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Terminology

Indeed, even in inanimate objects there is this kind of ability (δύναμις), for example, in [musical] instruments (ἐν τοῖς ὀργάνοις); they say about one lyre that it is capable [of sounding], and about the other - that it is not, if it is dissonant (μὴ εὔφωνος).

That kind of people who deal with instruments spends all their labor on it, like, for example, a kifared, or one who demonstrates his craft on the organ and other musical instruments (organo ceterisque musicae instrumentis).
Fundamentals of Music, I.34

In Russian, the word "organ" by default means wind organ, but is also used in relation to other varieties, including electronic analog and digital, which imitate the sound of an organ. Organs are:

by device - wind, reed, electronic, analog, digital;
by functional affiliation - concert, church, theatrical, fair, salon, educational, etc .;
by disposition - baroque, French classical, romantic, symphonic, neo-baroque, modern;
by the number of manuals - one-manual, two-, three-, etc.

The word "organ" is also usually qualified by reference to the organ builder (e.g. "Cavaillé-Cohl Organ") or trademark ("Hammond Organ"). Some varieties of the organ have independent terms: antique hydraulics, portable, positive, regal, harmonium, hurdy-gurdy, etc.

Story

The organ is one of the oldest musical instruments. Its history goes back several thousand years. Hugh Riemann believed that the ancient Babylonian bagpipe (19th century BC) was the ancestor of the organ: “The fur was inflated through a pipe, and at the opposite end there was a body with pipes, which, no doubt, had reeds and several holes” . The germ of the organ can also be seen in the pan flute, the Chinese sheng, and other similar instruments. It is believed that the organ (water organ, hydraulics) was invented by the Greek Ctesibius, who lived in Alexandria Egyptian in 296-228. BC e. The image of a similar tool is available on one coin or token from the time of Nero. Large organs appeared in the 4th century, more or less improved organs in the 7th and 8th centuries. Pope Vitalian is traditionally credited with introducing the organ into Catholic worship. In the 8th century, Byzantium was famous for its organs. The Byzantine emperor Constantine V Kopronym in 757 presented the organ to the Frankish king Pepin the Short. Later, the Byzantine Empress Irina presented his son, Charles the Great, with an organ that sounded at the coronation of Charles. The organ was considered at that time a ceremonial attribute of the Byzantine, and then the Western European imperial power.

The art of building organs also developed in Italy, from where they were sent to France in the 9th century. This art later developed in Germany. The organ has been widespread in Western Europe since the 14th century. Medieval organs, in comparison with later ones, were of crude workmanship; a manual keyboard, for example, consisted of keys with a width of 5 to 7 cm, the distance between the keys reached one and a half cm. They hit the keys not with fingers, as they do now, but with fists. In the 15th century, the keys were reduced and the number of pipes increased.

The oldest example of a medieval organ with relatively complete mechanics (pipes have not been preserved) is considered to be an organ from Norrlanda (a church parish on the island of Gotland in Sweden). This tool is usually dated to 1370-1400, although some researchers doubt such an early dating. Currently, the Norrland organ is stored in the National Historical Museum in Stockholm.

In the 19th century, thanks primarily to the work of the French organ master Aristide Cavaillé-Coll, who set out to design organs in such a way that they could compete with the sound of a whole symphony orchestra with their powerful and rich sound, instruments of a previously unprecedented scale and power of sound began to appear. , which are sometimes called symphonic organs.

Device

Remote controller

Remote organ ("spiltish" from German Spieltisch or organ department) - a remote control with all the tools necessary for an organist, the set of which is individual in each organ, but most have common ones: gaming - manuals and pedal keyboard(or simply "pedal") and timbre - switches registers. There may also be dynamic channels, various foot levers or buttons to turn on copula and switching combinations from register combination memory bank and a device for turning on the organ. At the console, on a bench, the organist sits during the performance.

Copula - a mechanism by which the included registers of one manual can sound when played on another manual or pedal. Organs always have copulas of manuals for the pedal and copulas for the main manual, and there are almost always copulas of weaker-sounding manuals for stronger ones. The copula is turned on/off by a special foot switch with a latch or a button.
Channel - a device with which you can adjust the volume of this manual by opening or closing the blinds in the box in which the pipes of this manual are located.
The register combination memory bank is a device in the form of buttons, available only in organs with an electric register tracture, which allows you to memorize register combinations, thereby simplifying the switching of registers (change of the general timbre) during performance.
Ready-made register combinations - a device in organs with a pneumatic register tracture that allows you to turn on a ready-made set of registers (usually p, mp, mf, f)
(from Italian Tutti - all) - the button for turning on all the registers and copulas of the organ.

Manuals

The first musical instruments with an organ pedal date back to the middle of the 15th century. - this is the tablature of the German musician Adam from Åleborg (English) Russian(Adam Ileborgh, c. 1448) and the Buxheim Organ Book (c. 1470). Arnolt Schlick in Spiegel der Orgelmacher (1511) already writes in detail about the pedal and appends his pieces, where it is used with great virtuosity. Among them, the unique treatment of the antiphon stands out. Ascendo ad Patrem meum for 10 voices, of which 4 are entrusted to pedals. The performance of this piece probably required some kind of special shoes, which allowed one foot to simultaneously press two keys at a distance of a third. In Italy, notes using the organ pedal appear much later - in the toccatas of Annibale Padovano (1604).

Registers

Each row of pipes of a wind organ of the same timbre constitutes, as it were, a separate instrument and is called register. Each of the extendable or retractable drawbar knobs (or electronic switches) located on the organ console above the keyboards or on the sides of the music stand turns the corresponding row of organ pipes on or off. If drawbars are off, the organ will not sound when a key is pressed.

Each knob corresponds to the register and has its own name indicating the pitch of the largest pipe of this register - feet, traditionally denoted in feet in Principal. For example, the pipes of the Gedackt register are closed and sound an octave lower, so such a pipe of tone "to" subcontroctave is designated as 32", with an actual length of 16". Reed registers, whose pitch depends on the mass of the reed itself rather than on the height of the bell, are also indicated in feet, similar in length to the Principal register pipe in pitch.

The registers are grouped into families according to a number of unifying features - principals, flutes, gambas, aliquots, potions, etc. The main registers include all 32-, 16-, 8-, 4-, 2-, 1-foot registers, auxiliary (or overtone ) - aliquots and potions. Each pipe of the main register reproduces only one sound of the same pitch, strength and timbre. Aliquots reproduce an ordinal overtone to the main sound, mixtures give a chord, which consists of several (usually from 2 to a dozen, sometimes up to fifty) overtones to a given sound.

All registers for the device of pipes are divided into two groups:

Labial- registers with open or closed pipes without reeds. This group includes: flutes (wide-scale registers), principals and narrow-scale ones (German Streicher - “streichers” or strings), as well as overtone registers - aliquots and potions, in which each note has one or more (weaker) overtone overtones.
Reed- registers, in the pipes of which there is a tongue, when exposed to the supplied air, which produces a characteristic sound similar in timbre, depending on the name and design features of the register, with some wind orchestral musical instruments: oboe, clarinet, bassoon, trumpet, trombone, etc. Reed registers can be located not only vertically, but also horizontally - such registers make up a group that is from fr. chamade is called "shamad".

Compound various kinds registers:

ital. Organo pleno - labial and reed registers along with potion;
fr. Grand jeu - labial and reed without potions;
fr. Plein jeu - labial with potion.

The composer can indicate the name of the register and the size of the pipes in the notes above the place where this register should be applied. The choice of registers for the performance of a musical work is called registration, and the included registers - register combination.

Since the registers in different organs of different countries and eras are not the same, they are usually not indicated in detail in the organ part: only the manual, the designation of the pipes with or without reeds and the size of the pipes are written over one or another place in the organ part, and the size of the pipes, and the rest is left to the discretion performer. Most of the musical organ repertoire does not have any copyright designations regarding the registration of the work, so the composers and organists of previous eras had their own traditions and the art of combining different organ timbres was passed on orally from generation to generation.

Pipes

The register pipes sound different:

8-foot pipes sound in accordance with musical notation;
4- and 2-foot sounds one and two octaves higher, respectively;
16- and 32-footers sound one and two octaves lower, respectively;
The 64-foot labial pipes found in the largest organs in the world sound three octaves below the record, therefore, those actuated by the keys of the pedal and manual below the counter-octave already emit infrasound;
the labial tubes closed at the top sound an octave lower than the open ones.

A stimhorn is used to tune the organ's small open labial metal pipes. With this hammer-shaped tool, the open end of the pipe is rolled or flared. Larger open pipes are tuned by cutting a vertical piece of metal near or directly from the open end of the pipe, which is bent at one angle or another. Open wood pipes usually have a wood or metal adjuster that can be adjusted to allow the pipe to be tuned. Closed wood or metal pipes are adjusted by adjusting the plug or cap at the top end of the pipe.

Facade pipes of the organ can also play a decorative role. If the pipes do not sound, then they are called "decorative" or "blind" (eng. dummy pipes).

Traktura

An organ tractura is a system of transmission devices that functionally connects the controls on the organ's console with the organ's air-locking devices. The game tractor transmits the movement of the manual keys and the pedal to the valves of a particular pipe or group of pipes in a potion. The register tracture provides switching on or off of the whole register or a group of registers in response to pressing the toggle switch or moving the register handle.

Through the register tracture, the memory of the organ also acts - combinations of registers, pre-configured and embedded in the device of the organ - ready-made, fixed combinations. They can be named both by the combination of registers - Pleno, Plein Jeu, Gran Jeu, Tutti, and by the strength of sound - Piano, Mezzopiano, Mezzoforte, Forte. In addition to ready-made combinations, there are free combinations that allow the organist to select, memorize and change a set of registers in the organ's memory at his discretion. The function of memory is not available in all organs. It is absent in organs with a mechanical register tracture.

