Peoples of North Africa. Peoples of South Africa: Bushmen, Bantu, Hottentots

ancient history South Africa known quite well. In South Africa, archaeologists have found tools from the Paleolithic era.

Bone finds ancient man, studied by paleanthropologists, prove that the entire southern tip of the mainland was inhabited by people already in the very ancient era. Stone tools found in abundance almost everywhere give a clear picture of the gradual development and improvement of stone tools up to the Upper Paleolithic, and in some places even the Neolithic.

Bushmen

By the time the first European settlers appeared in South Africa, the entire Western part The current Cape Province of South Africa was occupied by the Hottentot tribes, to the east of which the Bushmen tribes lived. Both of them, according to their anthropological type, constitute one race, called the Khoisan. However, the way of life and culture of these peoples were different. The Hottentots are warlike pastoral tribes. Culturally, they were far superior to their Bushmen neighbors. The Bushmen were hunters and led a very primitive life. They had no permanent huts; hiding for the night in the bushes, they arranged temporary huts from branches. Therefore, the first Dutch settlers called them Bushmen (“bush people”). The Bushmen themselves call themselves only by belonging to a tribe, without a common self-name.

The material culture of the Bushmen was exceptionally poor. Their main hunting weapons were a small bow and arrows with stone tips. The study of the technique of making these points showed that they do not differ from the stone tools found by archaeologists and identified by them as tools of the Upper Paleolithic Wiltonian culture. With the advent of Europeans, the Bushmen began to make arrowheads from bottle glass, which they beat in the same way as a stone. They sometimes used iron tips, which they exchanged with their neighbors - the Hottentots and the Bantu tribes. All weapons of the Bushman hunter consisted of a bow and arrows, a small leather bag for killed game and a strong stick. The only clothing was a leather loincloth. Bushmen had almost no household utensils. Water, much needed in the dry steppes of South Africa, they kept in vessels of ostrich eggs. Peculiar beads were made from the shells of these eggs, which were highly valued among them. The Bushmen knew how to weave small bags, baskets, etc. from vegetable fibers.

The men spent all their time hunting game. The only pet companion of the Bushman hunter was a dog. In hunting, the Bushmen were very skillful and unusually hardy; there are cases when a bushman pursued an antelope for two or three days and, having overtaken it, killed it with the first stone that came to hand. Hunters used a wide variety of traps, and also rounded up big game. At the same time, women and children with branches and palm leaves in their hands lined up in two rows, cordoned off the hunting area and drove the game to the hunters.

Bushmen also used various poisons, which poisoned arrowheads. The best known are strophanthus and juice secreted by the larva of one of the beetle species.

On the rocks in the Dragon Mountains, drawings of Bushmen depicting dances, scenes of hunting life, etc. have been preserved. One of the most famous drawings depicts a hunter sneaking up on a group of ostriches. Drawings

The social structure of the Bushmen has been studied very little. By the time the Europeans appeared, the Bushmen inhabited the areas of Griqualand in the basin of the river. Orange and areas to the east of it. From all these areas the Bushmen were ruthlessly expelled. The Dutch settlers really hunted them, slaughtering the men and women like wild animals. The Bushmen are now driven into the waterless regions of the Kalahari Desert, where they are doomed to extinction. Formerly numerous tribes now number several dozen people, others have been completely exterminated. The Cape Town Library has preserved records of the richest folklore of the Bushmen Hamka-Kwe, who once lived in the lower reaches of the river. Orange and now completely decimated. From these records one can judge their former tribal organization.

Now the Bushmen live in small groups of 50-150 people, usually relatives on the paternal side. Each of them has a certain territory, the right to hunt on which belongs only to her. In the dry, hungry season, these groups are divided into small cells of 10-12 people. and led by experienced hunters roam the scorched steppe in search of food. The Bushmen now do not have any tribal organization, and only the language binds the members of the tribe. There are up to 20 Bushman languages ​​in total. The total number of Bushmen is now estimated at about 7 thousand people.

Hottentots

The Hottentots constitute a special group of tribes, close in some respects to the Bushmen.

The basis for combining them are some anthropological features. In addition, linguists note many common features in the Bushman and Hottentot languages ​​in the field of both phonetics and grammatical structure and vocabulary. Combining the Hottentots and the Bushmen into one group, anthropologists speak of the Khoisan race, or racial type, linguists speak of the Khoisan group of languages. The name is conditional and is made up of the words koi + san. Koi in the language of the Hottentots means "man", and the Hottentots call themselves "Koi-koin" ("people of people", that is, real people). The second part of the conditional name is dignity. The Hottentots call their Bushmen neighbors the San, which seems to be a contemptuous name.

Although the Hottentots and the Bushmen belong to the same group, they are nevertheless completely different peoples. In the middle of the 17th century, i.e., by the time the first Dutch colonists appeared in South Africa, the Hottentots inhabited the entire southern tip of Africa - the Cape of Good Hope to the river. Kei. The Ottentots at that time represented a large group of pastoral tribes. Huge herds of cattle were their main wealth. In addition, they raised sheep and goats. External life and customs of the Hottentots at the very beginning of the 18th century. beautifully described by the Dutchman Peter Kolb. The Hottentots lived in round wicker huts covered with skins on top. The huts were arranged in a circle, inside which cattle were driven. The first Dutch colonists called such settlements kraals; 300-400 people lived in each of them. The kraals were temporary; when there was not enough pasture in the vicinity, the population moved to new places.

Cattle were owned by large patriarchal families, some of which had several thousand heads. Caring for livestock was the responsibility of the men. Women cooked food and churned butter in leather bags. Dairy food was the basis of nutrition. Concerned about the preservation of livestock, the Hottentots avoided slaughtering cattle, and hunting brought them meat food. Animal skins were used for clothes, utensils, etc., huts were covered with skins, bags and raincoats were sewn from them.

The weapons were spears with iron tips, bows and arrows, long throwing clubs - kirri. All the necessary iron tools were made by the Hottentots themselves. They knew how not only to process iron, but also to smelt it from ore. Kolb describes the ironworking technique as follows:

“The way in which they smelt iron from ore is, briefly, as follows. They dig a square or round hole in the ground about 2 feet deep and kindle a strong fire there to inflame the earth. When, after that, they throw ore into it, they kindle a fire there again so that the ore melts and becomes fluid from the intense heat. To collect this molten iron, they make another one 1 or 1.5 feet deep next to the first pit; and as a trough leads from the first smelting furnace into another pit, liquid iron flows down it and cools there. The next day, they take out the smelted iron, break it into pieces with stones, and again, with the help of fire, make of it whatever they want and need. A hard stone replaced their anvil, the hammer was stone, and on the stone they polished the finished object. “Anyone,” says Kolbe, “who knows their arrows and assegai, will be surprised that they were made without the help of a hammer, tongs and other tools, and will leave any thought of considering the Hottentots stupid and ignorant, at the sight of these testimonies. their beautiful common sense."

The Hottentots were divided into many tribes, each of which spoke its own special language. At the head of the tribe was the leader, who directed all affairs, with him there was a council of the oldest members of the tribe. There was already considerable wealth inequality among the Hottentots. Along with the rich, who owned huge herds, there were the poor, who had one or two bulls and a few sheep or goats. Slavery also existed among the Hottentots; prisoners captured in the war were not killed; slaves, along with the poor, grazed the cattle of the rich.

There is every reason to believe that the Bushmen and Hottentots once inhabited the entire southern and significant part of East Africa: tribes whose languages ​​are close to the languages ​​of the Bushmen and Hottentots still live on the territory of Tanganyika. Obviously, these tribes are the remnants of the former population of Tanganyika. Later, all of East and most of South Africa was settled by tribes of the Negroid race, speaking Bantu languages.

Bantu

Bantu migration dates back to a very remote time. In any case, more than a thousand years ago, the Bantu inhabited the eastern shores of Africa right up to Natal. Undoubtedly, throughout East Africa there was a constant movement of tribes, caused by a variety of reasons.

Some Bantu tribes moved south from what is now Northern Rhodesia. On this basis, some historians of South Africa are trying to "prove" that the indigenous African population of the Bantu of South Africa are the same conquerors as the Dutch and the British, who, as is known, appeared in South Africa one in the 17th, others in the 19th century. Thus, Professor Brooks, who "represented" the "interests of the native population" in the South African Senate, brazenly declared that "the Bantu are the same conquerors, the same foreigners in South Africa as the Europeans" 1 . Such statements by the ideologues of South African imperialism arouse indignation even among bourgeois scholars who study the history of Africa and the languages ​​and culture of the Bantu peoples. The author of the Basotho grammar E. Jacote, for example, writes: “The Basotho tribes have inhabited this country for centuries. Now, however, it is customary in so-called histories to claim that the Basotho were only people who invaded their own country. Soon it will probably be argued that the Europeans arrived there before them and that the Basotho, and not the Boers of the Orange Republic, were the aggressors. This is not a history book, and we are not going to deal with wars between whites and blacks. But we want to take this opportunity to protest against the falsification of the history of South Africa, which is now in full swing and which can be found even in school textbooks ... We are well aware of what cause they are helping these ” 1 .

