress etc.);
• transferring the names of animal actions to humans ( bark, mumble).

Metonymy(Greek ‘renaming’) is such a name transfer, which is based on the adjacency of the features of two or more concepts: paper– ‘document’.

Types of metonymic transfer:

1. transfer by spatial adjacency ( the audience- 'people', Class– ‘children’): (a) transferring the name of the containing to the content ( all village came out city worried, all embankment ate plate, read Pushkin ); (b) the name of the material from which the object is made is transferred to the object ( To go to silks, in gold; in scarlet and gold dressed forests; dancing gold );
2. adjacency transfer about d – transfer of the name of the action to the result ( dictation, essay, cookies, jam, embroidery);
3. synecdoche(a) transferring the name of a part of the whole to the whole ( one hundred goals livestock; behind him eye Yes eye needed; he seven mouths feeds; he is mine right hand; heart heart the message) - often found in proverbs; (b) whole to part ( jasmine– ‘bush’ and ‘flowers’; plum- 'tree' and 'fruit'.

This classification does not cover the whole variety of metonymic transfers that exist in the language.

Sometimes when transferring, grammatical features of the word are used, for example, plural. number: workers arms, rest on south, To go to silks . It is believed that the basis of metonymic transfer is nouns.

In addition to general language portable values, in the language of fiction there are also figurative use words that are characteristic of the work of a particular writer and are one of the means of artistic representation. For example, in L. Tolstoy: fair and Kind sky("War and Peace"); at A.P. Chekhov: crumbly ("The Last Mohican") cozy lady(“From the Memoirs of an Idealist”), faded aunties("Hopeless"); in the works of K.G. Paustovsky: shy sky("Mikhailovskaya grove"), sleepy dawn("The Third Date") molten noon("Romantics"), sleepy day("Marine habit"), white-blooded bulb("The Book of Wanderings"); V. Nabokov: overcast tense day("Protection of Luzhin"), etc.

Like metaphor, metonymy can be individual-author's - contextual, i.e. conditioned by the contextual use of the word, it does not exist outside the given context: "You're so stupid, brother!" - said reproachfully handset (E. Meek); redheads trousers sigh and think(A.P. Chekhov); Short fur coats, sheepskin coats crowded...(M. Sholokhov).

Such figurative meanings, as a rule, are not reflected in dictionary interpretations. The dictionaries reflect only regular, productive, generally accepted transfers fixed by language practice, which continue to arise, playing a large role in enriching the vocabulary of the language.