Mechanical

Mechanical tracture - reference, authentic and the most common on this moment, allowing you to perform the widest range of works of all eras; the mechanical tracture does not give the phenomenon of "delay" of sound and allows you to thoroughly feel the position and behavior of the air valve, which makes it possible for the organist to best control the instrument and achieve high performance technique. The key of the manual or pedal, when using a mechanical traction, is connected to the air valve by a system of light wooden or polymer rods (abstracts), rollers and levers; occasionally, in large old organs, a cable-block transmission was used. Since the movement of all these elements is carried out only by the effort of the organist, there are restrictions in the size and nature of the arrangement of the sounding elements of the organ. In giant organs (more than 100 registers), mechanical traction is either not used or supplemented by a Barker machine (a pneumatic amplifier that helps to press the keys; such are the French organs of the early 20th century, for example, the Great Hall of the Moscow Conservatory and the Church of Saint-Sulpice in Paris). The mechanical gaming is usually combined with the mechanical register tracture and windlad of the shleyflade system.

Pneumatic

Pneumatic tracture - the most common in romantic organs - from the end of the 19th century to the 20s of the 20th century; pressing the key opens a valve in the control duct, the air supply to which opens the pneumatic valve of a particular pipe (when using a windblade schleyflade, it is extremely rare) or a whole series of pipes of the same tone (windblade kegellade, characteristic of a pneumatic tracture). It allows building huge instruments in terms of the set of registers, as it has no power limitations of the mechanical tracture, however, it has the phenomenon of sound “delay”. This often makes it impossible to perform technically complex works, especially in “wet” church acoustics, given that the register delay time depends not only on the distance from the organ console, but also on its pipe size, the presence of relays in the tract, which accelerate the operation of the mechanics for due to the refreshment of the impulse, the design features of the pipe and the type of windlad used (almost always it is a kegellad, sometimes it is a membranenlad: it works to release air, extremely fast response). In addition, the pneumatic tracture disconnects the keyboard from the air valves, depriving the organist of the feeling of " feedback” and impairing control over the tool. Pneumatic tracture of the organ is good for performing solo works of the Romantic period, difficult to play in an ensemble, and not always suitable for baroque and contemporary music.

Electrical

Electric tractor is a tractor widely used in the 20th century, with direct signal transmission from a key to an electromechanical valve opening-closing relay by means of a direct current pulse in an electrical circuit. Currently, more and more often replaced by mechanical. This is the only traktura that does not impose any restrictions on the number and location of the registers, as well as the placement of the organ console on the stage in the hall. It allows you to place groups of registers at different ends of the hall, control the organ from an unlimited number of additional consoles, play music for two and three organs on one organ, and also put the console in a convenient place in the orchestra, from which the conductor will be clearly visible. Allows connection of multiple organs common system, and also gives a unique opportunity to record a performance with subsequent playback without the participation of an organist. The disadvantage of the electric tracture, as well as the pneumatic one, is the break in the "feedback" of the organist's fingers and air valves. In addition, an electric tractor can delay the sound due to the response time of the electric valve relays, as well as the distribution switch (in modern organs this device is electronic and does not give a delay; in instruments of the first half and the middle of the 20th century it was often electromechanical). When activated, electromechanical relays often give additional "metallic" sounds - clicks and knocks, which, unlike similar "wooden" overtones of mechanical tracture, do not decorate the sound of the work at all. In some cases, the largest pipes in the rest of the completely mechanical organ (for example, in the new instrument of the Hermann Eule company in Belgorod) receive an electric valve, which is due to the need to preserve the area of the mechanical valve, and as a result, playing efforts, in the bass within acceptable limits. Noise can also be emitted by a register electric tractor when changing register combinations. An example of an acoustically excellent organ with a mechanical playing tracture and at the same time a rather noisy register tracture is the Swiss Kuhn organ in the Catholic Cathedral in Moscow.

Other

The largest organs in the world

The largest organ in Europe is the Great Organ of the Cathedral of St. Stephen in Passau (Germany), built by the German company Stenmayer & Co. It has 5 manuals, 229 registers, 17,774 pipes. It is considered the fourth largest operating body in the world.

Until recently, the largest organ in the world with a completely mechanical playing tracture (without the use of electronic and pneumatic control) was the organ of the Cathedral of St. Trinity in Liepaja (4 manuals, 131 registers, more than 7 thousand pipes), however, in 1979, an organ with 5 manuals, 125 registers and about 10 thousand pipes was installed in the large concert hall of the Sydney Opera House performing arts center. Now it is considered the largest (with a mechanical traction).

The main organ of the Cathedral in Kaliningrad (4 manuals, 90 registers, about 6.5 thousand pipes) is the largest organ in Russia.

Experimental Bodies

Organs of original design and tuning have been developed since the second half of the 16th century, such as, for example, the archiorgan of the Italian music theorist and composer N. Vicentino. However, such bodies have not received wide distribution. Today they are exhibited as historical artifacts in museums of musical instruments along with other experimental instruments of the past.

This keyboard wind instrument, according to the figurative characteristic of V. V. Stasov, “... the embodiment in musical images and the forms of aspirations of our spirit towards the colossal and infinitely majestic; he alone has those amazing sounds, those thunders, that majestic voice speaking as if from eternity, whose expression is impossible for any other instrument, any orchestra.

On the stage of the concert hall you see the facade of the organ with a part of the pipes. Hundreds of them are located behind its facade, arranged in tiers up and down, to the right and to the left, going in rows into the depths of a vast room. Some pipes are horizontal, others are vertical, and some are even hung on hooks. In modern organs, the number of pipes reaches 30,000. The largest ones are more than 10 m high, the smallest - 10 mm. In addition, the organ has an air pumping mechanism - bellows and air ducts; the pulpit where the organist sits and where the instrument control system is concentrated.

The sound of the organ is impressive. The giant instrument has many different timbres. It's like a whole orchestra. Indeed, the range of the organ exceeds that of all instruments in the orchestra. This or that coloring of the sound depends on the device of the pipes. A set of pipes of a single timbre is called a register. Their number in large instruments reaches 200. But the main thing is that the combination of several registers gives rise to a new sound coloring, a new timbre, not similar to the original one. The organ has several (from 2 to 7) manual keyboards - manuals, located in a terrace-like manner. By timbre coloration, register composition, they differ from each other. A special keyboard is a foot pedal. It has 32 keys for playing with toe and heel. It is traditional to use the pedal as the lowest voice - bass, but sometimes it also serves as one of the middle voices. There are also levers for turning on the registers at the department. Usually one or two assistants help the performer, they switch registers. The latest instruments use a "memory" device, thanks to which you can pre-select a certain combination of registers and at the right time, by pressing a button, make them sound.

Organs have always been built for a specific room. The masters provided for all its features, acoustics, dimensions, etc. Therefore, there are no two identical instruments in the world, each is a unique creation of the master. One of the best is the organ of the Dome Cathedral in Riga.

Music for the organ is recorded on three staves. Two of them fix the batch of manuals, one - for the pedal. The notes do not indicate the registration of the work: the performer himself looks for the most expressive techniques to reveal the artistic image of the work. Thus, the organist becomes, as it were, a co-author of the composer in instrumentation (registration) of the work. The organ allows you to draw a sound, a chord for an arbitrarily long time with a constant volume. This feature has acquired its artistic expression in the emergence of the reception of an organ point: with a constant sound in the bass, melody and harmony develop. Musicians on any instrument create dynamic nuances within each musical phrase. The color of the sound of the organ is unchanged regardless of the strength of the strike on the key, so the performers use special techniques to depict the beginning and end of phrases, the logic of the structure within the phrase itself. The ability to combine different timbres at the same time led to the composition of works for the organ of a predominantly polyphonic warehouse (see Polyphony).

The organ has been known since ancient times. The manufacture of the first organ is attributed to Ctesibius, a mechanic from Alexandria, who lived in the 3rd century BC. BC e. It was a water organ - hydraulics. The pressure of the water column ensured the uniformity of the pressure of the air entering the sounding pipes. Later, an organ was invented in which air was supplied to the pipes with the help of bellows. Before the advent of the electric drive, special workers, called calcane, pumped air into the pipes. In the Middle Ages, along with large organs, there were also small ones - regalia and portable ones (from the Latin "porto" - "I carry"). Gradually, the instrument improved and by the 16th century. acquired an almost modern look.

Many composers have written music for the organ. Organ art reached its peak at the end of the 17th - the first half of the 18th century. in the work of such composers as J. Pachelbel, D. Buxtehude, D. Frescobaldi, G. F. Handel, J. S. Bach. Bach created works unsurpassed in depth and perfection. In Russia, M. I. Glinka paid considerable attention to the organ. He perfectly played this instrument, made arrangements for him of various works.

In our country, the organ can be heard in the concert halls of Moscow, Leningrad, Kyiv, Riga, Tallinn, Gorky, Vilnius and many other cities. Soviet and foreign organists perform works not only by old masters, but also by Soviet composers.

Electric organs are being built now. However, the principle of operation of these instruments is different: the sound arises due to electric generators of various designs (see Electric musical instruments).

Source: « In the world of science » , No. 3, 1983. Authors: Neville H. Fletcher and Susanna Thwaites

The majestic sound of the organ is created due to the interaction of strictly phase-synchronized air jet passing through the cut in the pipe and the air column resonating in its cavity.

No musical instrument can compare with the organ in terms of power, timbre, range, tonality and majesty of sound. Like many musical instruments, the structure of the organ has been constantly improved through the efforts of many generations of skilled craftsmen who slowly accumulated experience and knowledge. By the end of the XVII century. the body basically acquired its modern form. The two most prominent physicists of the 19th century. Hermann von Helmholtz and Lord Rayleigh put forward opposing theories explaining the basic mechanism for the formation of sounds in organ pipes, but due to the lack of necessary instruments and tools, their dispute was never resolved. With the advent of oscilloscopes and other modern instruments, it became possible to study in detail the mechanism of action of an organ. It turned out that both the Helmholtz theory and the Rayleigh theory are valid for certain pressures under which air is forced into the organ pipe. Further in the article, the results of recent studies will be presented, which in many respects do not coincide with the explanation of the mechanism of action of the organ given in textbooks.