By the time the Europeans appeared in South Africa (mid-17th century), the Bantu inhabited all of South Africa, excluding the western part of the current Cape Province of South Africa, where the Bushmen and Hottentots lived. Along the entire southeast coast of the river. Great Fish to the current Portuguese colony of Mozambique, bounded from the north by the Dragon Mountains, lived numerous tribes that had developed by the beginning of the 20th century. into two nationalities - the Xhosa and the Zulu. In the depths of the country, on the other side of the Dragon Mountains, lived groups of Basuto and Bechuana tribes that inhabited the entire country between the Orange and Vaal rivers and further north, to the valley of the river. Limpopo, as well as the entire modern Bechuanaland. In the northern part of the current Transvaal, the Bavenda tribe lived, and to the north of it, a group of Masona tribes: Makaranga, Vazezuru, Wandau and many others. They inhabited the plains of present-day Southern Rhodesia and the adjacent part of Mozambique right down to the ocean. The Watsonga lived in the rainforests of Mozambique; they constituted three groups, each of which included many separate tribes.

The Kalahari Desert separated this southern group of Bantu tribes from a small group of tribes living to the west of this desert. These included the Herero tribes - Ovagerero, Ovambandieru, and others, the tribes of Ovambo, Ovakuanyama, Ovandonga, and others close to them in language. Small groups of mountain ladies (or mountain Damaras) lived among them; they spoke the languages ​​of the Hottentots, but in their physical type they were close to the peoples of the Bantu.

The Bantu tribes at the beginning of European colonization were at a much higher level of development than the Bushmen and even the Hottentots. Cattle breeding was the main means of subsistence. Along with cattle breeding, the Bantu tribes knew a developed hoe farming. Of all the South African Bantu tribes, only the Herero were limited to pastoralism and did not engage in agriculture.

As with the Bantu tribes living in other areas, the collection of wild fruits and hunting served as a great help in the economy. The hunter's armament consisted of a throwing spear, an ax, a club, and, in some tribes, a bow and arrows with iron tips. Traps and snares were used to catch small animals and birds. Elephants, buffaloes, rhinoceroses, etc. were organized by a collective hunt, a raid by the forces of the entire village, clan, or even an entire tribe. For the raid, two long palisades were built, converging at an angle, an exit was left in the corner, behind which a long deep pit was dug. Wild animals, driven into a narrow passage formed by palisades, rushed to the remaining free exit and fell into a pit. Sometimes on animal paths leading to a watering place, trapping pits were arranged, they were slightly covered with brushwood and grass, and sharp poisoned stakes were placed at the bottom.

Domestic industry before the European conquest reached a significant development, and the first steps towards the separation of handicraft from agriculture were already outlined. Bantu made tools and household items from iron and wood, sewed clothes from animal skins, and made shields. They did not know weaving.

Iron was smelted in extremely primitive, small-sized smelting pits, where the ore was placed together with charcoal. Air was supplied by hand bellows. Each fur was a bag; a wooden tube was firmly attached to one end of it, without gaps; the other end, open, ended with two planks, which, when the bag was squeezed, tightly closed the hole. A person sat between two furs and, opening or closing them one by one, created a constant flow of air. Pure iron cannot be obtained immediately in this way. Usually, the smelting was repeated and quite pure iron was obtained. Hammers and pincers were made of iron. The iron hammer was used only for light work; a stone hammer was used to forge large kriegs, a strong stone served as an anvil. Hoes, axes, knives, spear and arrowheads, jewelry (wrists, etc.) and even needles without ears were made from iron. They also smelted copper, which was used mainly for making jewelry (bracelets, necklaces). Not everyone possessed the art of melting metal, and not everyone could acquire the necessary devices and tools. A few were engaged in metal smelting and blacksmithing, and they were considered noble members of society.

The potter's wheel was not yet known to the southeastern Bantu. Pottery was made starting from the bottom by building up clay rings; then it was burned on a fire, laying dry grass in the middle. After firing, the surface of the dishes was covered with layers of red ocher and graphite and polished to a shine. Handles for metal implements and tools, spoons, cups, etc. were made of wood. Wooden items, especially cups and goblets, were decorated with rich geometric patterns. The Bechuans and some other tribes gave the handles of spoons the appearance of figures of various animals, especially giraffes.

Mats, mats, granaries, baskets and many other household items were woven from grass and reeds.

The Bantu achieved great skill in the processing of skins and the manufacture of clothing from them. Men and women wore kaross - a kind of cloak or cape made of skins, which they also covered themselves at night 1 . Nakarossa shish skins of antelopes, gazelles, silver jackals and other animals, less often a bull. The skin taken from the slaughtered animal was dried, cleaned of the mezra with crushed sandstone and kneaded with greased hands until the skin became soft and elastic, like silk. The fresh skin of a bull was dressed in a slightly different way: it was stretched on the ground, dried and then cleaned with a scraper from fat and meat; it was kneaded by a group of men to the sound of a choral song. Sometimes a geometric ornament was applied to the skin. Karosses of the tribal and tribal nobility were made from the skins of lions, panthers and jackals; wearing these skins was a privilege of the nobility and distinguished it from ordinary members of the community. Kaross was worn with fur inside and fastened on the shoulder with ties made of leather straps.

In addition to kaross, they wore leggings and aprons, usually made of lambskin. The man's gaiter was a triangular piece of skin, the long corner of which passed between the legs and was attached to the belt at the back. Women wore an apron - a short rectangular piece of skin. The same piece of skin, only with a long slit in the middle, was attached at the back. Sandals and bags for storing and carrying food were made from animal skins, and in addition, Bechuans made capacious vessels for delivering milk from distant pastures.

Strings of beads, hand, foot and neck rings made of iron or copper, various pendants, bracelets and headbands served as decorations. They wore fur caps on their heads, and sometimes conical hats woven from grass.

The South African Bantu tribes were subsistence farmers before the European conquest. The division of labor was still mainly gender and age. Men were engaged in cattle breeding, hunting and production of iron and wood products. Farming was the work of women, but the virgin soil was raised by men. On the shoulders of the woman lay almost all the chores around the house. She carried water, prepared fuel, grinded millet on grain grinders, cooked food, brewed beer, maintained order and cleanliness in the hut. She collected wild fruits, made pottery, mats, etc. During the construction of the hut, the men erected the skeleton, and all other work was left to the women. Teenagers grazed cattle, helped their fathers or older brothers, and girls, under the guidance of adult women, did housework.

Economic ties were expressed in mutual assistance, in the organization of collective hunting and in the intra-tribal exchange of household products: blacksmith's crafts, earthenware and wooden utensils, jewelry, weapons, grain and livestock. The Bantu did not know the production for the market, there were no bazaars. The exchange was exclusively local, random. There was no universal equivalent, but certain proportions were already established: as much grain was given for a clay pot as it could fit in it; odinassegai was equated with a bull.

Intertribal exchange was more significantly developed. It was led mainly by the tribal nobility, in whose hands a large number of cattle, skins and various products of the domestic industry accumulated; ivory and the skins of some animals were the exclusive property of the tribal leaders, and only they could exchange them. Ordinary members of the tribe conducted external exchange only with the permission of the leader and with the payment of a certain share to him.

A lively exchange was maintained between the Bantu tribes on the one hand, and the Hottentots and Bushmen on the other. In the area along the middle course of the river. Orange there was something similar to the annual fairs, where the Bechuans and Hottentots met. The Bechuans “when the rainy season crossed the desert separating them from the Khoi and brought with them tobacco, ivory spoons and wrists, copper rings and bracelets, copper and iron necklaces, iron-tipped axes and spears, fine leather karosses and exchanged all this for livestock" 1 . The Hottentots served as intermediaries between the Bantu tribes and the Bushmen, exchanging ostrich feathers and eggs, skins of wild animals and horns from the latter. An equally lively exchange took place between the Zulus and the Basotho. The Basotho offered leopard skins, ostrich feathers, crane wings, and received cattle, hoes, spearheads, copper rings, and necklaces.

A strong impetus to the development of exchange was given by the appearance of the Portuguese in Mozambique, the Boer colonists in the Cape Peninsula, the English merchants in Natal, and the penetration into the hinterland of hunters and ivory buyers, merchants, missionaries and travelers who delivered the products of European industry. The English missionary R. Moffat reports that although the Matabele had the right to trade with foreigners and whites belonged to the leader - Moselekatse, women secretly brought him milk and other products to exchange European curiosities; as you can see, the monopoly of the leader was already shy and was gradually undermined. European goods were just beginning to penetrate the matabele. On September 17, 1857, Moffat wrote to his wife that he had seen the first matabele in European costume - an old jacket and short trousers; it was one of the generals close to Moselekatse who had ridden out to meet Moffat. Moselekatse showed Moffat two large baskets filled with European goods: checkered fabrics, printed cotton, handkerchiefs, window curtains. All this lay unused; Moselekatse's wives were not interested in textile goods, and he himself was primarily concerned with acquiring guns to protect against the Boers, and vans, since he did not have any vehicles.

