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2 ACADEMY N A U K S S S R Institute of Ethnography. N. N. Miklukho-Maclay I. With. SMIRNOV Family and family life of the peoples of the North Caucasus Second half of the 19th and 20th centuries. PUBLISHING HOUSE "NAUKA" Moscow 1983

3 Forms of marriage, family etiquette, the rights and obligations of family members, the position of a woman in the family, the author solves these issues in terms of identifying the common and national-special in the way of life of the peoples of the North of the Caucasus Chechens, Ingush, Ossetians, Kabardians, Balkars, Karachays, Circassians, Adyghes. The author shows how, in the Soviet era, folk traditions imbued with humanism received a new life: respect for elders, mutual assistance, hospitality, social sounding of family events. Managing editor VK GARDANOV y / 7 Yaroslav Sergeevna Smirnova Family and family life of the peoples of the North Caucasus (second half of the 19th and 20th centuries) N. N. Miklukho-Maclay of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR Editor of the publishing house S. N. Vasilchenko. Artist V. S. Poplavsky Art editor N. A. Filchagina. Technical editor F.M. Printed edition 16.5 Publishing sheet 20. Circulation 4800 copies Standard order Price 2 rubles 20 sheets Publishing house "Nauka" GSP-7, Moscow, V-485, Profsoyuznaya st., I printing house of the publishing house "Nauka", Moscow, G-99, Shubinsky per., S II Publishing house "Nauka", 1983 042 (02) 83

4 Introduction During the years of Soviet power, the peoples of the North Caucasus, this formerly backward outskirts tsarist Russia, have come a long way from feudal and even patriarchal-feudal relations, intertwined with nascent capitalism, to mature socialism. Fundamental changes have taken place in all areas of their life - economy and social structure, material and spiritual culture. Their family way of life was also subjected to socialist reconstruction, and it is this last process, due to the specifics of family life, that may be especially indicative for understanding the scale of cultural and everyday transformations in the North Caucasus. The family is a social institution, and its type, composition, and its entire way of life, in a broad historical perspective, always correspond to the general socio-economic conditions of its existence. However, in individual periods of time, such a correspondence may not exist. Having arisen under the influence of a certain complex of socio-economic factors, the family way of life becomes relatively independent, especially since the sphere of family life is more closed, and therefore more conservative than, for example, the sphere of public life. Family customs and rituals have considerable inertia, they always contain many residual phenomena, including those that are not adapted or poorly adapted to the new conditions of life. This specificity of family life is determined by several important circumstances for our topic. Although the development of capitalism began in the North Caucasus already in the post-reform period, and by the time of the Great October Socialist Revolution, feudal and bourgeois relations coexisted here, many archaic features remained in the life of the peoples of the region as a non-productive sphere of activity2. This applies all the more to family life, in which, by the time Soviet power was established, patriarchal foundations were still largely maintained. Further. The isolation and conservatism of family life made it difficult and slowed down its reorganization. In this area, the negative remnants of the past were especially stubborn, often continuing to persist despite completely changed socio-economic relations (objective factor) and despite a number of special organizational measures of the Communist Party and the Soviet government (subjective factor). That is why, as mentioned above, the successes in transforming the way of life of the North Caucasian family are especially indicative.

5 And finally, it should be taken into account that the same features of family life have not lost their significance in modern life, in the process of which individual remnants of patriarchy and the costs of growth still continue to be overcome. This is understandable. After all, the approval of the Soviet way of life does not mean that all negative phenomena, miscalculations, etc. have been eliminated in it. socialist society. A monographic study of the family life of not one people, but their significant combination within the framework of a whole historical and ethnographic region and not a new way of life in comparison with the old, but the entire process of its restructuring, was undertaken here for the first time. The difficulties and advantages of this approach require some explanation. In the North Caucasian historical and ethnographic region, eight relatively large ones are settled, having their own national autonomy peoples: Chechens, Ingush, Ossetians, Kabardians, Balkars, Karachays, Circassians, Adyghes. In addition, Abaza and Kuban Nogai4 live compactly in Karachay-Cherkessia. The family life of each of these peoples, as well as their entire cultural and everyday way of life in general, has national specifics, which, of course, makes it difficult to generalize regional characteristics. But this difficulty should not be overestimated. Already in the pre-revolutionary past, the culture and life of the indigenous peoples of the region had many common features, due to reasons of both ethnic and historical order. Many of these peoples are closely related to each other: Chechens and Ingush; Kabardians, Circassians and Adyghes; Karachays and Balkars. All these three groups once constituted undifferentiated or poorly differentiated communities of the Vainakhs, Adyghes (Circassians) and Taululs (“Mountain Tatars”). The Adygs, in turn, are related to the Abaza. However, the unrelated peoples of the region, due to similar living conditions and centuries-old cultural interactions, developed a number of close, and sometimes identical, features of life. In the Soviet era, as a result of strengthened interethnic contacts and intensified cultural and everyday rapprochement, this community increased even more. All this greatly facilitates the task of the work undertaken by us, although it should be immediately stipulated that many ethnographic details that are not of paramount importance will remain outside the scope of the study. On the other hand, an ethno-regional, and not a mono-ethnic study of the reorganization of family life opens up such possibilities for generalization that the study of any single people does not provide. It makes it possible to identify not only ethnic, but also ethno-regional features and patterns of this restructuring.