Pipes carved from reeds or other hollow-stemmed plants were probably the first wind instruments. They make sounds if you blow across the open end of the tube, or blow into the tube, vibrating with your lips, or, pinching the end of the tube, blow in air, causing its walls to vibrate. The development of these three types of simple wind instruments led to the creation of the modern flute, trumpet and clarinet, from which the musician can produce sounds in a fairly large range of frequencies.

In parallel, such instruments were created in which each tube was intended to sound on one particular note. The simplest of these instruments is the flute (or "Pan's flute"), which usually has about 20 tubes of various lengths, closed at one end and making sounds when blown across the other, open end. The largest and most complex instrument of this type is the organ, containing up to 10,000 pipes, which the organist controls using a complex system of mechanical gears. The organ dates back to ancient times. Clay figurines depicting musicians playing an instrument made of many bellows pipes were made in Alexandria as early as the 2nd century BC. BC. By the X century. organ is being used Christian churches, and treatises written by monks on the structure of organs appear in Europe. According to legend, big organ, built in the X century. for Winchester Cathedral in England, had 400 metal pipes, 26 bellows and two keyboards with 40 keys, where each key controlled ten pipes. Over the following centuries, the device of the organ was improved in mechanical and musically, and already in 1429 an organ with 2500 pipes was built in Amiens Cathedral. Germany towards the end of the 17th century. organs have already acquired their modern form.

The organ, installed in 1979 in the concert hall of the Sydney Opera House in Australia, is the largest and most technically advanced organ in the world. Designed and built by R. Sharp. It has about 10,500 pipes controlled by a mechanical transmission with five hand and one foot pads. The organ can be controlled automatically by a magnetic tape on which the musician's performance was previously recorded digitally.

Terms used to describe organ devices, reflect their origin from tubular wind instruments into which air was blown by mouth. The tubes of the organ are open from above, and from below they have a narrowed conical shape. Across the flattened part, above the cone, passes the “mouth” of the pipe (cut). A “tongue” (horizontal rib) is placed inside the tube, so that a “labial opening” (narrow gap) is formed between it and the lower “lip”. Air is forced into the pipe by large bellows and enters its cone-shaped base at a pressure of 500 to 1000 pascals (5 to 10 cm of water column). When, when the corresponding pedal and key are pressed, the air enters the pipe, it rushes up, forming upon exiting labial fissure wide flat stream. A jet of air passes across the slot of the "mouth" and, hitting the upper lip, interacts with the air column in the pipe itself; as a result, stable vibrations are created, which make the pipe “speak”. In itself, the question of how this sudden transition from silence to sound occurs in the trumpet is very complex and interesting, but it is not considered in this article. The conversation will mainly be about the processes that ensure the continuous sound of organ pipes and create their characteristic tonality.

The organ pipe is excited by air entering its lower end and forming a jet as it passes through the gap between the lower lip and tongue. In the section, the jet interacts with the air column in the pipe near the upper lip and passes either inside the pipe or outside it. Steady-state oscillations are created in the air column, causing the trumpet to sound. Air pressure, which varies according to the standing wave law, is shown by colored shading. A removable sleeve or plug is mounted on the upper end of the pipe, which allows you to slightly change the length of the air column during adjustment.

It may seem that the task of describing an air jet that generates and preserves the sound of an organ belongs entirely to the theory of fluid and gas flows. It turned out, however, that it is very difficult to theoretically consider the movement of even a constant, smooth, laminar flow, as for a completely turbulent jet of air that moves in an organ pipe, its analysis is incredibly complex. Fortunately, turbulence, which is a complex form of air movement, actually simplifies the nature of airflow. If this flow were laminar, then the interaction of the air jet with the environment would depend on their viscosity. In our case, turbulence replaces viscosity as the determining interaction factor in direct proportion to the width of the air stream. During the construction of the organ, special attention is paid to ensuring that the air flows in the pipes are completely turbulent, which is achieved with the help of small cuts along the edge of the tongue. Surprisingly, unlike laminar flow, turbulent flow is stable and can be reproduced.

The fully turbulent flow gradually mixes with the surrounding air. The process of expanding and slowing down is relatively simple. The curve depicting the change in the flow velocity depending on the distance from the central plane of its section has the form of an inverted parabola, the top of which corresponds to the maximum value of the velocity. The flow width increases in proportion to the distance from the labial fissure. The kinetic energy of the flow remains unchanged, so the decrease in its speed is proportional to the square root of the distance from the gap. This dependence is confirmed by both calculations and experimental results (taking into account a small transition region near the labial gap).

In an already excited and sounding organ pipe, the air flow enters from the labial slit into an intense sound field in the slit of the pipe. The air movement associated with the generation of sounds is directed through the slot and therefore perpendicular to the plane of the flow. Fifty years ago, B. Brown from the College of the University of London managed to photograph the laminar flow of smoky air in the sound field. The images showed the formation of sinuous waves, increasing as they move along the stream, until the latter broke up into two rows of vortex rings rotating in opposite directions. A simplistic interpretation of these and similar observations has led to an incorrect description of physical processes in organ pipes, which can be found in many textbooks.

A more fruitful method of studying the actual behavior of an air jet in a sound field is to experiment with a single tube in which the sound field is created using a loudspeaker. As a result of such research, carried out by J. Coltman in the laboratory of the Westinghouse Electric Corporation and a group with my participation at the University of New England in Australia, the fundamentals were developed modern theory physical processes occurring in organ pipes. In fact, even Rayleigh gave a thorough and almost complete mathematical description of laminar flows of inviscid media. Since it was found that turbulence does not complicate, but simplifies the physical picture of air strings, it was possible to use the Rayleigh method with slight modifications to describe the air flows experimentally obtained and investigated by Koltman and our group.

If there were no labial slot in the tube, then one would expect that the air jet in the form of a strip of moving air would simply move back and forth along with all the rest of the air in the slot of the tube under the influence of acoustic vibrations. In reality, when the jet leaves the slot, it is effectively stabilized by the slot itself. This effect can be compared with the result of imposing on the general oscillatory movement of air in the sound field a strictly balanced mixing localized in the plane of a horizontal edge. This localized mixing, which has the same frequency and amplitude as the sound field, and as a result creates zero mixing of the jet at the horizontal fin, is stored in the moving air stream and creates a sinuous wave.

Five pipes of different designs produce sounds of the same pitch but different timbre. The second trumpet from the left is the dulciana, which has a gentle, subtle sound, reminiscent of the sound of a stringed instrument. The third trumpet is an open range, giving a light, sonorous sound, which is most characteristic of an organ. The fourth trumpet has the sound of a heavily muffled flute. Fifth trumpet - Waldflote ( « forest flute") with a soft sound. The wooden pipe on the left is closed with a plug. It has the same fundamental frequency as the other pipes, but resonates at odd overtones whose frequencies are an odd number of times the fundamental frequency. The length of the remaining pipes is not exactly the same, as "end correction" is made to obtain the same pitch.

As Rayleigh showed for the type of jet he studied, and as we have comprehensively confirmed for the case with a divergent turbulent jet, the wave propagates along the flow at a speed slightly less than half the speed of air in the central plane of the jet. In this case, as it moves along the flow, the wave amplitude increases almost exponentially. Typically, it doubles as the wave travels one millimeter, and its effect quickly becomes dominant over the simple reciprocating lateral movement caused by sound vibrations.

It was found that the highest rate of wave growth is achieved when its length along the flow is six times the width of the flow at a given point. On the other hand, if the wavelength is less than the width of the stream, then the amplitude does not increase and the wave may disappear altogether. Since the air jet expands and slows down as it moves away from the slot, only long waves, that is, low-frequency oscillations, can propagate along long streams with large amplitude. This circumstance will turn out to be important in the subsequent consideration of the creation of harmonic sounding of organ pipes.

Let us now consider the effect of the sound field of an organ pipe on an air jet. It is easy to imagine that the acoustic waves of the sound field in the pipe slot cause the tip of the air jet to move across the upper lip of the slot, so that the jet is either inside the pipe or outside it. It resembles a picture when a swing is already being pushed. The air column in the pipe is already oscillating, and when the gusts of air enter the pipe in synchronism with the vibration, they retain the force of vibration despite the various energy losses associated with sound propagation and friction of air against the walls of the pipe. If the gusts of air do not coincide with the fluctuations of the air column in the pipe, they will suppress these fluctuations and the sound will fade.

The shape of the air jet is shown in the figure as a series of successive frames as it exits the labial slot into a moving acoustic field created in the “mouth” of the tube by an air column that resonates inside the tube. Periodic displacement of air in the section of the mouth creates a tortuous wave moving at a speed half that of air in the central plane of the jet and increasing exponentially until its amplitude exceeds the width of the jet itself. Horizontal sections show the path segments that the wave travels in the jet in successive quarters of the oscillation period. T. The secant lines approach each other as the jet velocity decreases. In the organ pipe, the upper lip is located in the place indicated by the arrow. The air jet alternately exits and enters the pipe.

Measurement of the sound-producing properties of an air jet can be done by placing felt or foam wedges at the open end of the pipe to prevent sound, and creating a sound wave of small amplitude using a loudspeaker. Reflected from the opposite end of the pipe, the sound wave interacts with the air jet at the “mouth” section. The interaction of the jet with the standing wave inside the pipe is measured using a portable tester microphone. In this way, it is possible to detect whether the air jet increases or decreases the energy of the reflected wave in the lower part of the pipe. For the trumpet to sound, the jet must increase the energy. The measurement results are expressed in terms of acoustic "conductivity", defined as the ratio of the acoustic flux at the exit from the section « mouth" to the sound pressure directly behind the cut. The conductance value curve for various combinations of air discharge pressure and oscillation frequency has a spiral shape, as shown in the following figure.