The main form of settlement for most of the tribes was the kraal, in which, as a rule, one large family lived. All kraals had almost the same circular layout: in the center of the kraal there is a barnyard, fenced with a palisade, wattle fence, stone or adobe fence. Huts were located around the barnyard in a certain order: closer to the exit from the barnyard - the hut of the first wife or mother, then the hut of the second wife, the third, the children's hut, etc. Near each hut - an extension for cooking and sometimes another extension - a pantry . Grain was stored in special granaries - in pits, the walls of which were coated with clay, or in huge domed baskets on the scaffolds.

The Bechuans adopted a different form of settlement - large settlements, numbering up to a thousand or more huts. In essence, these are the same kraals, but arranged in a heap. This was due to the lack of water sources in the country of the Bechuans, and the population was grouped around a few reservoirs.

The dwelling of the South African Bantu was round at the base of the hut. They were built in the following way: long, thin perches were buried in the ground in a circle, their tops were bent, twisted and tied; a layer of grass tied in bunches was applied to the resulting hemispherical frame. This frame was supported by one or more pillars; a hearth was arranged in the center of the hut, and a chimney was built in the roof above it. Beds, tables, chairs were replaced by mats, grass mats. The Bantu did not know wooden buildings. Some tribes, like the Bechuans, had stone huts and adobe stoves.

The many-sided Africa, on the vast territory of which in 61 countries with a population of more than a billion people, surrounded by cities of civilized countries, in the secluded corners of this continent, more than 5 million people of almost completely wild African tribes still live.

The members of these tribes do not recognize the achievements of the civilized world and are content with those modest benefits that they inherited from their ancestors. Squalid huts, modest food and a minimum of clothes suit them, and they are not going to change this way.

Cooking...

Tribe kids...

Dancing men...

There are about 3 thousand different tribes and nationalities in Africa, but it is difficult to name their exact number, since most often they are either tightly mixed with each other, or vice versa, radically separated. The population of some tribes is only a few thousand or even hundreds of people, and often only 1-2 villages are inhabited. Because of this, there are dialects and dialects on the territory of the African continent, which are sometimes only understood by representatives of a particular tribe. And the variety of rituals, cultural systems, dances, customs and sacrifices is huge and amazing. In addition, the appearance of the people of some tribes is simply amazing.

However, since they all live on the same continent, all African tribes still have something in common. Some elements of culture are characteristic of all nationalities living in this territory. One of the main defining features of African tribes is the orientation to the past, that is, the erection of the culture and life of their ancestors into a cult.

The majority of African peoples reject everything new and modern, withdrawing into themselves. Most of all, they are attached to constancy and immutability, including in everything related to everyday life, traditions and customs, leading their existence from great-grandfathers.

It is hard to imagine, but among them there are practically no those who would not be engaged in subsistence farming or cattle breeding. Hunting, fishing or gathering are completely normal activities for them. Just like many centuries ago, African tribes are at war with each other, marriages are most often concluded within one tribe, intertribal marriages among them are very rare. Of course, more than one generation leads such a life, each new child from birth will have to live the same fate.

Tribes differ from each other in their own unique system of life, customs and rituals, beliefs and prohibitions. Most of the tribes invent their own fashions, often stunningly flamboyant, often astonishing in their originality.

Of the most famous and numerous today, tribes can be considered: Masai, Bantu, Zulu, Samburu and Bushmen.

Masai

One of the most famous African tribes. They live in Kenya and Tanzania. The number of representatives reaches 100 thousand people. Most often they can be found on the side of the mountain, which figures prominently in the mythology of the Maasai. Perhaps the size of this mountain influenced the worldview of the members of the tribe - they consider themselves the favorites of the gods, the highest people and sincerely believe that there are no more beautiful people in Africa than they are.

This self-image gave rise to a contemptuous, often even derogatory attitude towards other tribes, which caused frequent wars between the tribes. In addition, it is customary for the Maasai to steal animals from other tribes, which also does not improve their reputation.

The dwelling of the Maasai is built from branches smeared with manure. This is done mainly by women, who also, if necessary, take on the duties of pack animals. The main share of nutrition is milk or blood of animals, less often - meat. A distinctive sign of beauty in this tribe are elongated earlobes. At present, the tribe is almost completely exterminated or dispersed, only in the remote corners of the country, in Tanzania, there are still separate Masai nomad camps.

Bantu

The Bantu tribe lives in Central, South and East Africa. In truth, the Bantu is not even a tribe, but a whole nation, which includes many peoples, for example, Rwanda, Shono, Konga and others. They all have similar languages ​​and customs, which is why they were united into one big tribe. Most Bantu speakers speak two or more languages, the most commonly spoken of which is Swahili. The number of members of the Bantu people reaches 200 million. According to research scientists, it was the Bantu, along with the Bushmen and Hottentots, who became the progenitors of the South African colored race.

Bantu have a peculiar appearance. They have very dark skin and an amazing hair structure - each hair is curled in a spiral. Wide noses and wings, a low nose bridge and high stature - often over 180 cm - are also hallmarks of Bantu people. Unlike the Maasai, the Bantu do not shy away from civilization and willingly invite tourists to study tours of their villages.

Like any African tribe, a major part of Bantu life is occupied by religion, namely, traditional African animistic beliefs, as well as Islam and Christianity. The Bantu dwelling resembles a Maasai house - the same round shape, with a frame made of branches coated with clay. True, in some areas Bantu houses are rectangular, painted, with gable, single-pitched or flat roofs. The members of the tribe are mainly engaged in agriculture. A distinctive feature of the Bantu can be called an enlarged lower lip into which small discs are inserted.

Zulu

The Zulu people, once the largest ethnic group, now number only 10 million people. The Zulus use their own language - Zulu, which comes from the Bantu family and is the most common in South Africa. In addition, English, Portuguese, Sesotho and other African languages ​​​​are in circulation among the members of the people.

The Zulu tribe suffered a difficult period during the apartheid era in South Africa, when, being the most numerous people, it was defined as a second-class population.

As for the beliefs of the tribe, most of the Zulus remained true to national beliefs, but there are also Christians among them. The Zulu religion is based on belief in a creator god, superior and separate from the daily routine. Representatives of the tribe believe that you can contact the spirits through the soothsayers. All negative manifestations in the world, including illness or death, are considered as the machinations of evil spirits or the result of evil witchcraft. In the Zulu religion, the main place is occupied by cleanliness, frequent ablutions in the custom of representatives of the people.

Samburu

The Samburu tribe lives in the northern regions of Kenya, on the border of the foothills and the northern desert. About five hundred years ago, the Samburu people settled in this territory and quickly populated the plain. This tribe is distinguished by independence and is much more confident in its elitism than the Masai. The life of the tribe depends on livestock, but, unlike the Maasai, the Samburu raise livestock themselves and roam with them from place to place. Customs and ceremonies occupy a significant place in the life of the tribe and are distinguished by the splendor of colors and forms.

Samburu huts are made of clay and skins, outside the dwelling is surrounded by a thorny fence to protect it from wild animals. Representatives of the tribe carry their houses with them, assembling anew at each parking lot.

It is customary for samburu to divide labor between men and women, this also applies to children. Women's duties include gathering, milking cows and fetching water, as well as arranging firewood, cooking and looking after children. Of course, the general order and stability is in charge of the female half of the tribe. Samburu men are responsible for herding livestock, which is their main livelihood.

The most important detail of the life of the people is childbearing, sterile women are subjected to severe persecution and abuse. Normally, the tribe worships the spirits of ancestors, as well as witchcraft. The Samburu believe in charms, spells, and rituals for fertility and protection.

Bushmen

The most famous African tribe among Europeans since ancient times is the Bushmen. The name of the tribe consists of the English "bush" - "bush" and "man" - "man", but it is dangerous to call representatives of the tribe this way - it is considered offensive. It is more correct to call them "san", which in the language of the Hottentots means "foreign". Outwardly, the Bushmen are somewhat different from other African tribes, they have lighter skin and thinner lips. In addition, they are the only ones who eat ant larvae. Their dishes are considered a feature of the national cuisine of this people. The Bushmen's way of life also differs from that generally accepted among savage tribes. Instead of chieftains and sorcerers, the elders choose elders from among the most experienced and respected members of the tribe. Elders lead the life of the people, without using any advantages at the expense of others. It should be noted that the Bushmen also believe in an afterlife, like other African tribes, but they do not have the ancestor cult adopted by other tribes.

Among other things, the San have a rare talent for storytelling, song, and dance. Musical instrument they can make practically them all. For example, there are bows stretched with animal hair or bracelets made from dried insect cocoons with pebbles inside, which are used to beat the rhythm during the dance. Almost everyone who has the opportunity to observe the musical experiments of the Bushmen tries to record them in order to pass them on to future generations. This is all the more relevant because the current century dictates its own rules and many Bushmen have to deviate from centuries-old traditions and go as workers on farms in order to provide for their family and tribe.

This is a very small number of tribes living in Africa. There are so many of them that it would take several volumes to describe them all, but each of them boasts a unique value system and way of life, not to mention rituals, customs and costumes.

Video: Wild tribes of Africa: ...

Many scientists consider Africa the birthplace of man. Archaeologists, having carried out excavations in East Africa, in the second half of the 20th century discovered the remains of a "handy man", whose age is about 2.7 million years. In Ethiopia, even more ancient human remains were found, about 4 million years old.