6 va and thus constitutes a necessary step in establishing the general and national-special in the Soviet way of life. Significant difficulties also lie in the phased study of the process of restructuring the family way of life. This process was not uniform not only among different peoples and in various socio-professional groups, but even in different regions, villages and individual families. Therefore, this research plan also requires a distraction from particular moments and the identification of typical, to some extent generalized features of individual historical stages. But only such an approach meets the principle of historicism of Marxist ethnographic science, helps to understand the specific ways and mechanisms of the restructuring of family life and to objectively evaluate the results of this restructuring. As you know, the need for just such an approach was strongly emphasized by V. I. Lenin. “The most reliable thing in the matter of social science and necessary in order to really acquire the skill to approach this issue correctly and not to get lost in the mass of trifles ... is not to forget the main historical connection, to look at each issue from the point of view of how a well-known phenomenon in history it arose, what main stages in its development this phenomenon passed, and from the point of view of this development, look at what this thing has become now. It goes without saying that the characterization of the modern family structure of the peoples of the North Caucasus that has developed as a result of socialist transformations requires the identification of both positive and negative life in this area. After all, the new is formed in the struggle with the old, the positive in overcoming the negative. This is also not an easy task, since far from all cultural and everyday phenomena lend themselves to unambiguous assessments, for example, due to a discrepancy between form and content, or the transitional state in which they are recorded by the researcher. In addition, along with positive and negative, there are, as it were, neutral elements of everyday life, and many of them are often components of ethnic specificity. All this complicates the evaluative approach to the phenomena of family life. However, such an approach is still necessary, since only it allows the use of ethnographic data for the practice of communist construction, in this case, for further optimization of family and everyday processes. The structure of the book is subordinated to its main research task. The first chapter is devoted to the pre-revolutionary family and its way of life in a broad chronological framework, covering both the pre-reform and post-reform times, however, in relation to the most important family and everyday phenomena, the changes that began with the development of capitalist relations in the North Caucasus are shown. The second chapter examines the restructuring of the family structure in the first two decades of Soviet power, 5

7 basically coinciding with the era of socialist construction. The third chapter shows the family and family life in the modern era, that is, in the era of developed, mature socialism. * The family and family structure of the peoples of the North Caucasus are reflected in a fairly extensive pre-revolutionary and Soviet ethnographic literature. Perhaps there are few works on Caucasian studies, the authors of which would not touch on certain aspects of family life, and a number of articles or chapters in monographs are dedicated to this topic specifically. This situation, of course, facilitates our task, but to a lesser extent than it might seem at first glance. Firstly, almost all available works are devoted to individual peoples, much less often to their related groups, such as the Adygs or Vainakhs. Secondly, the vast majority of works do not consider the family and family life as a whole, but only their separate forms and features (large family, marriage customs, wedding or birth rites, etc.). Thirdly, even in those sections of generalizing works on the various peoples of the North Caucasus, in which the family and the family way of life are specially studied, it is mainly about pre-revolutionary life. Finally, the various peoples of the North Caucasus and various aspects of their family life have been studied in the old and new ethnographic literature in a highly uneven manner. With regard to the region as a whole, it can be said without exaggeration that there are incomparably more gaps in the coverage of our topic than any complete and satisfactory characteristics. A lengthy, but precise and expressive assessment given by M. O. Kosven deserves to be given to the general results of the study of the family and family life in pre-revolutionary Russian Caucasian studies. “The large patriarchal family remained almost unnoticed and completely undescribed ... Marriage, its conditions and forms of conclusion were a fairly common topic, but they were still not described enough. Exogamy and endogamy were discussed, but no attempts were made to investigate these phenomena in their concrete existence. There were endless talks about the abduction of girls, so that the Caucasus became known as almost a “classical” country of this method of marriage, but all the relevant references remained extremely vague and the main questions of the reason for the abduction and the attitude of the abductee herself to it were not investigated. A very popular topic was the wedding, however, it was not described enough in its act and ritual moments, and for some peoples it remained described completely unsatisfactorily. Just as much was said about payments connected with the conclusion of marriage, i.e. kalym and kebin (premarital gift), but the corresponding instructions remain vague, very often both of these types of marriage are confused 6

8 payments obscure their meaning and content and distort the idea of ​​the prevalence of purchased marriage in the past in the Caucasus. Much attention was paid to the question of the position of women, however, this issue was also covered indistinctly and contradictoryly: about the same people, some authors stated that the woman here is a “slave”, “draft cattle” and so on, others that the position of a woman here is higher than that of neighboring peoples. Births have been described with various related procedures, but some of the most historically interesting details have been ignored. Children's games and toys, as well as sports, were occasionally described. Relatively much attention was attracted by atalism, attempts were made to explain it, but the essential aspects of this order, the establishment of which is especially important for its historical interpretation, remained uncovered”6. Our topic is much better represented in the publications of the Soviet era, when ethnographic research, including family life, began to be conducted not only in academic centers, but also in all autonomous republics and regions of the North Caucasus. However, as already mentioned, not a single monographic study of the development of the family and the family way of the peoples of the region appeared in Soviet ethnographic Caucasian studies either. Let us briefly consider the main literary sources containing important information for us on individual peoples or their closely related groups. Let's start with the pre-reform period, i.e., the middle of the last century, since the tasks of our work will only in rare cases require reference to earlier publications7. The family and family life of Ossetians are best covered in ethnographic, including pre-revolutionary, literature, largely due to the fact that already in the second half of the last century, a large number of Ossetian ethnographers emerged from their own environment. We find a number of valuable data about the family, its way of life, customs and rituals in the works of such local authors as N. G. Berzenov, a native of Ossetia, Georgians N. G. Berzenov, the first Ossetian ethnographer S. V. Zhuskaev and M. A. Kundukhov (1850s )8, I. G. Tkhostov, J. T. Shanaev, B. T. Gatiev, A. A. Gassiev, I. D. Kanukov, Archegova i Kasabieva (s) 9 Liakhveli, I. Kesaev, A. A. Kanukov, A. Tsallagov, G. M. Tsagolov, Gagudz Khodon (Mzuron), A. G. Ardasenov and many others (s) 10. A special place among these publications was occupied by ethnographic work remarkable Ossetian educator K.L. The works of V. B. Pfaf, A. L. Zisserman and D. Ya. Lavrov12 belong to the 70s. 7