The relationship between the occurrence of acoustic oscillations in the pipe slot and the moment of arrival of the next portion of the air jet on the upper lip of the slot is determined by the time interval during which the wave in the air flow travels the distance from the labial slot to the upper lip. Organ builders call this distance "undercut". If the "undercut" is large or the pressure (and hence the speed of movement) of the air is low, then the movement time will be large. Conversely, if the "undercut" is small or the air pressure is high, then the travel time will be short.

In order to accurately determine the phase relationship between the fluctuations of the air column in the pipe and the arrival of portions of the air stream on the inner edge of the upper lip, it is necessary to study in more detail the nature of the effect of these proportions on the air column. Helmholtz believed that the main factor here is the amount of air flow delivered by the jet. Therefore, in order for the portions of the jet to communicate as much energy as possible to the oscillating air column, they must arrive at the moment when the pressure near the inner part of the upper lip reaches a maximum.

Rayleigh put forward a different position. He argued that since the slot is located relatively close to the open end of the pipe, the acoustic waves at the slot, which are affected by the air jet, cannot create a lot of pressure. Rayleigh believed that the air flow, entering the pipe, actually encounters an obstacle and almost stops, which quickly creates a high pressure in it, which affects its movement in the pipe. Therefore, according to Rayleigh, the air jet will transfer the maximum amount of energy if it enters the pipe at the moment when not the pressure, but the flow of acoustic waves itself is maximum. The shift between these two maxima is one quarter of the period of oscillation of the air column in the tube. If we draw an analogy with a seesaw, then this difference is expressed in pushing the seesaw when it is at its highest point and has maximum potential energy (according to Helmholtz), and when it is at its lowest point and has maximum speed (according to Rayleigh).

The acoustic conductivity curve of the jet has the shape of a spiral. The distance from the starting point indicates the magnitude of the conductivity, and the angular position indicates the phase shift between the acoustic flow at the outlet of the slot and the sound pressure behind the slot. When the flow is in phase with the pressure, the conductivity values lie in the right half of the helix and the energy of the jet is dissipated. In order for the jet to generate sound, the conductivities must be in the left half of the helix, which occurs when the jet is compensated or phased out with respect to the pressure downstream of the pipe cut. In this case, the length of the reflected wave is greater than the length of the incident wave. The value of the reference angle depends on which of the two mechanisms dominates the excitation of the tube: the Helmholtz mechanism or the Rayleigh mechanism. When the conductivity is in the upper half of the helix, the jet lowers the natural resonant frequency of the pipe, and when the conductivity value is in the lower part of the helix, it raises the natural resonant frequency of the pipe.

The graph of the movement of the air flow in the pipe (dashed curve) at a given jet deflection is asymmetric with respect to the zero deflection value, since the pipe lip is designed so as to cut the jet not along its central plane. When the jet deflection occurs along a simple sinusoid with a large amplitude (solid black curve), the air flow entering the pipe (color curve) "saturates" first at one extreme point deflection of the jet when it is completely out of the pipe. With an even greater amplitude, the air flow is also saturated at the other extreme point of deviation, when the jet completely enters the pipe. The displacement of the lip gives the flow an asymmetric waveform, the overtones of which have frequencies that are multiples of the frequency of the deflecting wave.

For 80 years, the problem remained unresolved. Moreover, new studies have not actually been conducted. And only now she has found a satisfactory solution thanks to the work of L. Kremer and H. Leasing from the Institute. Heinrich Hertz in the West. Berlin, S. Eller of the US Naval Academy, Coltman and our group. In short, both Helmholtz and Rayleigh were both partly right. The relationship between the two mechanisms of action is determined by the pressure of the injected air and the frequency of sound, with the Helmholtz mechanism being the main one at low pressures and high frequencies, and the Rayleigh mechanism at high pressures and low frequencies. For organ pipes of standard design, the Helmholtz mechanism usually plays a more important role.

Koltman developed a simple and effective way to study the properties of an air jet, which was modified and improved in our laboratory. This method is based on the study of the air jet at the slit of the organ pipe, when its far end is closed with felt or foam sound-absorbing wedges that prevent the pipe from sounding. Then, from a loudspeaker placed at the far end, a sound wave is fed down the pipe, which is reflected from the edge of the slot, first with an injected jet, and then without it. In both cases, the incident and reflected waves interact inside the pipe, creating a standing wave. By measuring, with a small probe microphone, changes in wave configuration as the air jet is applied, it can be determined whether the jet increases or decreases the energy of the reflected wave.

In our experiments, we actually measured the "acoustic conductivity" of the air jet, which is determined by the ratio of the acoustic flow at the outlet of the slit, created by the presence of the jet, to the acoustic pressure directly inside the slit. Acoustic conductivity is characterized by magnitude and phase angle, which can be represented graphically as a function of frequency or discharge pressure. If we present a graph of conductivity with an independent change in frequency and pressure, then the curve will have the shape of a spiral (see figure). The distance from the starting point of the helix indicates the conductivity value, and the angular position of the point on the helix corresponds to the delay in the phase of the tortuous wave that occurs in the jet under the influence of acoustic vibrations in the pipe. A delay of one wavelength corresponds to 360° around the circumference of the helix. Due to the special properties of the turbulent jet, it turned out that when the conductivity value is multiplied by Square root from the pressure value, all the values measured for a given organ pipe fit on the same spiral.

If the pressure remains constant, and the frequency of the incoming sound waves increases, then the points indicating the magnitude of the conductivity approach in a spiral towards its middle in a clockwise direction. At a constant frequency and increasing pressure, these points move away from the middle in the opposite direction.

Interior view of the Sydney Opera House organ. Some pipes of its 26 registers are visible. Most of the pipes are made of metal, some are made of wood. The length of the sounding part of the pipe doubles every 12 pipes, and the diameter of the pipe doubles approximately every 16 pipes. Many years of experience of the masters - the creators of organs allowed them to find the best proportions, providing a stable sound timbre.

When the point of conductivity is in the right half of the helix, the jet takes energy from the flow in the pipe, and therefore there is an energy loss. With the position of the point in the left half, the jet will transfer energy to the flow and thereby act as a generator of sound vibrations. When the conductivity value is in the upper half of the helix, the jet lowers the natural resonant frequency of the pipe, and when this point is in the lower half, the jet raises the natural resonant frequency of the pipe. The value of the angle characterizing the phase lag depends on which scheme - Helmholtz or Rayleigh - the main excitation of the pipe is carried out, and this, as shown, is determined by the values of pressure and frequency. However, this angle, measured from the right side of the horizontal axis (right quadrant), is never significantly greater than zero.

Since 360° around the circumference of the helix corresponds to a phase lag equal to the length of the winding wave propagating along the air jet, the magnitude of such a lag from much less than a quarter of the wavelength to almost three-fourths of its length will lie on the spiral from the center line, that is, in that part , where the jet acts as a generator of sound vibrations. We have also seen that, at a constant frequency, the phase lag is a function of the injected air pressure, which affects both the speed of the jet itself and the speed of propagation of the tortuous wave along the jet. Since the speed of such a wave is half the speed of the jet, which in turn is directly proportional to the square root of the pressure, a change in the phase of the jet by half the wavelength is possible only with a significant change in pressure. Theoretically, the pressure can change by a factor of nine before the trumpet stops producing sound at its fundamental frequency, if other conditions are not violated. In practice, however, the trumpet starts sounding at a higher frequency until the specified upper limit of pressure change is reached.

It should be noted that in order to make up for energy losses in the pipe and ensure sound stability, several turns of the helix can go far to the left. Only one more such loop, the location of which corresponds to about three half-waves in the jet, can make the pipe sound. Since the conductance of the strings at this point is low, the sound produced is weaker than any sound corresponding to a point on the outer turn of the helix.

The shape of the conduction helix can become even more complicated if the deviation at the upper lip exceeds the width of the jet itself. In this case, the jet is almost completely blown out of the pipe and blown back into it at each displacement cycle, and the amount of energy that it imparts to the reflected wave in the pipe ceases to depend on a further increase in amplitude. Correspondingly, the efficiency of the air strings in the mode of generating acoustic vibrations also decreases. In this case, an increase in the jet deflection amplitude only leads to a decrease in the conduction helix.

The decrease in jet efficiency with an increase in the deflection amplitude is accompanied by an increase in energy losses in the organ pipe. The fluctuations in the pipe are quickly set to a lower level, at which the energy of the jet exactly compensates for the energy losses in the pipe. It is interesting to note that in most cases the energy losses due to turbulence and viscosity are much higher than the losses associated with the scattering of sound waves through the slot and open ends of the pipe.

Section of an organ pipe of a range type, which shows that the tongue has a notch to create a uniform turbulent movement of the air stream. The pipe is made of "marked metal" - an alloy with a high content of tin and the addition of lead. In the manufacture of sheet material from this alloy, a characteristic pattern is fixed on it, which is clearly visible in the photograph.

Of course, the actual sound of the pipe in the organ is not limited to one specific frequency, but contains sounds of a higher frequency. It can be proved that these overtones are exact harmonics of the fundamental frequency and differ from it by an integer number of times. Under constant air injection conditions, the shape of the sound wave on the oscilloscope remains exactly the same. The slightest deviation of the harmonic frequency from a value that is strictly a multiple of the fundamental frequency leads to a gradual, but clearly visible change in the waveform.