In terms of population, as well as in terms of area, Africa ranks 3rd (after Eurasia) among the continents. The population of the mainland consists of indigenous and alien, the total number of about 600 million people. There are representatives of all major races.

North Africa is inhabited by representatives of the southern branch of the Caucasoid race (distinguishing features are swarthy skin, narrow nose, dark eyes). These are the indigenous peoples - Berbers and Arabs. South of the Sahara live Negroids belonging to the equatorial race, which includes subraces and numerous groups of peoples. The most diverse is the Negroid population living south of the Sahara and on the coast of the Gulf of Guinea. Hundreds of tribes and peoples, differing in skin color, height, facial features, language, way of life, occupy these territories.

The Congo Basin, East and South Africa are inhabited by peoples who belong to the Bantu group. Pygmies live in the equatorial forests, distinguished among the Negroids by their small stature (up to 150 cm), lighter skin color, and thin lips. The deserts and semi-deserts of South Africa are inhabited by Hottentots and Bushmen, who have signs of both Mongoloids and Negroids.

Part of the population of the mainland is of mixed origin, as it was formed from the mixing of two or more races, these are residents of the Nile Delta, the Ethiopian Highlands, and the island of Madagascar. A significant part of the population is made up of newcomers. Europeans live in almost all countries - former colonies: on the Mediterranean coast - the French, and in the south of the mainland - Boers (descendants of Dutch settlers), British, French, Germans, etc. The population is distributed extremely unevenly across the mainland.

Political map. Many peoples of Africa have an ancient civilization: Egypt, Ghana, Ethiopia, Benin, Dahomey and others. European colonization of the slave trade had a detrimental effect on the development of the economy and culture of the peoples of Africa. By the beginning of the 20th century, almost the entire territory of the mainland had been divided among the capitalist countries. Before the Second World War, there were only four independent states on the continent - Egypt, Ethiopia, Liberia and South Africa. In the early 1960s, an active liberation struggle of the peoples for independence unfolded in Africa. In 1990, the last colony, Namibia, gained independence.

In total, there are 55 states on the continent. With the exception of South Africa, which is an economically developed country, the rest of the countries are developing countries. North African countries. The territory of North Africa includes the region of the Atlas Mountains, sandy and rocky expanses of the hot Sahara and the savannah of Sudan. Sudan is a natural region stretching from the Sahara Desert (in the north) to the Congo Basin (in the south), from the Atlantic (in the west) to the foothills of the Ethiopian Highlands (in the east). Geographers often consider this area as part of Central Africa. The countries of North Africa include Egypt, Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, etc. All countries have a convenient geographical position, they go to the Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean and the Red Seas. The population of these countries has long-standing economic and cultural ties with the countries of Europe and Southwest Asia. The northern territories of many countries of North Africa are located in the subtropics, and most of them are in the zone of tropical deserts. The most densely populated coasts of the Mediterranean Sea, the northern slopes of the Atlas Mountains and the Nile Valley.

In the Sahara, life is concentrated mainly in oases, of which there are quite a few. Most of them were created by man in places where underground waters are close, on the outskirts of sandy deserts and along dry riverbeds. The population of the countries is quite homogeneous. In the past, this part of the continent was inhabited by the Berbers, in the VIII century AD. the Arabs came, there was a mixture of peoples. The Berbers adopted Islam and the Arabic script. In the countries of North Africa (compared to other countries of the mainland) there are many large and small cities in which a significant part of the population lives. One of the largest cities in Africa - Cairo - the capital of Egypt.

The bowels of the countries of North Africa are rich in mineral resources. In the Atlas Mountains, iron, manganese and polymetallic ores, phosphorites are mined, deposits of the latter are also found in Egypt. Near the Mediterranean coast and in the Sahara, there are large reserves of oil and natural gas. Pipelines stretched from the fields to the port cities.

Countries of Sudan and Central Africa. Zaire is located in this part of the mainland. Angola, Sudan, Chad. Nigeria and many small countries. The landscapes are very diverse - from dry short-grass to wet tall-grass savannas and equatorial forests. Part of the forests has been reduced, in their place, plantations of tropical crops have been created.

East African countries. The largest countries in terms of area are Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Somalia. They are located within the highest and most mobile part of the continent, which is characterized by deep faults in the earth's crust, faults, volcanoes, and large lakes.

The Nile River originates in the East African Plateau. the nature of the countries of East Africa, despite the fact that almost the entire territory is located in one subequatorial belt, is extremely diverse: tropical deserts, various types of savannahs and humid equatorial forests. On the highlands, on the slopes of high volcanoes, altitudinal zonation is clearly expressed.

The modern population of East Africa is the result of a mixture of different races. Representatives of the Ethiopian minor race profess mainly Christianity. Another part of the population belongs to the Negroids - the Bantu peoples who speak the Swahili language. There is also a newcomer population - Europeans, Arabs and Indians.

South African countries. On the territory of this narrowest, southernmost part of the mainland, there are 10 countries, both large (South Africa, Namibia, Zambia, etc.) and very small in area (Lesotho, etc.). Nature is rich and diverse - from deserts to tropical rainforests. The relief is dominated by high plains, raised along the edges. The climate varies from north to south and from east to west.

On the territory of South Africa there are the largest not only on the continent, but also in the world deposits of diamonds, uranium ores, gold, non-ferrous metal ores. The indigenous peoples are Bantu, Bushmen and Hottentots, Malagasy live in Madagascar. The first Europeans to migrate to South Africa were the Dutch, followed by the British. From the mixed marriages of Europeans with Africans, a group of people was formed, which is called colored. The modern population of South Africa, in addition to the indigenous, consists of Europeans, mainly descendants of Dutch settlers (Boers) and the British, the colored population, as well as immigrants from Asia.

There are not many places left on our planet where you can see communities of people living in everyday conditions that have not changed much over the centuries. One of these places is Africa, where people who live by hunting, fishing and gathering have been preserved. These tribal communities lead mostly secluded lives, rarely coming into contact with the population around them.

Although recently the traditional way of life of many nationalities and tribes has undergone significant changes, and they are increasingly integrated into modern commodity-money relations, many continue to engage in subsistence farming. These communities are characterized by low productivity agriculture. Their main economic task is self-sufficiency in basic foodstuffs in order to prevent prolonged starvation. The weakness of economic interaction and the complete absence of trade often become the cause of interethnic contradictions and even armed conflicts.

Other tribes have reached a higher level of economic development, gradually assimilated with the larger state-forming peoples, and at the same time lost their distinctive features. The rejection of natural forms of management, and the increasing involvement in modern economic relations, contributes to the enhancement of cultural and technological development. Which is expressed in increased productivity, and a general rise in material well-being.

For example, the introduction of the plough, among some agricultural peoples and tribes in West Africa, led to a significant increase in yields and an increase in cash, which in turn led to the creation of favorable conditions for the further modernization of agricultural work, and the beginning of mechanization.

List of largest African tribes and peoples

• Makonde
• Mbuti
• Mursi
• Kalengin
• Oromo
• pygmies
• Samburu
• Swazi
• Tuareg
• Hamer
• Himba
• Bushmen
• gourmet
• Bambara
• Fulbe
• Wolof
• Malawi
• Dinka
• Bongo

More than 1 billion people live on the African continent, or 34 people per square kilometer. In fact, Africa's population is unevenly distributed. The waterless deserts, scorched by the heat, where there is no rain for years, are almost deserted. In the impenetrable forests of Equatorial Africa, only a few tribes of hunters cut paths. And in the lower reaches of large rivers, every piece of land is cultivated. Here the population density increases sharply.

Over three thousand people live in the Nile oasis per square kilometer. The northern and eastern coasts of the mainland, the shores of the Gulf of Guinea are also densely populated. International trade and modern industry, banks and scientific centers are concentrated in large cities.

North Africa is inhabited by Arabs and Berbers, who belong to the southern branch of the Caucasian race. Arabs came to the Mediterranean coast 12 centuries ago. They mixed with the local population and passed on their language, culture, and religion. Ancient buildings testify to the high art of Arab architects, the taste and skill of the people. The ancient Arab cities still retain their unique appearance. Narrow streets sheltered from the sun, shops of merchants on every corner, workshops of artisans.

South of the Sahara lies a vast area of ​​Central Africa. Numerous Negro peoples live here: Sudanese peoples, Pygmies, Bantu peoples, Nilotic peoples. All of them belong to the equatorial race. Distinctive features of the race: dark skin color, curly hair - took shape for a long time under the influence of natural conditions. Among the Negroids there are hundreds of different tribes and nationalities with unique facial features, head shape, skin tone. The Nilotic peoples, for example, are the tallest people on the mainland. The average height of a Nilotic man is 182 cm, and the height of a pygmy is 145 cm. In the forests of Equatorial Africa, the shortest people on earth live, skilled trackers and hunters.

For centuries, the appearance of African huts has remained unchanged. Most of the population of Central Africa lives in such villages. The source of food is agriculture. The main instrument of labor is a hoe. Nomadic herdsmen graze cattle in the savannah and light forests with a rich grass cover. The inhabitants of the coast, in addition to agriculture and animal husbandry, are engaged in fishing. And some peoples have completely connected their lives with the water element.