9 to the 80s, the works of Ossetian studies by such prominent Caucasian scholars as V.F. Miller13 and M.M. Kovalevsky14. comparative historical method attempts to identify their historical roots. Of particular importance was M. M. Kovalevsky’s study of the family community, which, as is known, was highly appreciated by F. Engels. Of the other works of the end of the century, the articles of N. N. Kharuzin and K.-I. I. Borisevich, containing significant material on various aspects of family life,5. Among the works of the pre-revolutionary period, the most interesting are the studies of A. E. Skachkov and M. A. Misikov. The first of them is predominantly economic, but includes versatile and, what is especially important, often presented in quantitative terms ethnographic information16. The subject of the second is the anthropology of the Ossetians, however, ethnographic data are also abundantly presented in it, and such aspects of family life are highlighted that attracted the attention of the author as a medical specialist. AT Soviet time already in the 1920s, the first publications 18 appeared, and in the 1930s the first studies containing information about the family structure of the North Ossetians19. Ethnographic research was widely developed in the post-war period, when N.F. Takoeva's special works on the marriage-wedding and funeral-commemoration cycles of rites20 were published, and then a comprehensive ethnographic study of the Ossetian people was undertaken. The creation of the corresponding monographs is associated with the names of B. A. Kaloev and A. Kh. Magometov. The historical and ethnographic study of B. A. Kaloev includes two sections devoted to the family and family rituals. Both of these interrelated topics are considered historically, although, unfortunately, the volume of the book did not allow the author to sufficiently show the development of family life in Soviet times21. The same is typical for the monographs of A. Kh. Magometov: based on materials only from North Ossetians, they characterize in detail the old family life, but incomparably more fluently its restructuring in the initial period of Soviet power and its subsequent socialist reorganization. For our topic, the most informative are the works of A. Kh. Magometov “Family and family life of Ossetians in the past and present” (included in a revised form in his monograph “Culture and life of the Ossetian people”) and “Social system and life of Ossetians”, containing a special section about the family community. Important material is also contained in other works of modern Ossetian researchers. The book of the South Ossetian ethnographer L. A. Chibirov on the folk calendar provides a lot of information about family rituals, including North Ossetians.

10 more detailed characteristics of the upbringing of children in the Ossetian family24. Ethnographic information about the family and family life of the Adyghe peoples is somewhat inferior to Ossetian studies. True, the Circassians even earlier than the Ossetians, namely in the 1840s, had their own ethnographers Khan Girey and Sh. B. Nogmov. Their attention, along with other aspects of folk life, was attracted by family customs and rituals25. But in the following decades, as M. O. Kosven26 already pointed out, there was a certain decrease in ethnographic studies of this group. Nevertheless, due to the wide area of ​​settlement of the Circassians and the multiplicity of their ethnic divisions, the number of publications is quite significant. We find the most significant information for us in the 1850s from K. F. Stal, N. I. Karlgof, J1. Ya. Lulie and F. V. Yukhotnikova27; in the 1860s by A. O. Makhvich-Matskevich, N. F. Grabovsky and P. Nevsky28; in the 1870s with A. A. Kavetsky29; in the 1880s by T.P. Kashezhev30, in the 1900s by A. Shemgokhov (in literary adaptation by V.V. Vasilkov) and A.N. Dyachkov-Tarasov31. The vast majority of these works are about the Western Adygs. In the ethnography of the Soviet era, the family and family life of the western Adyghes are also better studied than those of the eastern ones. Of the publications of the first post-war decades, the books of U. Aliev, B. M. Gorodetsky and S. B. Siyukhov, the customary legal and family law works of A. M. Ladyzhensky, the popular, but not devoid of ethnographic significance, brochures by A. Ch. Namitokova32. Valuable information about family life is available in publications resulting from medical examinations33 and the study of religious survivals in Adygea and Shapsugia34. Works related to our topic on the Adyghe peoples have been multiplying since the late 1940s and especially in the last two decades. E. N. Studenetskaya explores the Kabardian big family35, T. T. Shikova the family and family life of the Kabardians36, G. Kh. M. Dumanov pays considerable attention to Kabardian family property and inheritance law38, S. Kh. Mafedzev to family rituals and ritual games39, B. Kh. Family way Circassians are versatile, although very summarized, characterized in the generalizing work of I. Kh. Kalmykov4t. The Adyghe family theme is being developed very intensively. E. L. Kodzhesau studied the family relations of the Shapsugs and made an interesting attempt at an evaluative approach to the marriage and family traditions of the Adyghes42. M. A. Meretukov thoroughly studied the family life of the Abadzekhs and published 9

11 an extensive series of articles devoted to the family and the main marriage and family customs and rituals of both the Adyghes and the Adyghes in general. The publications of M. A. Meretukov summarize a very large literary and field material, but they are mainly turned to the past; perhaps the only exception is his article on the Adyghe Soviet family43. E. L. Kodzhesau and M. A. Meretukov jointly investigated the old and new family life of collective farmers of the collective farm named after. XXII Congress of the Shovgenovsky District of the Adygei Autonomous Region44, and N. M. Kiseleva published a note on interethnic marriages in Adygea45. There is a special generalizing work on the upbringing of children among the Circassians, but only in the pre-revolutionary past46. The early literature on the Karachays and Balkars related to our topic is very small: an article by an unidentified author M. dates back to the 1850s, and an article by N. F. Grabovsky, N. Petrusevich and G. S. Petrov47. In the 1880s, these peoples became the subject of study by such prominent researchers as M. M. Kovalevsky and V. F. Miller. The work of M. M. Kovalevsky on the customary law of the “Mountain Tatars” has already been mentioned above; here we should add the publications of observations made by him together with V.F. Miller and I.I. Ivanyukov48: Of the other works of the pre-revolutionary period, the most informative articles are V. Ya. Teptsov, E. Z. Baranov, B. K. Dalgat, A. N. Dyachkova-Tarasova (90s) 4 I. Baranov, B. V. Miller, N. P. Tulchinsky, B. A. Lange, N. A. Karaulov, N. E. Talitsky, N. S. Ivanenkova, V. M. Sysoeva, I. S. Shchukin, G. F. Chursin (1900s and pre-revolutionary years) 19th century and brought together in 1911.51 In the literature of the first post-revolutionary decades, information on family and everyday subjects is included in publications of a general or borderline nature. Such are the already mentioned studies of G. Kh. V. P. Nevskoy54; somewhat more detailed in a special section of the generalizing monograph on the Karachays, written by V.P. Nevskaya in collaboration with I.M. Shamanov55. Of particular note is the valuable collective work devoted to the elimination of the old and the formation of new ones. household traditions in the Karachay-Cherkess Autonomous Region, including family traditions among the Karachays56. Recently, I. M. Shamanov published a special publication on the family life of Karachays, but only in pre-revolutionary times57. As for the Balkars, K. G. Azamatov studied the usual 10