This phenomenon is of interest because the resonant oscillations of the air column in an organ pipe, as in any open pipe, are set at frequencies that are somewhat different from those of the harmonics. The fact is that with an increase in frequency, the working length of the pipe becomes slightly smaller due to a change in the acoustic flux at the open ends of the pipe. As will be shown, overtones in the organ pipe are created by the interaction of the air jet and the lip of the slot, and the pipe itself serves for higher frequency overtones mainly as a passive resonator.

Resonant vibrations in the pipe are created with the greatest movement of air at its holes. In other words, the conductivity in the organ pipe should reach its maximum at the slot. It follows that resonant vibrations also occur in a pipe with an open long end at frequencies at which an integer number of half-waves of sound vibrations fit in the length of the pipe. If we designate the fundamental frequency as f 1 , then higher resonant frequencies will be 2 f 1 , 3f 1 etc. (In fact, as already pointed out, the highest resonant frequencies are always slightly higher than these values.)

In a pipe with a closed or muffled long-range horse, resonant oscillations occur at frequencies at which an odd number of quarters of a wavelength fits in the length of the pipe. Therefore, to sound on the same note, a closed pipe can be half as long as an open one, and its resonant frequencies will be f 1 , 3f 1 , 5f 1 etc.

The results of the effect of changing the pressure of the forced air on the sound in a conventional organ pipe. Roman numerals denote the first few overtones. The main trumpet mode (in color) covers a range of well-balanced normal sounds at normal pressure. As the pressure increases, the sound of the trumpet goes to the second overtone; when the pressure is reduced, a weakened second overtone is created.

Now let's return to the air stream in the organ pipe. We see that high-frequency wave disturbances gradually decay as the jet width increases. As a result, the end of the jet near the upper lip oscillates almost sinusoidally at the fundamental frequency of the sounding of the pipe and almost independently of the higher harmonics of the acoustic field oscillations near the pipe slot. However, the sinusoidal movement of the jet will not create the same movement of the air flow in the pipe, since the flow is “saturated” due to the fact that, with an extreme deviation in any direction, it flows completely either from the inside or from the outside of the upper lip. In addition, the lip is usually somewhat displaced and cuts the flow not exactly along its central plane, so that the saturation is not symmetrical. Therefore, the fluctuation of the flow in the pipe has a complete set of harmonics of the fundamental frequency with a strictly defined ratio of frequencies and phases, and the relative amplitudes of these high-frequency harmonics rapidly increase with increasing amplitude of the air jet deflection.

In a conventional organ pipe, the amount of jet deflection in the slot is commensurate with the width of the jet at the upper lip. As a result, a large number of overtones are created in the air stream. If the lip divided the jet strictly symmetrically, there would be no even overtones in the sound. So usually the lip is given some blending to keep all the overtones.

As you might expect, open and closed pipes produce different sound qualities. The frequencies of the overtones created by the jet are a multiple of the main jet oscillation frequency. A column of air in a pipe will strongly resonate to a certain overtone only if the acoustic conductivity of the pipe is high. In this case, there will be a sharp increase in amplitude at a frequency close to the frequency of the overtone. Therefore, in a closed tube, where only overtones with odd numbers of resonant frequency are created, all other overtones are suppressed. The result is a characteristic "muffled" sound in which even overtones are weak, although not completely absent. On the contrary, an open pipe produces a "lighter" sound, since it retains all the overtones derived from the fundamental frequency.

The resonant properties of the pipe in to a large extent dependent on energy losses. These losses are of two types: losses due to internal friction and heat transfer, and losses due to radiation through the slot and the open end of the pipe. Losses of the first type are more significant in narrow pipes and at low oscillation frequencies. For wide tubes and at a high oscillation frequency, losses of the second type are significant.

The influence of the location of the lip on the creation of overtones indicates the advisability of shifting the lip. If the lip divided the jet strictly along the central plane, only the sound of the fundamental frequency (I) and the third overtone (III) would be created in the pipe. By shifting the lip, as shown by the dotted line, second and fourth overtones appear, greatly enriching the sound quality.

It follows that for a given length of pipe, and hence a certain fundamental frequency, wide pipes can serve as good resonators only for the fundamental tone and the next few overtones, which form a muffled "flute-like" sound. Narrow tubes serve as good resonators for a wide range of overtones, and since the radiation at high frequencies is more intense than at low frequencies, a high "string" sound is produced. Between these two sounds there is a sonorous juicy sound, which becomes characteristic of a good organ, which is created by the so-called principals or ranges.

In addition, a large organ may have rows of tubes with a conical body, a perforated plug, or other geometric variations. Such designs are intended to modify the resonant frequencies of the trumpet, and sometimes to increase the range of high-frequency overtones in order to obtain a timbre of a special sound coloring. The choice of material from which the pipe is made does not matter much.

There are a large number of possible types of air vibrations in a pipe, and this further complicates the acoustic properties of the pipe. For example, when the air pressure in an open pipe is increased to such an extent that the first overtone will be created in the jet f 1 one quarter of the length of the main wave, the point on the conduction spiral corresponding to this overtone will move to its right half and the jet will cease to create an overtone of this frequency. At the same time, the frequency of the second overtone 2 f 1 corresponds to a half wave in the jet, and it can be stable. Therefore, the sound of the trumpet will go to this second overtone, almost a whole octave above the first, and the exact frequency of oscillation will depend on the resonant frequency of the trumpet and the air supply pressure.

A further increase in discharge pressure can lead to the formation of the next overtone 3 f 1 provided that the "undercut" of the lip is not too large. On the other hand, it often happens that low pressure, insufficient to form the fundamental tone, gradually creates one of the overtones on the second turn of the conduction helix. Such sounds, created with excess or lack of pressure, are of interest for laboratory research, but are used extremely rarely in the organs themselves, only to achieve some special effect.

View of a standing wave at resonance in pipes with an open and closed upper end. The width of each colored line corresponds to the amplitude of oscillations in various parts pipes. The arrows indicate the direction of air movement during one half of the oscillatory cycle; in the second half of the cycle, the direction of movement is reversed. Roman numerals indicate harmonic numbers. For an open pipe, all harmonics of the fundamental frequency are resonant. A closed pipe must be half as long to produce the same note, but only the odd harmonics are resonant for it. The complex geometry of the "mouth" of the pipe somewhat distorts the configuration of the waves closer to the lower end of the pipe, without changing them « main » character.

After the master in the manufacture of the organ has made one pipe with the necessary sound, his main and most difficult task is to create the entire series of pipes of appropriate volume and harmony in sound throughout the entire musical range of the keyboard. It can't be reached simple set pipes of the same geometry, differing only in their dimensions, since in such pipes the energy losses from friction and radiation will have a different effect on oscillations of different frequencies. To ensure permanence acoustic properties over the entire range, it is necessary to vary a number of parameters. The diameter of the pipe changes with its length and depends on it as a power with an exponent k, where k is less than 1. Therefore, long bass pipes are made narrower. The calculated value of k is 5/6, or 0.83, but taking into account the psychophysical characteristics of human hearing, it should be reduced to 0.75. This value of k is very close to that empirically determined by the great organ makers of the 17th and 18th centuries.

In conclusion, let us consider a question that is important from the point of view of playing the organ: how the sound of many pipes in a large organ is controlled. The basic mechanism of this control is simple and resembles the rows and columns of a matrix. Pipes arranged by registers correspond to the rows of the matrix. All pipes of the same register have the same tone, and each pipe corresponds to one note on the hand or foot keyboard. The air supply to the pipes of each register is controlled by a special lever on which the name of the register is indicated, and the air supply directly to the pipes associated with a given note and constituting a column of the matrix is regulated by the corresponding key on the keyboard. The trumpet will sound only if the lever of the register in which it is located is moved and the desired key is pressed.

The placement of the organ pipes resembles the rows and columns of a matrix. In this simplified diagram, each row, called the register, consists of pipes of the same type, each of which produces one note (the upper part of the diagram). Each column associated with one note on the keyboard (lower part of the diagram) includes different types of pipes (left part of the diagram). A lever on the console (right side of the diagram) provides air access to all pipes of the register, and pressing a key on the keyboard blows air into all pipes of a given note. Air access to the pipe is possible only when the row and column are turned on at the same time.

Nowadays, a variety of ways to implement such a circuit can be used using digital logic devices and electrically controlled valves on each pipe. Older organs used simple mechanical levers and reed valves to supply air to the keyboard channels, and mechanical sliders with holes to control the flow of air to the entire register. This simple and reliable mechanical system, in addition to its design advantages, allowed the organist to regulate the speed of opening all the valves himself and, as it were, made this too mechanical musical instrument closer to him.

In the XIX at the beginning of the XX century. large organs were built with all sorts of electromechanical and electropneumatic devices, but recently preference has again been given to mechanical transmissions from keys and pedals, and complex electronic devices are used to simultaneously turn on combinations of registers while playing the organ. For example, the world's largest powered organ was installed in the Sydney Opera House concert hall in 1979. It has 10,500 pipes in 205 registers distributed among five hand and one foot keyboards. The key control is carried out mechanically, but it is duplicated by an electrical transmission to which you can connect. In this way, the organist's performance can be recorded in an encoded digital form, which can then be used for automatic playback on the organ of the original performance. The control of registers and their combinations is carried out using electric or electro-pneumatic devices and microprocessors with memory, which allows you to widely vary the control program. Thus, the magnificent rich sound of the majestic organ is created by a combination of the most advanced achievements modern technology and traditional techniques and principles that have been used by the masters of the past for many centuries.

When the inconspicuous beige-painted door opened, only a few wooden steps caught my eye out of the darkness. Immediately behind the door, a powerful wooden box resembling a ventilation box goes up. “Careful, this is an organ pipe, 32 feet, bass flute register,” my guide warned. "Wait, I'll turn on the light." I patiently wait, anticipating one of the most interesting excursions in my life. In front of me is the entrance to the organ. This is the only musical instrument you can go inside

The body is over a hundred years old. It stands in the Great Hall of the Moscow Conservatory, the very famous hall, from the walls of which portraits of Bach, Tchaikovsky, Mozart, Beethoven are looking at you ... However, all that is open to the viewer's eye is the organist's console turned to the hall with its back side and a slightly artsy wooden " Prospect" with vertical metal pipes. Watching the facade of the organ, the uninitiated will not understand how and why this unique instrument plays. To reveal its secrets, you will have to approach the issue from a different angle. Literally.