In eastern Africa, on the territory of Ethiopia and Somalia, there are peoples of a mixed race (the peoples of Ethiopia and Somalia, the Nilots, the Bantu peoples). The ancient ancestors of the Somalis and Ethiopians probably descended from a mixture of Caucasians and Negroids. Fine facial features like Caucasians, dark hair color and curly hair like Negroids. Excavations in Ethiopia have shown that people lived there 4 million years ago.

The indigenous population of South Africa - Bushmen, Hottentots, Boers. South Africa is the most developed part of the black continent due to the industry of South Africa.

Off the east coast of the mainland is the island of Madakascar. Malgash live here, representatives of the Mongoloid race. 2000 years ago, the Malagasy sailed to Madagascar from Indonesia.

PEOPLES OF AFRICA

Africa is a continent, almost all of whose countries until quite recently were completely colonially dependent on European states. For several centuries, the colonialists exploited the indigenous population and plundered the natural wealth of African countries. In the XV-XVII centuries, in the era of the primitive accumulation of capital, Africa became the main territory from which slaves were exported for the American colonies of European states. In the words of K. Marx, it has become a "reserved hunting ground for blacks." The slave trade led to a long delay in the development of productive forces and the degradation of the economy, reducing the population of Africa. The total decline in the population of Africa from the slave trade, including those killed during the hunt for slaves and those who died along the way, amounted to tens of millions of people.

The colonial division of Africa was completed at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, at a time when the development of capitalism entered its highest and last stage. At this time, according to V. I. Lenin, “an enormous “rise” of colonial conquests begins, the struggle for the territorial division of the world escalates to an extraordinary degree.” Almost all of Africa was divided among the European powers. On the eve of World War II, only Egypt, Liberia and the Union of South Africa were considered independent states. These three states accounted for 7.7% of the area of ​​the African continent and 17% of the population.

After the Second World War began the disintegration of the world colonial system and the collapse of imperialist domination in the countries of Asia and Africa. The colonialists are trying to maintain their dominance by applying new methods and forms of colonial enslavement, increasing their economic influence on African countries.

The decline and decay of the world capitalist system, the growth of power and the strengthening of the influence of the world socialist system, the liberation of the peoples of Asia from colonial rule - all this served as the most important factors that contributed to the sharp rise of the national liberation movement in Africa. In many African countries, a struggle has unfolded against the colonial regime, for national liberation. The national liberation struggle has already brought political independence to the majority of African peoples. In 1951 she achieved independence of Libya, in 1955 - Eritrea, in 1956 - Morocco, Tunisia and Sudan. The Gold Coast and British Togo formed in 1957 the independent state of Ghana. In 1958 Guinea became independent. In 1960, which is rightly called the "year of Africa", the French ward territories of Cameroon and Togo, the French colonies of Senegal, Sudan (Mali), Madagascar (Republic of Malagasy), Ivory Coast, Upper Volta, Niger, Dahomey were liberated from colonial oppression , Chad, Oubangi-Shari (Central African Republic), Congo (with Brazzaville as its capital), Gabon and Mauritania 3 . The Belgian colony of the Congo, the British protectorate of Somaliland and the Italian Trust Territory of Somalia (the latter two merged into the single Republic of Somalia), as well as Africa's largest country, Nigeria, also gained independence. In April 1961, the independence of another British colony and protectorate, Sierra Leone, was proclaimed. At the end of 1961, custody of the British Trust Territory of Cameroon ended. As a result of the referendum, the southern part of this territory was reunited with the Republic of Cameroon, while the northern part was annexed to Nigeria. Tanganyika gained independence. Thus, by the end of 1962, independent states in Africa already occupied 81% of the territory, and their population amounted to almost 88% of the total population of the continent.

New, independent African states, as a rule, were created within the boundaries of the old colonial possessions, established in their time by the imperialists and not corresponding to ethnic boundaries. Therefore, the vast majority of African states are multinational. Some peoples of Africa are settled in several states. Thus, the Mandingo, numbering 3.2 million people, live in Senegal, Mali, the Ivory Coast, the Gambia, Sierra Leone, Portuguese Guinea, Liberia and the Republic of Guinea. Fulbe settled in Nigeria, Senegal, Guinea, Mali, Cameroon, Niger, Upper Volta, Dahomey, Mauritania, Gambia and other countries. The Akan peoples, who make up the majority in Ghana, also live in the Ivory Coast. My peoples are separated by state borders between Upper Volta and Ghana; Hausa - between Nigeria and Niger, Banya-Rwanda - between Rwanda and Congo, etc. The mismatch of political and ethnic borders is a serious obstacle to the national development of many African peoples, it complicates relations between new states.

population of the african continent together with the Okru its islands reaches 250 millionlovek. In the countries of the North and NortheastAfrica lives 76.3 million, in Western Sudan -69.2 million, in Central and Eastern Sudan - 19.3 million, in Tropical Africa - 52.1 million, in South Africa - 26.6 million, on the islands (Madagascar, etc.) - 6.4 million people. Most African countries, especially in recent years, are characterized by relatively rapid population growth. On the continent as a whole, from 1920 to 1959 it increased by 77%. The influx of immigrants to African countries from Europe and Asia is insignificant - no more than 100-150 thousand people a year. According to the UN Demographic Directory, in Africa (from 1950 to 1959), on average, 46 people were born per 1000 people annually, 27 people died, i.e., the natural population growth was 1.9%, which is higher than the average population growth figure for around the world as a whole (1.7%).

The structure of natural population growth in most African countries is characterized by high birth rates and high mortality rates. Until very recently, the unusually difficult economic conditions of life of the population of African countries that were in colonial dependence, and the lack of elementary medical care, were the cause of high mortality. Very indicative in this respect is the comparison of data on fertility and mortality for individual groups of the population. In Algeria in 1949-1954. the birth rate among Arabs fluctuated between 3.3-4.4% per year, the death rate was 1.3-1.5%, while among Europeans the birth rate was 1.9-2.1%, the death rate was 0.8 -1.0%.

In African countries, until very recently, very high infant mortality has been observed. In a number of African regions of the Republic of South Africa, until recently, out of 1,000 children born in the first year, 295 people died. Among the European population, infant mortality was many times lower. In recent years, there has been a slight decrease in mortality while maintaining a high birth rate. First of all, does this apply to countries that have gained independence and are rapidly developing their economies, taking care of the growth of the material and cultural level of the population (Morocco, Tunisia, Mali, Ghana, etc.)? which caused a sharp increase in natural population growth in these countries. In Tunisia it rose from 1.5% (1940) to 3.7% (1958), and in Ghana from 1.0% (1931-1944). up to 3.2% (1958). In Sudan, natural population growth reached 3.3% in 1956. On the contrary, where colonialism has survived in its most severe forms, the death rate is still very high and the natural increase is negligible. In Portuguese Guinea, the natural increase in population in 1957 was only 0.5%. In the Congo (a former Belgian colony), the average annual increase for 1949-1953. was 1.0%, in Mozambique from 1950-1954 - 1.2%, etc.

Low natural population growth is also characteristic of countries where the population still retains a nomadic lifestyle. In Libya, where nomads make up 1/3 of the population, there is a very high mortality rate (4.2% in 1954). From 1921 to 1958, that is, in 37 years, the population of Libya increased by only 26% (almost three times less than the average for the continent).

The African population is made up of many nations, with contemporary peoples and tribes. Their modern placement by ethnic compositionon the African continent - the result of a complexethnic history, about which very little is known so far. Its main stages are connected, firstly, with repeated movements in Tropical Africa of indigenous, predominantly Negroid peoples (the most significant of these movements was the gradual penetration of the Bantu peoples into East and South Africa in the first millennium AD); secondly, with the resettlement in the 7th-11th centuries. Arabs from Asia to North Africa and the process of Arabization of local Berber-speaking peoples; thirdly, with European colonization and colonial conquests.

Modern African peoples are at different stages of socio-economic development and at different stages of the formation of ethnic communities. Most of them have not yet taken shape in the nation, and this is primarily to blame for the colonial system, which in every possible way hampered the economic, cultural and national development of the African peoples. The defenders of colonialism have gone to great lengths to prove that the African peoples are not yet "ready" for independent life, that "ethnic chaos" and extraordinary ethnic fragmentation reigns in Africa, and that the backwardness of the African population is connected with this. Indeed, the ethnic composition of the population of Africa is complex. However, behind the seeming diversity of ethnic names are often already hidden large ethnic communities. There is an intensive process of merging and mixing of small ethnic groups. The penetration of capitalism into the colonial countryside and the development of capitalist forms of economy, the widespread distribution of high-value plantation crops, the growth of the mining industry and the increase in the urban population, the seasonal movements of large masses of workers in search of work - all this is accompanied by the destruction of the subsistence economy and the primitive communal and patriarchal-feudal orders associated with it. . Tribal differences are being erased, common literary languages ​​are being formed, and national self-consciousness is growing. In a mighty liberation movement against the shameful colonial system, formerly disparate tribes and nationalities merge into a single whole. There is a process of formation of large nationalities and nations.