12 family law (the first half of the 19th century, but the significance of the work goes beyond these chronological limits) 38, M. Ch. XIX - early XX centuries.60 Family and everyday information about the Chechens and Ingush gradually increases from more or less informative messages and general notes to special ethnographic works. Of the earliest publications, of primary interest are the articles by I. A. Klinger and K. Samoilov (1850s), A. P. Ippolitov, I. M. Popov, P. I. Golovinsky, N. F. Grabovsky and U Laudaeva (years)62. In the 1860s, the first Ingush ethnographer Ch. E. Akhriev63 began to work. Particularly important data were obtained by researchers of the next thirty years, these are the already mentioned N. I. Kharuzin, K.-I. I. Borisevich and I. S. Ivanenkov, as well as V. N. Akimov and I. I. Pantyukhov64. The adats of the Ingush collected by B. K. Dalgat in the 1890s were already published in Soviet times. Among other ethnographic and related publications of the Soviet period, the works of N.F. Yakovlev, K. G. Martirosian, V. P. Khristianovich, D. Z. Sheripov, Kh. D. Oshaev, I. I. Pokrovsky, M. A. A. Plieva, V. J. Itonishvili, A. S. Omarova. "But in general, it must be noted that the study of the family and family life, as well as ethnographic work in general, is still less developed in Checheno-Ingushetia than in other republics and regions of the North Caucasus. Particularly noteworthy are the works that reflect the family and domestic relations not of individual peoples or their groups, but of the entire North Caucasus or the Caucasus as a whole. description of many aspects of the family life of the Circassians, Ossetians, Chechens and Nogais.Dubrovin's work is built mainly on literary sources, but this is not just a compilation, since archival material is also used in it.68 The later summary descriptions of the peoples of the North Caucasus are much less valuable: E. D Maksimova and G. A. Ve rtepova 6\ V. P. Pozhidaeva 70, etc. The summary works prepared in Soviet times by employees of the Institute of Ethnography of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR should be assessed in a completely different way. First of all, this is the corresponding volume of the two-volume "Peoples of the Caucasus" series "Peoples of the World", p. The characteristics of the family and family life in it, for all their brevity, are very accurate and reflect the field observations of such competent Caucasian scholars as B. A. Kaloev (“Chechens”, “Ingush”, together with N. F. Takoeva “Ossetians”), E. N. Studenetskaya (“Kabardians and Cherke 11

13 sy”, with the participation of G. A. Sergeeva “Karachaevtsy”), M. G. Autlev and E. S. Zevakin (“Adyghes”), L. I. Lavrov (“Abaza”), N. F. Takoeva ( "Balkarians"). It is difficult to overestimate the importance of the code of adats of the Caucasian highlanders published by F.I. Leontovich, in particular Chechens, Ossetians, Kabardians and Western Adyghe-Circassians, adats recorded by them mainly in the first, but partially in the second half of the 19th century. Customary family law is abundantly represented here; the remarks of F. I. Leontovich himself in the introduction and separate comments are not without significance. The most valuable study of customary law, including that related to the topics we are studying among the respective peoples, is the main work of M. M. Kovalevsky73. Of the other works of this kind, customary and legal publications by L. Petrov, V. N. Ivanenko, N. M. Agishev, and V. D. Bushen, as well as some more specific articles74, should be noted. Representing the most important material for historical and ethnographic reconstructions, family and everyday forms and relations of the peoples of the North Caucasus (or the Caucasus as a whole) already in pre-revolutionary times became the subject of a special study of Caucasian scholars of the evolutionist direction. The main merit here belongs to M. M. Kovalevsky, who did a lot to study the family community and even more archaic marriage and family forms75. S. A. Egiazarov worked in the same area, leaving a review of the survivals of archaic forms of marriage among the Caucasian highlanders76. V. V. Sokolsky was responsible for the first reconstruction of matriarchal relations among the mountain peoples of the Caucasus77, L. V. Malinin made the first attempt, using the same material, to establish the historical relationship between kalym and dowry78. An interesting summary of data on the family of the Caucasian highlanders, which, however, reflects the anti-evolutionist tendencies at the turn of our century, was left by A. Darinsky79. Partly to the pre-revolutionary period, partly to the 1920s, there are several generalizing works by the prominent Caucasian scholar G.F. Chursin, among whose versatile interests there were also family and everyday subjects80. Other all-regional works of the 1920s concerning the same issues: I. Khubiev (pseudonym Karachaily) on the specifics of the life of the Caucasian highlanders, A. M. Ladyzhensky on the North Caucasian adats, M. Sigorsky on the peculiarities of marriage traditions among the peoples of the Caucasus81. The last of these, although a little message, is of considerable theoretical interest as an attempt at a historical and cultural classification of marriage and wedding complexes. She, in addition, anticipated the attempts of subsequent Soviet Caucasian scholars to identify the remnants of the transitional localization of the marriage settlement. Many issues related to the organization and life of the family in its historical past have been deeply developed in the works of one of the founders of the Soviet ethnographic Caucasian