Natalya Vladimirovna Malina, the curator of the organ, teacher, musician and organ master, kindly agreed to become my guide. “You can only move forward in the organ,” she explains to me sternly. This requirement has nothing to do with mysticism and superstition: simply, moving backward or sideways, an inexperienced person can step on one of the organ pipes or touch it. And there are thousands of pipes.

The main principle of the organ, which distinguishes it from most wind instruments: one pipe - one note. Pan's flute can be considered an ancient ancestor of the organ. This instrument, which has existed since time immemorial in different parts of the world, consists of several hollow reeds of different lengths tied together. If you blow at an angle at the mouth of the shortest one, a thin high sound will be heard. Longer reeds sound lower.

Unlike an ordinary flute, you cannot change the pitch of an individual tube, so Pan's flute can play exactly as many notes as there are reeds in it. To make the instrument produce very low sounds, it is necessary to include tubes of great length and large diameter in its composition. It is possible to make many Pan flutes with pipes of different materials and different diameters, and then they will blow the same notes with different timbres. But playing all these instruments at the same time will not work - you cannot hold them in your hands, and there will not be enough breath for giant "reeds". But if we put all our flutes vertically, provide each individual tube with an air inlet valve, come up with a mechanism that would give us the opportunity to control all the valves from the keyboard and, finally, create a design for pumping air with its subsequent distribution, we have just get an organ.

On an old ship

Pipes in organs are made of two materials: wood and metal. Wooden pipes used to extract bass sounds have a square section. Metal pipes are usually smaller, they are cylindrical or conical in shape and are usually made from an alloy of tin and lead. If there is more tin, the pipe is louder, if there is more lead, the extracted sound is more deaf, “cotton”.

The alloy of tin and lead is very soft, which is why organ pipes are easily deformed. If a large metal pipe is laid on its side, after a while it will acquire an oval section under its own weight, which will inevitably affect its ability to extract sound. Moving inside the organ of the Great Hall of the Moscow Conservatory, I try to touch only the wooden parts. If you step on a pipe or awkwardly grab it, the organ master will have new troubles: the pipe will have to be “healed” - straightened, or even soldered.

The organ I am inside is far from being the largest in the world and even in Russia. In terms of size and number of pipes, it is inferior to the organs of the Moscow House of Music, Cathedral in Kaliningrad and the Concert Hall. Tchaikovsky. The main record holders are overseas: for example, the instrument installed in the Atlantic City Convention Hall (USA) has more than 33,000 pipes. In the organ of the Great Hall of the Conservatory, there are ten times fewer pipes, "only" 3136, but even this significant number cannot be placed compactly on one plane. The organ inside is several tiers on which pipes are installed in rows. For the organ master's access to the pipes, a narrow passage in the form of a plank platform was made on each tier. The tiers are interconnected by stairs, in which the role of the steps is performed by ordinary crossbeams. Inside the organ is crowded, and movement between tiers requires a certain dexterity.

“My experience is that,” says Natalya Vladimirovna Malina, “it is best for an organ master to be thin and light in weight. It is difficult for a person with other dimensions to work here without damaging the instrument. Recently, an electrician - a heavy man - was changing a light bulb over an organ, stumbled and broke a couple of planks from the plank roof. There were no casualties or injuries, but the fallen planks damaged 30 organ pipes.”

Mentally estimating that a couple of organ masters could easily fit in my body ideal proportions, I cautiously glance at the flimsy-looking stairs leading to the upper tiers. “Don't worry,” Natalya Vladimirovna reassures me, “just go forward and repeat the movements after me. The structure is strong, it will withstand you.

Whistle and reed

We climb to the upper tier of the organ, from where a view of the Great Hall from the top point, which is inaccessible to a simple visitor to the conservatory, opens up. On the stage below, where the rehearsal of the string ensemble has just ended, little men walk around with violins and violas. Natalya Vladimirovna shows me the Spanish registers near the chimney. Unlike other pipes, they are not vertical, but horizontal. Forming a kind of visor over the organ, they blow directly into the hall. The creator of the organ of the Great Hall, Aristide Cavaillé-Coll, came from a Franco-Spanish family of organ masters. Hence the Pyrenean traditions in the instrument on Bolshaya Nikitskaya Street in Moscow.

By the way, about Spanish registers and registers in general. "Register" is one of the key concepts in the design of the organ. This is a series of organ pipes of a certain diameter, forming a chromatic scale according to the keys of their keyboard or part of it.

Depending on the scale of the pipes included in their composition (the scale is the ratio of the pipe parameters that are most important for the character and sound quality), the registers give a sound with a different timbre color. Carried away by comparisons with the Pan flute, I almost missed one subtlety: the fact is that not all organ pipes (like the reeds of an old flute) are aerophones. An aerophone is a wind instrument in which the sound is formed as a result of the vibrations of a column of air. These include flute, trumpet, tuba, horn. But the saxophone, oboe, harmonica are in the group of idiophones, that is, "self-sounding". It is not the air that oscillates here, but the tongue streamlined by the flow of air. Air pressure and elastic force, counteracting, cause the reed to tremble and spread sound waves, which are amplified by the bell of the instrument as a resonator.

Most of the pipes in the organ are aerophones. They are called labial, or whistling. Idiophone pipes make up special group registers and are called reed.

How many hands does an organist have?

But how does a musician manage to make all these thousands of pipes - wooden and metal, whistle and reed, open and closed - dozens or hundreds of registers ... sound at the right time? To understand this, let's go down for a while from the upper tier of the organ and go to the pulpit, or the organist's console. The uninitiated at the sight of this device is trembling as before the dashboard of a modern airliner. Several manual keyboards - manuals (there may be five or even seven!), One foot plus some other mysterious pedals. There are also many exhaust levers with inscriptions on the handles. Why all this?

Of course, the organist has only two hands, and he will not be able to play all the manuals at the same time (there are three of them in the organ of the Great Hall, which is also quite a lot). Several manual keyboards are needed in order to mechanically and functionally separate groups of registers, just as in a computer one physical hard drive is divided into several virtual ones. So, for example, the first manual of the Great Hall organ controls the pipes of a group (the German term is Werk) of registers called the Grand Orgue. It includes 14 registers. The second manual (Positif Expressif) is also responsible for 14 registers. The third keyboard - Recit expressif - 12 registers. Finally, the 32-key footswitch, or "pedal", works with ten bass registers.

Arguing from the point of view of a layman, even 14 registers on one keyboard is somehow too much. After all, by pressing one key, the organist is able to make 14 pipes sound at once in different registers (actually more because of registers like mixtura). And if you need to play a note in just one register or in a few selected ones? For this purpose, the exhaust levers located to the right and left of the manuals are actually used. By pulling out the lever with the name of the register written on the handle, the musician opens a kind of damper that opens the air to the pipes of a certain register.

So, in order to play the desired note in the desired register, you need to select the manual or pedal keyboard that controls this register, pull out the lever corresponding to this register and press the desired key.

Powerful breath

The final part of our tour is dedicated to the air. The very air that makes the organ sound. Together with Natalya Vladimirovna, we go down to the floor below and find ourselves in a spacious technical room, where there is nothing from the solemn mood of the Great Hall. Concrete floors, whitewashed walls, arched timber support structures, air ducts and an electric motor. In the first decade of the organ's existence, calcante rockers worked hard here. Four healthy men stood in a row, grabbed with both hands a stick threaded through a steel ring on the counter, and alternately, with one foot or the other, pressed on the levers that inflated the fur. The shift was scheduled for two hours. If the concert or rehearsal lasted longer, the tired rockers were replaced by fresh reinforcements.

Old furs, four in number, have survived to this day. According to Natalya Vladimirovna, there is a legend around the conservatory that once they tried to replace the work of rockers with horse power. For this, a special mechanism was allegedly even created. However, along with the air, the smell of horse manure rose into the Great Hall, and the founder of the Russian organ school A.F. Gedike, taking the first chord, moved his nose in displeasure and said: “It stinks!”

Whether this legend is true or not, in 1913 the electric motor finally replaced muscle strength. With the help of a pulley, he spun the shaft, which in turn set the bellows in motion through the crank mechanism. Subsequently, this scheme was also abandoned, and today an electric fan pumps air into the organ.

In the organ, the forced air enters the so-called magazine bellows, each of which is connected to one of the 12 windlads. Windlada is a compressed air tank that looks like a wooden box, on which, in fact, rows of pipes are installed. On one windlad, several registers are usually placed. Large pipes, which do not have enough space on the windlad, are installed to the side, and they are connected to the windlad by an air duct in the form of a metal tube.

The windlads of the organ of the Great Hall (the “loopflade” design) are divided into two main parts. In the lower part, constant pressure is maintained with the help of magazine fur. The top is divided by airtight partitions into so-called tone channels. All pipes of different registers, controlled by one key of the manual or pedal, have an output to the tone channel. Each tone channel is connected to the bottom of the windlad by a hole closed by a spring-loaded valve. When a key is pressed through the tracture, the movement is transmitted to the valve, it opens and the compressed air enters upward into the tone channel. All pipes that have access to this channel, in theory, should start to sound, but ... this, as a rule, does not happen. The fact is that so-called loops pass through the entire upper part of the windlad - shutters with holes located perpendicular to the tone channels and having two positions. In one of them, the loops completely cover all the pipes of a given register in all tone channels. In the other, the register is open, and its pipes begin to sound as soon as, after pressing the key, air enters the corresponding tone channel. The control of the loops, as you might guess, is carried out by levers on the remote control through the register path. Simply put, the keys allow all pipes to sound in their tone channels, and the loops determine the favorites.