The classification of the peoples of Africa is usually built on the principle of linguistic proximity. African languages ​​are combined into families, divided into groups, as well as into groups equated to families. The language family includes languages ​​related by origin with a similar grammatical structure and a basic vocabulary that goes back to common roots. There are several such language families in Africa: Semitic-Hamitic, Bantu, Mande (Mandingo) and Nilotic. There are many languages ​​in Africa that, due to their insufficient knowledge, cannot be attributed to certain language families and their relationship is not fully proven. Such languages ​​are combined into groups: Hausa, Eastern Bantu, Gur (Central Bantu), Atlantic (Western Bantu), Songai U Guinea, Kanuri, Khoisan.

In Central and Eastern Sudan there are languages ​​that are almost not studied (Azande, Banda, Bagirmi, etc.). The peoples who speak these languages ​​are conditionally united in one group - the peoples of Central and Eastern Sudan.

Three main linguistic areas can be distinguished on the African continent: in the northern and northeastern parts, the languages ​​​​of the Semitic-Hamitic family are distributed almost exclusively; in the tropical and southern regions, the languages ​​of the Bantu family predominate; in Sudan (Western, Central and Eastern), the population speaks languages ​​that are combined into various language families and groups (Hausa, Eastern Bantu, Gur, Atlantic, etc.).

In North and North-East Africa (Maghrib, Sahara, UAR, Ethiopia, Somalia and East Sudan) there are peoples who speak the languages ​​of the Semitic-Hamitic family. This family unites the Semitic, Cushitic and Berber groups. The total number of peoples who speak these languages ​​is 82.5 million people, which is about a third of the entire population of Africa. Semitic languages ​​are spoken by 66.2 million, Cushitic by about 11 million, and Berber by 5.3 million. Of the Semitic languages, Arabic is the most widely spoken. It is used by over 52 million people. Literary Arabic is very different from spoken Arabic, which in Africa is divided into three main dialects: Maghreb, Egyptian and Sudanese.

Arabs appeared in North Africa in the 7th-11th centuries. The ancient peoples of North Africa (Maghreb and Sahara), whom ancient authors called Libyans, spoke Berber languages ​​before the Arab conquest. Mass migration of Arab tribes (Hilal and Sulaim) in the 11th century. had a significant impact on the Berbers. The Berbers adopted the Muslim religion, and most of them gradually became Arabized. There is no difference between Arabs and Berbers in the nature of the economy: on the coast of North Africa and in the oases of the desert zone, these peoples are engaged in irrigated agriculture, in the mountainous regions of the Maghreb and in the Sahara they are engaged in cattle breeding and lead a nomadic lifestyle.

At present, it is difficult to draw a clear line between the Arab and Berber populations. Over the past 30-50 years, in most countries of the Maghreb, the process of mixing Arabs and Berbers has noticeably intensified. Back in the 1930s, 40% of the population spoke Berber dialects in Morocco, about 30% in Algeria, and 2% in Tunisia. Currently, in Morocco, the Berber-speaking population is 30, in Algeria - 15, in Tunisia - 1.4%. The majority of the Berber-speaking people of the Maghreb speak No-Arabic outside the home, practice Islam and identify themselves as Arabs. The process of formation of large nations is being completed: Moroccan, Algerian and Tunisian.

In the United Arab Republic, the population consists almost exclusively of Arabs (Egyptians). UAR is the country of the most ancient African culture. Back in the IV-III millennium BC e. here, on the basis of plow irrigation agriculture, a powerful slave-owning state was formed. Since the middle of the 7th century, after the Arab conquest, Egypt has repeatedly been part of a number of Muslim feudal states, and the local Egyptian population of the country gradually adopted the Arabic language and the Muslim religion.

Moving from Arabia and Syria, the Arab tribes gradually penetrated south into the deep regions of Sudan, partly mixing with the local Negroid population. Most of these peoples adopted the Arabic language and converted to Islam. In the middle reaches of the Nile, the Arab population is territorially mixed with the Nubians and is engaged in agriculture. In the desert regions of Eastern Sudan, nomadic tribes of Arab pastoralists have survived to this day: Bakkara, Kababish, Hawavir, Hassanie, etc.

Of the other peoples of the Semitic group, the largest is the Amhara (over 10.6 million), which is the core of the emerging Ethiopian nation, as well as the tigers (over 2 million) and the tiger (about 0.5 million) living in the mountainous regions of northern Ethiopia and Eritrea. . human).

The peoples of the Kushite group - the Galla (culturally close to the Amhara) and the Sidamo prevail in southern Ethiopia. Somalis inhabit the plains of the Somali Peninsula and lead a predominantly nomadic lifestyle. In the desert regions of the Red Sea coast (the United Arab Republic, Sudan and Ethiopia), the tribes of Beja pastoralists roam, whose language - Bedauye - also belongs to the Cushitic group.

The Berber group unites peoples living in the mountainous regions of North Africa (Kabils, reefs, shlohs, etc.) and in the Sahara (Tuareg); many of them are bilingual and speak Arabic.

The areas south of the Sahara - Sudan (translated from Arabic "Bilyad-es-Sudan" means "Country of Blacks"), Tropical and South Africa are inhabited by Negroid peoples. Particularly complex is the ethnic composition of the population of Sudan (Western, Central and Eastern), which differs both from North Africa, where the peoples of one Semitic-Hamitic family live, and from Tropical and South Africa, where closely related Bantu peoples predominate. Sudan is inhabited by peoples who unite into a number of separate groups, differing both in material and spiritual culture, and in language. However, no matter how complex the ethnic composition and the different culture of the population, there are many similarities. historical and cultural features that unite the peoples of Sudan. Ancient African slave-owning and feudal states invested in this area, within which large nationalities were formed on the basis of an economic, cultural and linguistic community. The most ancient of the states known to us - Ghana - was apparently created back in the 4th century. n. e. one of the Mandingo peoples - the Soninke. At the beginning of the XIII century. Mali separated from Ghana, the ethnic basis of which was the Malinke. The borders of Mali (which flourished in the 13th-14th centuries) covered the upper reaches of the Senegal, the upper and middle reaches of the Niger. It was the largest state of medieval Sudan. In addition to Mali, other states were formed in Sudan at that time: Moei (XI-XVIII centuries), Kanem (X-XIV centuries), Hausa (XII-XVIII centuries), etc. By the end of the XV century. The largest territory was occupied by the state of Songhai. On the coast of the Gulf of Guinea in the XVIII-XIX centuries. there were the states of Ashanti, Benin, Dahomey, and others, which were barbarously destroyed by the British and French colonialists. The imperialist division of Western Sudan created an extraordinary patchwork of colonial possessions. The dominance of imperialism, the division of peoples by colonial borders, the artificial preservation and imposition of feudal systems complicated and delayed the process of national consolidation of the peoples of Sudan, which began to develop rapidly only in recent years in connection with the intensification of the national liberation movement and the emergence of new independent states.

The languages ​​spoken by the peoples of Sudan are grouped into the following groups: Hausa, Eastern, Central (Tur) and Western (Atlantic) Bantu, Songhai, Mande (Maidingo), Guinean, the languages ​​of the peoples of Central and Eastern Sudan, Kanuri and Nilotic. Despite the ethnic diversity of the Sudanese countries, in almost each of them two or three largest peoples or a group of closely related peoples can be distinguished, which make up the majority of the population and play the role of an ethnic core in the processes of national consolidation. For example, in Guinea - these are Fulbe, Mandingo and Susu, in Mali - Mandingo and Fulbe, in Senegal - Wolof, Fulbe and Serer, in Ghana - Akan and mine, in Nigeria - Hausa, Yoruba, for, Fulbe, etc.

The Hausa group includes the peoples of Northern Nigeria and neighboring countries: Hausa, Bade, Bura, Kotoko, etc. The languages ​​of the Hausa peoples are close to the languages ​​of the Semitic-Hamitic family and at the same time have a number of common features with the Bantu languages. The number of peoples belonging to the Hausa group is 10.7 million people. During the colonial partition, the single territory of the largest people of this group - the Hausa - was divided between Nigeria, where the bulk of the people now live (7.4 million people), and Niger (1.1 million people). The Hausa language is widely spoken as a second language among many neighboring peoples, and the total number of speakers of it is at least 12-15 million people.

The Eastern Bantoid group unites the peoples of Nigeria (tiv, ibibio, birom, kambari, etc.) and Cameroon (bamileke, tikar, etc.). The languages ​​of these peoples are very close to the Bantu languages ​​and, apparently, have a common root system with them. Related to the Bantu languages ​​is the grammatical structure of these languages. The total number of peoples of the eastern Bantu group is over 6.2 million people.

The Gur (Central Bantu) group, sometimes called the Mosi-Grusi group, unites the peoples of the interior regions of Western Sudan (Upper Volta, Ghana, etc.). The languages ​​of these peoples are characterized by the commonality of the main vocabulary and the proximity of the grammatical structure. The languages ​​of this group are spoken by the peoples: Moy, Lobi, Bobo, Dogon, Senufo, Gurma, Grus, etc. The total number of these peoples is "Over 7.4 million people (including the largest of them, mine - 3.2 million . human).