14 Denius, a prominent historian of primitive society M. O. Kosven. This is a characteristic of a large family and a family-related group, or patronymy, the evolution of forms of marriage settlement, the genesis of avoidance customs, atalism, etc. However, it should be taken into account that in the study of family forms and relations among the peoples of the Caucasus, M. O. Kosven was mainly interested in their genesis and ancient forms, incomparably less in their specific functions in the general context of changing social and living conditions. This is both the strength and the well-known limitation of his approach to many of the issues considered here, an approach that is natural for the historical reconstruction of primitive communal institutions, but insufficient for understanding why and how the remnants of these institutions functioned in the everyday life of the Old Caucasian family. Like numerous other students of M. O. Kosven, the author owes him an understanding of the significance of the historical approach to Caucasian studies; like many others, the author tries here to combine this approach with the methods of functional analysis. The prominent historian and Caucasian ethnographer V.K. Gardanov, who made a significant contribution to the study of the institutions of atalism, hospitality, and blood vengeance, paid considerable attention to general theoretical issues of the history of the family and family-kinship relations83. big theoretical value to understand the historical place of family-related patronymic groups of understanding, which is significantly different from that proposed by M. O. Kosven, the works of A. I. Robakidze also have84. A narrower, although directly related to our subject, is the work of V.J. Itonishvili on the life of a mountain family85. Although the work was written in Georgian and remained inaccessible to us, it is clear from the Russian summary that the main subject of the study was a large family and its characteristic property relations among Chechens, Ingush and Ossetians, i.e. an important, but far from the only side of their old family life. In modern foreign science, the problems of the history of marriage and family, as a rule, are solved without taking into account the Caucasian material. The only but notable exception is a special monograph on marriage and the family among the peoples of the North Caucasus, written by the American ethnographer L. J. Luzbetak86. Although the author visited this region in the late 1920s, the book was written mainly on the basis of literary sources. Nevertheless, this is a solid work rich in comparative material, which combines evolutionist and functionalist methods of research. As for the general issues of the development of modern family relations in the North Caucasus, many of them, in particular the tasks of improving family and household traditions, are 13

15 have been followed in a number of publications by sociologists, religious scholars and historians87. Particularly valuable in this regard are the generalizing works of A. V. Avksentiev, S. M. Gadzhiev and V. M. Vagabov, as well as a small but very informative article by K. I. Chomaev about the former features of the ethnic psychology of the highlanders. Finally, a number of our articles are devoted to the family and family life, or its various aspects among the peoples of the North Caucasus, both on individual peoples of the region88 and on the region as a whole89. The main ones, duly revised, are used in the proposed book. * As can be seen from the review, the literature sources are far from sufficient to solve the problem posed here. Along with them, we have widely drawn on other newspaper, archival, and especially field sources. Newspaper materials provide a lot for understanding the specific forms of reorganization of family life in a period that is the worst covered in ethnographic literature, i.e., in the th years. The North Caucasian press of those years is replete with specific information about the activities of party, Soviet and public organizations to emancipate women, combat domestic crimes, etc., as well as the attitude of the advanced public of cities and villages towards them. The newspaper data of the post-war period and the last decades are also significant, covering a new stage of everyday, including family and household, transformations, overcoming the remnants of the past in everyday life and the minds of the population, the formation of new family traditions, and in particular civil rites. We used the North Caucasian republican, regional and partly regional press: the newspapers "Gorskaya Pravda", "Power of Labor" (Vladikavkaz), "Proletary of Ossetia", "Socialist Ossetia" (Ordzhonikidze), "Krasnaya Kabarda", "Kabardino-Balkarian Poor", "Socialist Kabardino-Balkaria", "Kabardino-Balkarian Truth" (Nalchik), "Red Circassia", "Lenin's Banner", "Lenin Nur", "Lenin Bairagy", "Lenin Yoly" (Cherkessk), "Lenin's Way", "Adyghe Life" (Maikop), "Grozny Rabochiy" (Grozny), "Kolkhozny Path", "Komsomolets Shapsugii" (former Shapsugsky national region), etc. Of course, the central press was also used. An in-depth study of the transformations of the Soviet era turned out to be impossible without the involvement of archival data. In addition to the state archives of the Chechen-Ingush, North Ossetian and Kabardino-Balkarian Autonomous Republics, the Karachay-Cherkess and Adygei Autonomous Regions and the Krasnodar Territory, materials from the archives of 14

16 regional committees of the CPSU of the respective republics and regions, as well as current archives of various Soviet institutions. Among the latter, in connection with the use of quantitative research methods, which will be discussed later, special attention was drawn to the archives of civil registration departments, passport offices of police departments, etc. -research institutes of the North Caucasian autonomous republics and regions. Finally, materials from the State Archive of the National Economy of the USSR and the Central state archive October revolution. Beginning in 1959, the author conducted field ethnographic research in all autonomous republics in the regions of the North Caucasus, as well as in the Adyghe villages of the Lazarevsky and Tuapse regions of the Krasnodar Territory. The work was carried out both in rural areas and in cities by interviewing informants and direct observation. The research was carried out on the instructions of the Institute of Ethnography of the USSR Academy of Sciences and in different years was carried out in the course of the work of the North Caucasian detachment of a complex expedition or the North Caucasian expedition, individual ethnographic detachments under the leadership of the author, as well as during scientific trips. Field materials were collected in Adygea (, 1965 and 1975), among the Adyghes of the Lazarevsky and Tuapse regions of the Krasnodar Territory (1961), in Karachay-Cherkessia (1965, 1968, 1969, 1974 and 1980), in Kabardino-Balkaria (1962), in North Ossetia (1963, 1969, 1973 and 1976) and in Checheno-Ingushetia (1963, 1965 and 1969) 90. In the field study of family life, as well as other subject areas of ethnography, no subjective assessments and conclusions are excluded. Perhaps the most effective means of correcting them quantitative methods research. The author tried to involve as widely as possible the quantitative indicators of the processes under consideration, the data for which were provided by act materials and ethno-sociological surveys. Statistical data of the current official records management, which obviously occupy an intermediate position between archival and field sources, often make it possible to form an accurate picture of many aspects of family life. In particular, the current archives of state farms and collective farms characterize the dynamics of family well-being; union press and libraries of cultural level; departments of registration of acts of civil status of registered marriages and the national and social composition of the spouses; passport offices of police departments to determine the national identity of adolescents from mixed families, etc. These and similar sources of information are used in our work, but only a selection