We thank the leadership of the Moscow State Conservatory and Natalya Vladimirovna Malina for their help in preparing this article.

Organ - ancient instrument. His distant predecessors were apparently, bagpipes and pan flute. In ancient times, when there were no complex musical instruments yet, several reed pipes of different sizes began to be connected together - this is the Pan flute.

It was believed that the god of forests and groves Pan came up with it. It is easy to play on one pipe: it needs a little air. But playing on several at once is much more difficult - there is not enough breath. Therefore, already in ancient times, people were looking for a mechanism that replaces human breathing. They found such a mechanism: they began to pump air with bellows, the same as those with which blacksmiths fanned the fire in the furnace.
In the second century BC in Alexandria, Ktesebius (Latin Ctesibius, approximately III - II centuries BC) invented a hydraulic organ. Note that this Greek nickname literally means "Creator of life" (Greek Ktesh-bio), i.e. simply God. This Ctesibius allegedly also invented a float water clock (which has not come down to us), a piston pump and a hydraulic drive.
- long before the discovery of Torricelli's law (1608-1647). (In what conceivable way, in the 2nd century BC, it was possible to ensure the tightness necessary to create a vacuum in the Ctesibian pump? What material could the connecting rod mechanism of the pump be made of - after all, to ensure the sound of an organ, an initial overpressure of at least 2 atm is required. ?).
In the hydraulics, air was pumped not with bellows, but with a water press. Therefore, he acted more evenly, and the sound turned out better - smoother and more beautiful.
Gidravlos was used by the Greeks and Romans at hippodromes, in circuses, and also to accompany pagan mysteries. The sound of the hydraulics was unusually strong and piercing. In the first centuries of Christianity, the water pump was replaced by air bellows, which made it possible to increase the size of the pipes and their number in the organ.
Centuries passed, the instrument improved. The so-called performing console or performing table appeared. There are several keyboards on it, one above the other, and at the bottom are huge foot keys - pedals that produced the lowest sounds. Of course, reed pipes - Pan's flutes - were long forgotten. Metal pipes sounded in the organ, and their number reached many thousands. It is clear that if each pipe had a corresponding key, then it would be impossible to play an instrument with thousands of keys. Therefore, register knobs or buttons were made above the keyboards. Each key corresponds to several tens or even hundreds of pipes that produce sounds of the same height, but of a different timbre. They can be turned on and off with register knobs, and then, at the request of the composer and performer, the sound of the organ becomes like a flute, then an oboe or other instruments; he can even imitate the singing of birds.
Already in the middle of the 5th century, organs were being built in Spanish churches, but since the instrument still sounded loud, it was used only on major holidays.
By the 11th century, all of Europe was building organs. An organ built in 980 in Wenchester (England) was known for its unusual size. Gradually, the keys replaced the clumsy large "plates"; the range of the instrument has become wider, the registers have become more diverse. At the same time, a small portable organ - portable and a miniature stationary organ - positive came into wide use.
The musical encyclopedia says that the keys of the organ until the 14th century. were huge
- 30-33 cm long and 8-9 cm wide. The playing technique was very simple: such keys were beaten with fists and elbows (German: Orgel schlagen). What organ lofty divine-spirited masses could sound in Catholic cathedrals (it is believed that from the 7th century AD) with such a performance technique?? Or were they orgies?
17th-18th centuries - "golden age" of organ building and organ performance.
The organs of this time were distinguished by their beauty and variety of sound; exceptional timbre clarity, transparency made them excellent instruments for performance polyphonic music.
Organs were built in all Catholic cathedrals and large churches. Their solemn and powerful sound was the best suited to the architecture of cathedrals with upward lines and high vaults. Top Musicians world served as church organists. A lot of great music has been written for this instrument by various composers, including Bach. Most often they wrote for the "Baroque organ", which was more common than the organs of previous or subsequent periods. Of course, not all music created for the organ was cult, associated with the church.
The so-called "secular" works were also composed for him. In Russia, the organ was only a secular instrument, since in the Orthodox Church, unlike the Catholic Church, it was never installed.
Beginning in the 18th century, composers included the organ in the oratorio. And in the 19th century, he appeared in the opera. As a rule, this was caused by a stage situation - if the action took place in the temple or near it. Tchaikovsky, for example, used the organ in the opera The Maid of Orleans in the scene of the solemn coronation of Charles VII. We hear the organ in one of the scenes of Gounod's opera "Faust"
(scene in the cathedral). But Rimsky-Korsakov in the opera "Sadko" instructed the organ to accompany the song of the Elder, the mighty hero, who interrupts the dance
Sea king. Verdi in the opera "Othello" imitates the noise of a sea storm with the help of an organ. Sometimes the organ is included in the score of symphonic works. With his participation, the Third Symphony of Saint-Saens, the Poem of Ecstasy and Scriabin's "Prometheus" are performed in the symphony "Manfred" by Tchaikovsky, the organ also sounds, although the composer did not foresee this. He wrote the part for the harmonium, which the organ often replaces there.
Romanticism of the 19th century, with its desire for expressive orchestral sound, had a dubious influence on organ building and organ music; the craftsmen tried to create instruments that were an "orchestra for one performer", but as a result, the matter was reduced to a weak imitation of an orchestra.
However, in the 19th and 20th centuries many new timbres appeared in the organ, and significant improvements were made in the design of the instrument.
The trend towards ever larger organs culminated in the huge 33,112-pipe organ in Atlantic City, New York.
Jersey). This instrument has two pulpits, and one of them has 7 keyboards. Despite this, in the 20th century. organists and organ builders realized the need to return to simpler and more convenient instrument types.

The remains of the oldest organ-like instrument with a hydraulic drive were found in 1931 during excavations at Aquincum (near Budapest) and dated to 228 AD. e. It is believed that this city, which had a forced water supply system, was destroyed in 409. However, in terms of the level of development of hydraulic technology, this is the middle of the 15th century.

The structure of the modern organ.
The organ is a keyboard-wind musical instrument, the largest and most complex of the existing tools. They play it like a piano by pressing the keys. But unlike the piano, the organ is not a string instrument, but a wind instrument, and it turns out to be not a relative. keyboard instruments but a small flute.
A huge modern organ consists, as it were, of three or more organs, and the performer can control all of them at the same time. Each of the organs that make up such a "large organ" has its own registers (sets of pipes) and its own keyboard (manual). Pipes lined up in rows are located in the internal premises (chambers) of the organ; part of the pipes may be visible, but in principle all pipes are hidden by a facade (avenue) consisting partly of decorative pipes. The organist sits behind the so-called spiltis (pulpit), in front of him are the keyboards (manuals) of the organ, arranged in terraces one above the other, and under his feet is a pedal keyboard. Each of the organs in
“large organ”, has its own purpose and name; among the most common are “main” (German Haupwerk), “upper”, or “oberwerk”
(German: Oberwerk), Rykpositiv, and a set of pedal registers. The "main" organ is the largest and contains the main registers of the instrument. "Rukpositive" is similar to "Main", but smaller and softer, and also contains some special solo registers. The "upper" organ adds new solo and onomatopoeic timbres to the ensemble; connected to the pedal are pipes that produce low sounds to enhance the bass lines.
The pipes of some of their named organs, especially the "upper" and "ruckpositive", are placed inside semi-closed shutter-chambers, which can be closed or opened using the so-called channel, resulting in the creation of crescendo and diminuendo effects that are not available on the organ without this mechanism. In modern organs, air is forced into the pipes by an electric motor; through wooden air ducts, air from the bellows enters the windlads - a system of wooden boxes with holes in the top cover. Organ pipes are reinforced with their "legs" in these holes. From the windlad, air under pressure enters one or another pipe.
Since each pipe is capable of producing one sound pitch and one timbre, a standard five octave manual requires a set of at least 61 pipes. In general, an organ can have from several hundred to many thousands of tubes. A group of pipes producing sounds of the same timbre is called a register. When the organist turns on the register on the spike (using a button or lever located on the side of the manuals or above them), access to all the pipes of this register is opened. Thus, the performer can choose any register he needs or any combination of registers.
There are different types of pipes that create a variety of sound effects.
Pipes are made of tin, lead, copper and various alloys
(mainly lead and tin), in some cases wood is also used.
The length of the pipes can be from 9.8 m to 2.54 cm or less; the diameter varies depending on the pitch and timbre of the sound. Organ pipes are divided into two groups according to the method of sound production (labial and reed) and into four groups according to timbres. In labial pipes, sound is formed as a result of an air jet hitting the lower and upper lip of the “mouth” (labium) - a cut in the lower part of the pipe; in reed pipes, the source of sound is a metal tongue vibrating under the pressure of an air jet. The main families of registers (timbres) are principals, flutes, gambas and reeds.
Principals are the foundation of all organ sounding; flute registers sound calmer, softer and to some extent resemble orchestral flutes in timbre; gambas (strings) are more piercing and sharper than flutes; the timbre of the reeds is metallic, imitating the timbres of orchestral wind instruments. Some organs, especially theater organs, also have drum tones, such as cymbals and drums.
Finally, many registers are built in such a way that their pipes do not give the main sound, but its transposition an octave higher or lower, and in the case of the so-called mixtures and aliquots, not even one sound, but also overtones to the main tone (aliquots reproduce one overtone, mixtures up to seven overtones).