The Atlantic (Western Bantoid) group unites the peoples of the Fulbe, Wolof, Serer, Balante, and others. The Fulbe (7.1 million people) are found in many areas of Western and Central Sudan. A small part of them still leads a nomadic lifestyle and is engaged in cattle breeding, others are semi-nomadic and combine dairy cattle breeding with agriculture in their economy, but most of the Fulbe settled (especially in Nigeria) and began to farm. In Nigeria, a part of the Fulbe lives among the Hausa and has adopted their language. The total number of peoples of the Atlantic group is about 11 million people.

Song troupe i. The Songhai speak a language that bears no resemblance to other languages ​​and is therefore classified as a separate group. The Songhai and related Djermas and Dandies, occupying the valley along the middle course of the Niger River, combine agriculture with fishing. The number of Songhai is over 0.8. million people.

The Mande (Mandingo) family unites the peoples of a vast territory in the upper reaches of the Senegal and Niger rivers. The MandiNgo peoples are characterized by the proximity of languages ​​and culture, which is explained by their long communication within the medieval states of Sudan (Ghana, Mali, etc.). Based on a number of linguistic features, the languages ​​of the peoples of this group are divided into northern and southern. The northern ones include the actual mandinto (malinke, bambara and diula), soninke and wai; to the south - Susu, Mende, Kpelle, etc. The total number of Mandingo peoples is over 7.1 million people.

The Guinean group is characterized by a heterogeneous composition and includes three subgroups: Kru, Kwa and Ijo. Kru combines bakwe, grebo, crane, bete, gere, bassa, sikon, etc.; they live in Liberia and on the territory of the Ivory Coast. They speak very close languages, which are essentially dialects of the Kru language, and gradually merge into a single Kru people. The Kwa subgroup unites large peoples: Akan (4.5 million), Yoruba (6.3 million), for (6.2 million), Ewe (2.7 million), and others, occupying the eastern part of the Guinean coast. The Akan peoples are settled in Ghana and on the territory of the Ivory Coast. In the life of the population, especially in everyday life, the division of the Akan into a number of ethnic groups and tribes has retained its significance: Ashanti, Fanti, Baule-Anya, Gonzha, etc. The Akan language has four literary forms: Twi, or Ashanti, Fanti, Akvapim and Akim. The Ashanti and Fanti can be seen as the ethnic core of the emerging Ghanaian nation.

Ewe is divided between Ghana (over 0.9 million), Togo (about 0.6 million), Dahomey (1.1 million) and Nigeria (0.1 million). The Ewe, who live in Dahomey and Nigeria and are also called the Fon, differ quite significantly from the rest of the Ewe in terms of language and a number of elements of material and spiritual culture and are distinguished by some authors as a separate people. The Yoruba Ibo, Bini and Nupe inhabit the plains of the lower Niger River in southern Nigeria. Ijo, whose language is conditionally classified as Guinean, live in the Niger Delta.

The total number of peoples of the Guinean group is 24.3 million people.

A group of peoples of Central and Eastern Sudan - Azande, Banda, Bagirmi, Moru-Mangbetu, Fora, etc. - inhabit Chad, the Central African Republic, partly the Congo and the southwestern outskirts of Sudan. These peoples speak little studied languages. Their association in one group is conditional. The total number is 6.7 million people.

The kaya ur group unites the Kanuri people and their kindred inhabitants of the Tibesti - the tuba (or tibbu), as well as the Zagava; peoples, speaking Those who speak these languages ​​live in the desert regions of Central Sahara and differ sharply in language from the neighboring Sudanese peoples. The total number of peoples of the Kanuri group is 2.2 million people.

The Nilotic family includes peoples living in the Upper Nile basin. According to linguistic and ethnographic features, they are divided into three groups: northwestern, or Nilotic proper, which is characterized by a significant unity of languages ​​\u200b\u200bthat have a common basic vocabulary and grammatical structure (the largest peoples are Dinka, Nuer, Luo, etc.); the southeastern, also called the Nilo-Hamitic and characterized by a wide variety of composition (Bari, Lotuko, Tezo, Turkana, Karamojo, Masai, etc.), and the Nuba group. In the past, the Nilotic peoples were settled much more widely. The area of ​​their settlement stretched from Ethiopia to Lake Chad, reaching in the south to Kenya and Tanganyika. During the colonial division of Africa, the united territory of the Nilotes was divided between Eastern Sudan, Kenya, Uganda and Tanganyika. The Nuba group includes the Nubians living along the middle reaches of the Nile; a significant part of them speaks Arabic. The total number of Nilotic peoples is 7.9 million people.

The rest of the African continent - Tropical and South Africa - is inhabited mainly by the peoples of the Bantu family, characterized by the extreme proximity of languages, similarities in occupations and cultural traditions. The Bantu peoples number 67.6 million people, which is over 27% of the population of Africa. Bantu are divided by linguists (mainly on a geographical basis) into seven main groups: northwestern (fang, duala, poppy, etc.); northern (Banyarwanda, Barundi, Kikuyu, etc.); Congo (bakongo, mongo, bobangi, etc.); central (baluba, bemba, etc.); Eastern (Swahili, Wanyam-wezi, Wagogo, etc.); southeastern (Machon, Xhosa, Zulus, etc.); western (ovimbunda, ovambo, herero, etc.). The history of the origin of the Bantu and their settlement of Tropical and South Africa is still largely unclear, but the data of linguistics and ethnography give reason to consider their homeland the northern outskirts of the tropical forests of the Congo and Cameroon, where the peoples of the eastern Bantu group close to them live (Tiv, Ibibio, Bamileke, etc. ). The southward advance of the Bantu began as early as the Neolithic; they moved around the rainforest through the savannas of East Africa. The Bantu were driven back and partly assimilated by the Nilotic peoples living in the eastern part of the mainland and the peoples who spoke Cushitic languages. The aboriginal Khoisan population was also assimilated to a large extent, from which only the Hadzapi and Sandawe tribes are now preserved in East Africa (in Tanganyika). The Bantu peoples, who occupied the fertile plateaus and plains of the Mezhozero, achieved a high degree of social development and created in the XIV-XVIII centuries. the states of Unyoro, Buganda, Ankole, and others. The Bantu entered the tropical forests of the Congo from the east and from the north. They pushed back and partly assimilated the hunting tribes of the Pygmies who lived there. In their southward march, the Bantu reached the southern tip of the African continent (Natal) a thousand years ago. By the time of the appearance of Europeans, the eastern part of South Africa was occupied by the southeastern Bantu - Mashona, Xhosa, Zulus, Basotho, etc.; on the east coast, the eastern Bantu - Makua, Malawi, etc. were settled; in the northwest - the western Bantu - Ovambo and Herero.

The historical fate of the Bantu of the east coast of Africa in the Middle Ages was significantly influenced by the penetration of the Arabs. The latter created the trading settlements of Lamu, Malindi, Mombasa, Zanzibar, and others, where a mixed group of the Swahili population (“coastal dwellers”) gradually formed. Its ethnic basis was made up of local Bantu tribes and descendants of slaves captured in the interior regions of Tropical Africa. The composition of the Swahili also included the descendants of the Arabs, Persians and Indians. tsev. The Swahili language has spread widely throughout East Africa. At the beginning of the XX century. almost 2 million people spoke Swahili.

Most of the Bantu peoples at the time of the colonial division of Tropical Africa were at various stages of the decomposition of the primitive communal system. Some of them already had their own state formations. European colonization destroyed these states. At present, many more tribes have survived among the Bantu, but there is an active process of merging them into nationalities and nations. In the struggle for national liberation from the colonial yoke, various Bantu tribes of the Congo, Angola and other countries are uniting, and an intensive process of formation of large nations is going on. This is also facilitated by the proximity of the languages ​​​​of individual tribes and peoples of the Bantu.

The Swahili language, which the British authorities at one time recognized as the official language of their colonies in East Africa, is becoming more widespread. At present, the majority of the population of this region - two to three tens of million people - speaks Swahili. In East Africa, apparently, the contours of a large ethnic community are outlined - the East African nation. A serious obstacle to its development is the colonial regime.

The Bantu of Angola consist of two closely related groups of tribes: Bantu Congo (Bakongo and Bambundu) and Western Bantu - Ovimbundu, Vapyanek, Ovambo, etc. Despite the brutal regime of racial, political and economic oppression of the African population established in Angola by the colonial authorities, recently the national liberation movement is gaining wider scope there.

The Bantu of the Republic of South Africa, who live on reservations, on European farms, in cities (in suburban locations) under a heavy police regime and the so-called “color barrier”, are especially cruelly exploited. In relation to them, a racist policy of apartheid (separation of races) is being pursued. The Bantu of the Republic of South Africa have already developed into large nationalities: the kasa (over 3.3 million), Zulus (2.9 million), Basotho (1.9 million), etc. The languages ​​of these peoples are so close that they can be considered as dialects of a single language. These peoples have a common culture, customs and customs. They are also united by the stubborn struggle against racial discrimination, for democratic freedoms and political rights.

In South Africa, in addition to the Bantu, there are also peoples belonging to the Khoisan language group. These include the Bushmen, Hottentots, and Mountain Damara. In the distant past, the peoples of the Khoisan group occupied all of South and partly East Africa. In the era of the advancement of the Baitu peoples to the south, they were pushed back to the southwestern regions and partly assimilated. In the 17th century, when the first Dutch colonists appeared in South Africa, the Hottentots and Bushmen inhabited the entire southern tip of the African continent, but in the 18th-19th centuries. these peoples were largely exterminated by the European colonists. The remnants of the Khoisan population are driven into the arid regions of the Kalahari Desert. Their total number now does not exceed 170 thousand people.