17 but, since, for example, data on the nationality of the spouses were recorded in different periods not everywhere. In the years The North Ossetian and Kabardino-Balkarian Research Institutes conducted a wide-ranging ethno-sociological survey among Ossetians, Kabardians, and Balkars from rural and urban areas. The questionnaire, in particular on the family and family life, was developed by V.K. Gardanov, A.E. Ter-Sarkisyants and ourselves together with the staff of these institutions. The sample was made taking into account the geographical zonality of the main types of settlements and the socio-professional and sex-age structure of the population. The sample (more than 1.5 thousand city dwellers and about 2 thousand rural dwellers) is representative of the surveyed peoples and groups of the population as a whole91. The book uses as widely as possible the results of these ethno-sociological studies, especially on North Ossetia, where the author himself participated in obtaining the relevant data92. Some quantitative indicators were also obtained by the author as a result of his own ethno-sociological survey of certain aspects of family life in Karachay-Cherkessia and Adygea, or extracted from the archives of the Karachay-Cherkess Research Institute, which conducted ethno-sociological work limited in scale in 1974. The author is deeply grateful to all those who directly or indirectly contributed to the creation of this work. The first place here rightfully belongs to the multinational detachment of informers and respondents. The works and advice of ethnographers from the autonomous republics and regions of the North Caucasus, as well as the kind assistance of employees of local archives and other institutions, were of great importance. In a number of expedition trips, the author was assisted by scientific and technical staff and graduate students of the Institute of Ethnography of the USSR Academy of Sciences L. I. Bobrinskaya, N. D. Pchelintseva and L. B. Shidova, photographers Yu. A. Argiropulo and A. A. Lindenberg. Special thanks to the employees of the sector of ethnography of the peoples of the Caucasus of the Institute of Ethnography of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, in whose team all scientific work author. 1 Marx K. Synopsis of Lewis G. Morgan's book "Ancient Society". Marx K., Engels F. Soch., vol. 45, p. M.: Nauka, 1973, et al. 3 See: Yu. V. Andropov. Sixty Years of the USSR. Kommunist, 1983, 1, p. Here we do not consider the peoples of Dagestan, who, like the peoples of the North Caucasus or Transcaucasia, form a special historical and ethnographic region or, if we consider the entire Caucasus as such a region, one of its three subregions. In addition, the family and family life of the peoples of Dagestan are fundamentally studied in the works of S. Sh. Gadzhieva. 5 Lenin V. I. On the state. Full coll. cit., vol. E9, s (5

18 Kosven M. O. Materials on the history of the ethnographic study of the Caucasus in Russian science. Part 3. In the book: KES, 1962, 3, p. one; Part 2, In the book: KES, 1958, 2: Part 3, In the book: KES, 1962, 3; Ossetians through the eyes of Russian and foreign travelers (XIII XIX centuries). Comp., introductory article and notes B. A. Kaloeva. Ordzhonikidze: North Ossetian. book. publishing house, 1967; Adygs, Balkars and Karachais in the news of European authors of the XIII XIX centuries. Comp., ed. translations, introduction and entry. articles to the texts of VK Gardanov. Nalchik: Elbrus, Berzenov N. Essays on Ossetia. K, 1850, 2, 7, 15, 47, 48, 95; 1852, 5, 67, 68; He is. From notes about Ossetia. Ibid., 1850, 93; 1853, 15; Zh uskaev S. The funeral of the Ossetians-Alagirs. ZV, 1855, 9; He's okay. Atinag. Ibid., 32; Description of harmful folk customs that existed in the native tribes of the Military Ossetian District to the present, Compiled at the suggestion of the head of the Military Ossetian District, Colonel Kundukhov. In the book: Leontovich F.I. Adats of the Caucasian highlanders. Materials on customary law of the North and East Caucasus. Odessa, issue Tkhostov I. From the notes about the Tagaurians. TV, 1869, 28; Shanaev J. Wedding among the North Ossetians SSCG, 1870, no. IV; Gatiev B. Ossetian superstition and prejudice. Ibid., 1876, no. IX; Gassiev A. Something about the position of women among Muslim highlanders. Tifl. V., 1877, 30; Kanukov I. In the Ossetian village. SSCG, 1875, no. VIII; He is. On the question of the destruction of harmful customs among the Caucasian highlanders. K, 1879, 48, 54; Archegov. Physical education of Ossetian children. TV, 1879, 21; Kasabiev. Physical education of children in Ossetia. There. "> Kokiev S.V. Notes on the life of Ossetians. SME, 1885, issue 1; He is Kalym among Ossetians. TV, 1884, 4; Liakhveli G. Ossetian woman. YuO, 1886, 292; Kesaev I. From life Ossetians (A case of bride kidnapping), TV, 1894, 100, 102; Kanukov, A. Annual holidays among Ossetians, Ibid., 1892, 18, 25, 31, 80; SMOMPK, 1893, issue XVI, Tsagolov G. Notes from Ossetian life 1. Ossetian politeness TV, 1890, 96; 65; V. N. L. [A. G. Ardasenov] Transitional state of the highlanders of the North Caucasus. Tiflis, Khetagurov K. L. Osoba. Collected works in five volumes. V. 4. M.: Izd-vo AN SSSR Pfaf V. B. Folk law of the Ossetians SSK, 1871, vol. one; 1872, vol. II; He is. Ethnological research about the Ossetians. Ibid., 1872, vol. II; He is the same ~ Description of a trip to South Ossetia, Racha, Bolshaya Kabarda and Digoria. Same place; Zisserman A.L. Twenty-five years in the Caucasus (). SPb., 1879; Lavrov D. Notes about Ossetia and Ossetians. SMOMPK, 1880, no. III. 13 Miller VF In the mountains of Ossetia. RM, 1881, 9; He is. Ossetian studies. M., part I III; He is. Features of antiquity in the legends and everyday life of Ossetians, ZHMNP, 1882, book. VIII. 14 Kovalevsky M. M. Some archaic features of Ossetian family and inheritance law. SW, 1885, 6-7; He is. On the customary law of the Mountain Tatars and its relation to the Ossetian. IOLEAE, 1885, v. 43, no. 2; He is. Modern custom and ancient law. Ossetian customary law in historical and comparative coverage. M., 1886, vol. I II. 15 Kharuzin N. N. In the mountains of the North Caucasus. Travel notes. Ossetians. BE, 1888, vol. VI; Borisevich K. Moral traits of Orthodox Ossetians and Ingush of the North Caucasus (family and domestic life, etc.). EO, 1899, Skachkov A. Experience of a statistical study of a mountain corner (an economic essay). TV, 1905, 219, Misikov M. A. Materials for the anthropology of the Ossetians. Odessa, Ob. 17