Organ in Russia.
The organ, whose development has long been associated with the history of the Western Church, was able to establish itself in Russia, in a country where the Orthodox Church forbade the use of musical instruments during worship.
Kievan Rus (10-12 centuries). The first organs in Russia, as well as in Western Europe, came from Byzantium. This coincided in time with the adoption of Christianity in Russia in 988 and the reign of Prince Vladimir the Holy (c. 978-1015), with an era of especially close political, religious and cultural contacts between Russian princes and Byzantine rulers. Body in Kievan Rus was a stable component of the court and folk culture. The earliest evidence of an organ in our country is in the Kiev St. Sophia Cathedral, which, due to its lengthy construction in the 11-12 centuries. became the “stone chronicle” of Kievan Rus. A fresco of Skomorokha has been preserved there, which depicts a musician playing on the positive and two calcane
(organ bellows pumpers), pumping air into the organ bellows. After death
During the Kievan state during the Mongol-Tatar rule (1243-1480), Moscow became the cultural and political center of Russia.

Moscow Grand Duchy and Kingdom (15th-17th centuries). During this era between
Moscow and Western Europe ever closer relationship developed. So, in 1475-1479. italian architect Aristotle Fioravanti erected in
Assumption Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin, and the brother of Sophia Paleolog, niece of the last Byzantine emperor Constantine XI and since 1472 the wife of the king
Ivan III, brought organist John Salvator to Moscow from Italy.

The royal court of that time showed a lively interest in organ art.
This allowed the Dutch organist and organ builder Gottlieb Eylhof (the Russians called him Danilo Nemchin) to settle in Moscow in 1578. 1586 is dated a written message from the English envoy Jerome Horsey about the purchase for Tsarina Irina Feodorovna, sister of Boris Godunov, several clavichords and an organ built in England.
Organs were also widely used among the common people.
Buffoons wandering around Russia on portables. For a variety of reasons, which was condemned by the Orthodox Church.
During the reign of Tsar Mikhail Romanov (1613-1645) and beyond, up to
1650, except for Russian organists Tomila Mikhailov (Besov), Boris Ovsonov,
Melenty Stepanov and Andrey Andreev, foreigners also worked in the Amusement Chamber in Moscow: the Poles Jerzy (Yuri) Proskurovsky and Fyodor Zavalsky, the organ builders are the Dutch brothers Yagan (probably Johan) and Melchert Lun.
Under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich from 1654 to 1685 he served at the court of Simon
Gutowski, a jack-of-all-trades musician of Polish origin, originally from
Smolensk. With his multifaceted activities, Gutovsky made a significant contribution to the development of musical culture. In Moscow he built several organs; in 1662, by order of the tsar, he and four of his apprentices went to
Persia to donate one of his instruments to the Shah of Persia.
One of the most significant events in the cultural life of Moscow was the foundation in 1672 of the court theater, which was also equipped with an organ.
Gutovsky.
The era of Peter the Great (1682-1725) and his successors. Peter I was keenly interested in Western culture. In 1691, at the age of nineteen, he commissioned the famous Hamburg organ builder Arp Schnitger (1648-1719) to build an organ for Moscow with sixteen registers, decorated with walnut figures on top. In 1697, Schnitger sent another one to Moscow, this time an eight-registered instrument for a certain Mr. Earnhorn. Peter
I, who sought to adopt all Western European achievements, among other things, entrusted the Herlitz organist Christian Ludwig Boxberg, who demonstrated to the Tsar the new organ of Eugen Casparini in the church of St. Peter and Paul in Görlitz (Germany), installed there in 1690-1703 to design an even more grandiose organ for the Metropolitan Cathedral in Moscow. Projects for two dispositions of this “giant organ” for 92 and 114 registers were prepared by Boxberg ca. 1715. During the reign of the reformer tsar, organs were built throughout the country, primarily in Lutheran and Catholic churches.

Petersburg, the Catholic Church of St. Catherine and the Protestant Church of Sts. Peter and Paul. For the latter, in 1737, the organ was built by Johann Heinrich Joachim (1696-1752) from Mitau (now Jelgava in Latvia).
1764 weekly concerts of symphonic and oratorio music began to be held in this church. So, in 1764 the royal court was subdued by the performance of the Danish organist Johann Gottfried Wilhelm Palschau (1741 or 1742-1813). In the end
1770s, Empress Catherine II instructed the English master Samuel
Grin (1740-1796) the construction of an organ in St. Petersburg, presumably for Prince Potemkin.

Famous organ builder Heinrich Andreas Kontius (1708-1792) from Halle
(Germany), mainly working in the Baltic cities, and also built two organs, one in St. Petersburg (1791), the other in Narva.
The most famous organ builder in Russia at the end of the 18th century was Franz Kirschnik
(1741-1802). Abbot Georg Joseph Vogler, who gave in April and May 1788 in St.
Petersburg, two concerts, after visiting the organ workshop Kirschnik was so impressed by his instruments that in 1790 he invited his assistant, master Rakwitz, first to Warsaw and then to Rotterdam.
The thirty-year activity of the German composer, organist and pianist Johann Wilhelm left a famous trace in the cultural life of Moscow.
Gessler (1747-1822). Gessler studied organ playing with a student of J. S. Bach
Johann Christian Kittel and therefore, in his work, he adhered to the tradition of the Leipzig cantor of the church of St. Thomas.. In 1792, Gessler was appointed imperial court bandmaster in St. Petersburg. In 1794 he moved to
Moscow, gained fame as the best piano teacher, and thanks to numerous concerts dedicated to organ creativity J.S. Bach, had a great influence on Russian musicians and music lovers.
19th – early 20th c. In the 19th century among the Russian aristocracy, interest in playing music on the organ in zhomash conditions spread. Prince Vladimir
Odoevsky (1804-1869), one of the most remarkable personalities of Russian society, a friend of M.I. Glinka and the author of the first original compositions for organ in Russia, in the late 1840s invited master Georg Melzel (1807-
1866) for the construction of an organ that went down in the history of Russian music as
“Sebastianon” (named after Johann Sebastian Bach). It was about a home organ, in the development of which Prince Odoevsky himself took part. This Russian aristocrat saw one of the main goals of his life in awakening the interest of the Russian musical community in the organ and in the exceptional personality of J.S. Bach. Accordingly, the programs of his home concerts were primarily devoted to the work of the Leipzig cantor. It is from
Odoevsky also issued an appeal to the Russian public to raise funds for the restoration of the Bach organ in the Novof Church (now the Bach Church) in Arnstadt (Germany).
Often M. I. Glinka improvised on Odoevsky's organ. From the memoirs of his contemporaries, we know that Glinka was endowed with an outstanding improvisational talent. He highly appreciated the organ improvisations of Glinka F.
Sheet. During his tour in Moscow on May 4, 1843, Liszt gave an organ concert at the Protestant Church of Sts. Peter and Paul.
It did not lose its intensity in the 19th century. and activities of organ builders. To
1856 in Russia there were 2280 church organs. German firms took part in the construction of organs installed in the 19th and early 20th centuries.
In the period from 1827 to 1854, Karl Wirth (1800-1882) worked as a piano and organ master in St. Petersburg, who built several organs, among which one was intended for the church of St. Catherine. In 1875 this instrument was sold to Finland. In Moscow, Kronstadt and St. Petersburg supplied its organs English firm"Brindley and Foster" from Sheffield, the German company "Ernst Rever" from Hausnaindorf (Harz) in 1897 built one of its organs in Moscow, the Austrian organ-building workshop of the brothers
Rieger erected several organs in the churches of Russian provincial towns
(in Nizhny Novgorod- in 1896, in Tula - in 1901, in Samara - in 1905, in Penza - in 1906). One of the most famous organs of Eberhard Friedrich Walker with
1840 was in the Protestant Cathedral of Sts. Peter and Paul in Petersburg. It was built on the model of a large organ built seven years earlier in the church of St. Paul in Frankfurt am Main.
A huge upsurge in Russian organ culture began with the founding of organ classes at the St. Petersburg (1862) and Moscow (1885) conservatories. As the first teacher of the organ in St. Petersburg, a graduate of the Leipzig Conservatory, a native of the city of Lübeck, Gerich Shtil (1829-
1886). His teaching activity in St. Petersburg lasted from 1862 to
1869. In last years his life was the organist of the Olai church in Tallinei Shtil and his successor at the St. Petersburg Conservatory lasted from 1862 to 1869. In the last years of his life he was the organist of the Olai church in Tallinei Shtil and his successor at the St. teaching practice focused primarily on the German organ school. The organ class of the St. Petersburg Conservatory in the early years took place in the Cathedral of Sts. Peter and Paul, and among the first organ students was P. I. Tchaikovsky. Actually, the organ appeared in the conservatory itself only in 1897.
In 1901, the Moscow Conservatory also received a magnificent concert organ. During the year, this organ was an exhibition piece in
Russian pavilion of the World Exhibition in Paris (1900). In addition to this instrument, there were two more Ladegast organs, which in 1885 found their place in the Small Hall of the Conservatory. The largest of them was donated by a merchant and patron of the arts.
Vasily Khludov (1843-1915). This organ was in use at the conservatory until 1959. Professors and students regularly participated in concerts in Moscow and
Petersburg, and graduates of both conservatories also gave concerts in other cities of the country. Foreign performers also performed in Moscow: Charles-
Marie Vidor (1896 and 1901), Charles Tournemire (1911), Marco Enrico Bossi (1907 and
1912).
Organs were also built for theaters, for example, for the Imperial and for
Mariinsky theaters in St. Petersburg, and later for the Imperial Theater in Moscow.
The successor of Louis Gomilius to the St. Petersburg Conservatory was invited by Jacques
Ganshin (1886-1955). A native of Moscow, and later a citizen of Switzerland and a student of Max Reger and Charles-Marie Widor, from 1909 to 1920 he headed the organ class. Interestingly, organ music written by professional Russian composers, starting from Dm. Bortyansky (1751-
1825), combined Western European musical forms with traditional Russian melos. This contributed to the manifestation of a special expressiveness and charm, thanks to which Russian compositions for organ stand out with their originality against the backdrop of the world organ repertoire. This also became the key to the strong impression they make on the listener.

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