The island of Madagascar is inhabited by the Malagasy, whose language, anthropological type and culture differ sharply from other peoples of the African continent. Malgash speak the language of the Indonesian group of the Malayo-Polynesian family. The oldest population of the island, apparently, was Negroid. The ancestors of the Malagasy migrated from Indonesia in the 1st millennium AD. e. With the subsequent mixing of Indonesian settlers with the African population (Bantu) and partly with the Arabs, several ethnographic groups were formed on the island of Madagascar, differing in some cultural features and speaking dialects of the Malagash language. These include gelding, betsileo, sakalava, betsimizaraka, etc.

Due to the development of capitalist relations and frequent population movements, the boundaries of the settlement of these groups are gradually erased, and differences in culture and language are significantly reduced. The struggle for national independence against French colonial domination accelerated the process of the formation of a single Malagasy nation.

The population of European origin in Africa (British, Boers, French, etc.), despite its relative small number (about 8.5 million people), still occupies a dominant position in economic, and in a number of countries in political life. Among Europeans there is a significant stratum of workers and small farmers who are in a privileged position compared to Africans. A significant group is the bourgeoisie - the owners of plantations, farms, mines, various enterprises, etc.

The great colonial powers, England and France, now compelled to grant independence to many of their colonies, stubbornly strove to keep under colonial subordination the territories where there was a European migrant population. These include primarily Kenya, Southern and Northern Rhodesia.

South Africa has over 4 million people of European descent (“white”). It consists of Afrikaners, or Boers, Anglo-Africans, as well as Portuguese, Germans, French, Italians, etc. The Europeans in terms of language, national identity and culture adjoin the mestizo population of mixed origin (about 1.5 million people), which in the Republic of South Africa stands out as a separate ethnic group - "colored". Most of the "colored" speak Afrikaans and come from mixed marriages between Europeans and the indigenous inhabitants of South Africa - the Hottentots and Bushmen, partly Bantu. "Colored", along with the Bantu and Indian peoples, are subjected to severe racial discrimination.

In North Africa (Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, etc.), Europeans make up 2.2 million people. They live mainly in large cities and their environs. The French predominate numerically (approx. 1.5 million), Spaniards (0.3 million) and Italians (0.2 million).

In the countries of Western Sudan, the population of European origin (mainly French and British) does not exceed 0.3 million; in Tropical Africa, there are about 0.4 million Europeans. In Madagascar and other African islands in the Indian Ocean (Reunion, Mauritius, etc.), the population of European origin (mainly descendants of French settlers and French-speaking mestizos) totals 0.6 million people.

The population of Asian origin consists mainly of immigrants from India and Pakistan (1.3 million people) and Chinese (38 thousand people). Indians live mainly in the seaside cities of the southeast of the Republic of South Africa, as well as in Kenya and on the island of Mauritius, and on the latter they make up to 65% of the total population.

Most af Rican states and colonial possessions do not have correctly set demographic statistics; in 25 of them, no demographic censuses have ever been conducted among the African population, and the population was taken into account by the administration only according to indirect data (the number of taxpayers, etc.).

In the vast majority of African countries, statistical data on the size of the indigenous African population by administrative regions and even the country as a whole are given in official publications without regard to national and tribal affiliation. Only very few countries have statistical data characterizing the ethnic composition of the population. In various handbooks, statistical publications and ethnic maps published until recently by official colonial institutions, the African population is depicted as a conglomerate of unrelated tribes. For example, in the South African directory of African peoples and tribes, published in 1956 in Johannesburg, several thousand ethnic names are listed in alphabetical order without any attempt to group them. Many hundreds and even thousands of independent languages ​​stand out on linguistic maps.

The German ethnographer and linguist Tessman singled out the areas of two hundred and twenty-five languages ​​in Cameroon alone. The Belgian linguist Bulk counted several thousand different ones in the former Belgian Congo. dialects of the Bantu languages. The classification of peoples in accordance with their ethnic and linguistic kinship was not carried out on the French ethnic map "Peoples of Black Africa", which covers a vast territory from the Atlantic coast to the Congo River basin. The comparatively poor ethno-statistical material that is available for very few countries is distinguished by great detail.

Due to the lack of reliable data on the number of many African peoples, Africanists are forced to turn to linguistic statistics. Data on the distribution of languages ​​and language groups and on the number of peoples who speak them are of paramount importance. There are very few generalizing works devoted to these issues. Until recently, Mac Dugald's American guide to the languages ​​and press of Africa has been the most famous. However, it was published in 1944, and therefore its information is largely outdated. In addition, the reference book does not contain generalizing data on the number of peoples by linguistic groups in general. The speakers of the main African languages ​​often include the population who uses them along with their native languages.

In the post-war years, the role of Africa in world politics and economics has increased; increased interest in the African population and a sharp increase in the number of regional linguistic and ethnographic works. Particularly valuable ethno-statistical and cartographic materials are contained in the linguistic and ethnographic series of the International African Institute, as well as in the publications of the French Black Africa Institute. The publication of demographic yearbooks with updated demographic data for countries of the world, including African states and possessions, is carried out by the United Nations. Comparison of various linguistic and ethno-statistical data with official population data made it easier for individual states and small administrative units to compile a summary of the number of African peoples for 1958 and 1959

To characterize the countries of North Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, the United Arab Republic), where the Muslim Arab population predominates, statistical yearbooks served as the main sources. Population censuses in these countries were conducted repeatedly, but the population was taken into account only by religious affiliation and citizenship. These data were used to determine the number of national minorities of European origin and Jews of the Maghreb. The number of Berbers has been determined from linguistic and other works.

Since there are no census data for Ethiopia and Somalia, the determination of the number of peoples of these countries was made exclusively on the basis of linguistic publications, which provide far from complete information for 1940-1945.

The number of peoples for 1959 was determined taking into account the natural increase in the population.

For the Republic of the Sudan, in addition to preliminary data from the 1956 census, linguistic works characterizing the languages ​​of the Nilotic peoples and some peoples of Eastern Sudan (Fora, Azande, etc.) were used.

For the most ethnically complex territory - Western Sudan, where there are now 21 states, when compiling tables of the ethnic composition of the population, the linguistic works of D. Westerman and M. A. Bryan, de Tressan and the ethno-statistical tables of the ethnographic atlas of French West Africa, published in 1927. In addition, the population census of the Gold Coast and Togo, conducted in 1948, and the population census of Nigeria were also used. Amendments were made to the published data of these censuses, in particular, the list of peoples who fell into the category of others during the publication of the census was clarified. Their number was taken into account on the basis of a detailed list of the tribes and peoples of Nigeria from the 1921 census.

Determining the number of individual peoples of Western Sudan, we used a number of works and monographs from the ethnographic series of the International African Institute.

The countries of Western Tropical Africa - Gabon, Congo (with the capital of Brazzaville), Congo (with the capital of Leopoldville), Rwanda and Burundi, etc., where only Bantu peoples live, are provided with ethno-demographic materials less than other parts of the African continent. The ethnic composition of the population of these countries and the number of peoples living in them can so far be judged only by a few linguistic studies, which provide some data on languages. Among these works, the linguistic works of M. A. Bryan, M. Gasri and others should be noted.

The ethnic composition of the population of most countries of East Tropical Africa (Kenya, Uganda and Tanganyika) is known from publications 1948 census resultsIn addition, in 1952, a partial census was again conducted in Tanganyika. In 1957 and 1959 the census covered the entire population of Tanganyika and Uganda, but these materials have not yet been published.

In this paper, the statistical data of the 1948 census have been recalculated for 1959, taking into account the latest ethnographic and linguistic materials. In particular, with the help of the latter, a large group of other peoples of Tanganyika (about 2 million people) was dismembered. Analyzing this group, the researchers established the number of Swahili - the most important East African people, which was absent from the list of the peoples of Tanganyika, given in the official materials of the 1948 census.

The number of European and Asian (Indians) by origin of the population is given for 1959 according to the latest reference materials. The ethnic composition of the population of Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia is highlighted in the ethnographic works of M. Tew, W. Whiteley , W. M. Haley , as well as in the articles by L. D. Yablochkov, which were taken as the basis for compiling tables of the number of peoples.

For the countries of South Africa (Southern Rhodesia, Mozambique, the Republic of South Africa, etc.), which are distinguished by a very complex ethnic composition of the population, the main sources of the tables were the publication of the 1946 population census, the atlas of the settlement of the tribes of the southern Bantu, compiled by Van Varmelo, and the monograph I I. Potekhin on the formation of the national community of the South African Bantu, where modern ethnic processes in the Republic of South Africa are studied. In compiling the tables for South Africa, in addition to the works mentioned above, the results of the 1946 census for South-West Africa, published in 1947, as well as a large literature on the Bushmen and Hottentots, were used. The number and settlement of the Bushmen are given according to the work of van Tobias, published in 1955.

The population of Madagascar and neighboring islands in the Indian Ocean is covered in UN publications and other reference publications, as well as in the work of A. S. Orlova.