19 18 Gardanov M. K. The Christian village in the facts of life. IONIIK, 1925, no. I; Saur P. According to Digoria. NP, 1928, 10, etc. 19 Kulov KD Survivals of tribal life in North Ossetia (domestic crimes). ISONII, Sh32, vol. IV; He is. Matriarchy in Ossetia. Ibid., 1935, vol. VIII; Kulov SD About some remnants of feudal-clan life and capitalism in North Ossetia. Ordzhonikidze: State. publishing house Sev, - Oset. ASSR, Takoeva N.F. Funeral and memorial rites of Ossetians in the 19th century. SE, 1956, I; She is. On the issue of marriage and wedding ceremonies among North Ossetians in the 19th and early 20th centuries. KSIE, 1959, issue Kaloev B. A. Ossetians. Historical and ethnographic research. M.: Nauka, 1967; Ed. 2. M.: Nauka, Magometov A. Kh. Family and family life of Ossetians in the past and present. Ordzhonikidze: North Ossetian. Research Institute, 1962; He is. Culture and life of the Ossetian people. Historical and ethnographic research. Ordzhonikidze: Ir, 1968; He is. Social system and life of Ossetians (XVII XIX centuries). Ordzhonikidze: Ir, Chibirov L.A. Folk agricultural calendar of the Ossetians. Tskhinvali: Iryston, Besaeva T. 3. Ossetian customs and rituals associated with the birth and upbringing of a child (XIX - early XX centuries). Ruk. cand. dis. M., 1975 (GPBL O D). 25 The most important work: Khan Giray. Notes on Circassia. Nalchik: Elbrus, 1978; Nogmov Sh. B. History Adyghe people compiled according to the legends of the Kabardians. Nalchik: Kabard. book. publishing house, 1947 (1st ed. 1847). 26 Kosven M. O. Materials ..., part 3, s Steel. Ethnographic essay of the Circassian people. KS, 1900, vol. XXI; Karlgof N. Eastern coast of the Black Sea. In: Military Statistical Review of the Russian Empire. St. Petersburg, 1853, vol. XVI, part 10; He is. On the political structure of the Circassian tribes inhabiting the northeastern coast of the Black Sea. RV, 1860, v. XXVIII, book. 2; Lyulier L. I am Circassia. Historical-ethnographic articles. Krasnodar: Society for the Study of the Adygei Autonomous Region, 1927; Yukhotnikov F.V. Wedding at the Caucasian highlanders. LOMV, 1856, 151; He is. Funeral and trizna at the Caucasian highlanders. Ibid, 1857, Makhvich-Matskevich A. Abadzekhi, their way of life, manners and customs. NB, 1864, 3; Grabovsky I. F. Essays on the court and criminal offenses in the Kabardian district. SSCG, 1870, no. IV; Nevsky P. Trans-Kuban region in 1864 (Travel memories). K, 1868, 97 98, Kavetsky A. A. Initial physical education among the Abadzekhs, Temirgoevs and other mountaineer tribes inhabiting the Maykop district of the Kuban region. KOV, 1879, 27; He is. The origin of the custom among noble highlanders to give their children to be raised by strangers. Ibid, 1879, Kashezhev T. Wedding rites of the Kabardians. EO, 1892, issue Vasilkov V.V. Essay on the life of the Temirgoevs. SMOMPK, 1901, no. XXIX; Dyachkov-Tarasov A.N. Mamhegi. ICORGO, 1901, no. fourteen; He is. Abadzekhi (historical and ethnographic essay). ZKORGO, 1902, book. 22, issue Siyukhov S. B. Circassians-Circassians. IOLIKO, 1922, no. 7; Aliev U., Gorodetsky B. M., Siyukhov S. Adygeya. Historical-ethnological and economic essay. Rostov-on-Don: Kraynatsizdat, 1927; Ladyzhensky A. M. Ordinary family law Circassian. HB, 1928, book. 22 and others; Namitokov A. Cherkeshenka. M.: Protection of motherhood and infancy, 1928; He is. Survivals of tribal life and Soviet law. M.; L.: Mrs. publishing house, Muravyov I. I. Shapsugiya. Medical examination. Rostov-on-Don; North-Caucasus regional control. Health, 1929; Adygs, their way of life, physical development and illness. Rostov-on-Don, Religious survivals among the Shapsug Circassians. Materials of the Shapsug expedition of 1939. M.: Publishing House of Moscow State University, Studenetskaya E. N. About a large family among Kabardians in the 19th century. SE, 1950, Shikova T. T. Family and family life of Kabardians in the past and present. Ruk. cand. dis. M.; 1956 (GPBL O D). eighteen

20 3 Mambetov G. X. Material culture rural population Kabardino-Balkaria (second half of the 19th - 60s of the 20th century). Nalchik: Elbrus, 1971; He is. Clothing in the traditions and customs of the Kabardians and Balkars. VKBNII, 1972, no. 5; He is. Food in the customs and traditions of the Kabardians and Balkars Ibid., 1972, no. 6; He is. Survival forms of the institution of mutual assistance associated with the family life of Kabardians and Balkars in the 19th and early 20th centuries. UZKBNII, 1974, vol. 26, etc. 38 Dumanov Kh. M. Customary property law of Kabardians (second half of the 19th beginning of the 20th century). Nalchik: Elbrus, Mafedzev S. X. Rites and ritual games of the Circassians in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Nalchik: Elbrus, 1979; He is. Ritual games in modern family life of Kabardians. In: Ethnography of the peoples of Kabardino-Balkaria. Nalchik, 1977, issue Bgazhnokov B. X. Adyghe etiquette. Nalchik: Elbrus, Kalmykov I. X. Circassians. Historical and ethnographic essay. Cherkessk: Karachay-Cherkess branch. Stavrop. book. publishing house, Kodzhesau EL Shapsug family relations in the past and present. Ruk. cand. dis. M., 1954 (GPBL OD); She is. On the customs and traditions of the Adyghe people. UZANII, 1968, t Meretukov M. A. Family life of the Abadzekhs. Ruk. cand. dis. Tbilisi, 1954; He is. Adyghe Soviet family. UZANII, 1965, v. 4; He is. Marriage among the Circassians. Ibid., 1968, vol. 8; He is. Adoption among the Circassians in the 19th century. Same place; He is. Kalym and dowry among the Circassians. Ibid., 1970, v. 9; He is. Family community among the Circassians, Ibid.; He is. Forms of marriage among the Circassians. Ibid., 1971, v. 13; He is. Wedding and wedding rituals among the Adyghes in the past and present. Ibid., 1974, v. 17; He is. Marriage room among the Circassians. SSEA, 1975, no. one; He is. Adyghe rituals of the stay of the bride and groom in "foreign houses", Ibid.; He is. Family and family life of the Circassians in the past and present. KBA, 1976, no. 1 And others. 44 Culture and life of the collective farm peasantry of the Adygei Autonomous Region. M.; L .: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Kiseleva N. M. Interethnic marriages in Adygea. KBA, 1976, issue Kirzhinov S.S. The system of education of the Circassians (Circassians) in the past. Hand.. cand. dis. Tbilisi, 1977 (GPBL OD). 47 M. Tatar tribe in the Caucasus K, 18591, 86 87, 89 91; Grabovsky N. Wedding in the mountain communities of the Kabardian region. SSCG, 1869, no. II; Petrusevich N. A note about Karachai adats on debt obligations. Ibid., 1870, no. IV; Petrov G.S. Upper reaches of the Kuban Karachay. KOV, 1879, Miller V., Kovalevsky M. In the mountain communities of Kabarda. BE, 1884, book. four; Ivanyukov I. I., Kovalevsky M. M. At the foot of Elbrus, Ibid., 1886, Prince Teptsov V. Ya. Along the origins of the Kuban and Terek. SMOMPK, 1892, no. XIV; Baranov E. 3. Essays from the life of the mountain Tatars of Kabarda. TV, 1894, 141, 145, 149; 1895, 2, 21; Dalgat B. A trip to the Chegem glaciers [of the Central Caucasus]. Vladikavkaz, 1896; Dyachkov-Tarasov A.N. Notes on Karachay and Karachays. SMOMPK, 1898, no. XXV; He is. In the mountains of Greater and Lesser Karachay Ibid., 1900, no. XXVIII.!0 Baranov Il. Ordering the kalym (letter from Nalchik). TV, 1901, 213; Miller B.V. From the field of customary law of Karachays. EO, 1902, 1 4; Tulchinsky N.P. Five mountain communities of Kabarda. -TS, 1903,. issue 5; Lange B. A. Balkaria and the Balkars. K, 1903, .V * 283, 287, 288, 294, 301 \ Karaulov N. A. Balkars in the Caucasus. SMOMPK, 1908, no. XXXVIII; Talitsky N.E. Essays on Karachay. SMOMPK, 1909, no. XI; Ivanenkov N. S. Karachaevtsy. IOLIKO, 1912, no. V; Sysoev V. A1. Karachay & geographical, domestic and historical relations. SMOMPK, 1913, no. XLIII; Shchukin I.S. Materials for the study of Karachays. RAJ, 191E, 1-2; He is. From trips to the upper Kuban. 3, 1914; 3; Chursin G. F. Trip to Karachay. IKORGO, 1915, v. XXIII, issue Abaev M. K. Balkaria. Historical essay. Muslim [Paris], 1911,

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The North Caucasus is Russia in miniature. A large population with its own traditions, beliefs, languages, economic troubles, with the attempts of one people to dictate to other peoples the "correct line" of behavior, to put it mildly, causes rejection. Indeed, it is a difficult business to own colonies in which the people in no way want to understand that "For the seduction of minors ..." is not a toast, but an article of the Criminal Code. And much that was considered worthy of a real horseman is now interpreted by the article of the Criminal Code and the banal "East ... thin." But we know further - "Where it is thin ..."
The same number of peoples live on a patch called the North Caucasus as in the rest of Russia. And they somehow got along!.. But after the imperial "Divide and Conquer" all the unobtrusive friendship of the Caucasian peoples not only gave a crack, but was washed in blood. And here the blood is washed away by the blood!
ADYGI, Adyghe (self-designation), an ethnic community, including Adyghes, Kabardians, Circassians. Number in Russia 559.7 thousand people: Adyghe - 122.9 thousand people, Kabardians - 386.1 thousand people, Circassians - 50.8 thousand people. They also live in many countries of the world, ch. arr. on Bl. and Wed. East, where, usually called Circassians, are settled compactly and often include Abazins, Abkhazians, Ossetians, and other immigrants from the North. Caucasus - in Turkey (150 thousand people), Jordan (25 thousand people), Iran (15 thousand people), Iraq (5 thousand people), Lebanon (2 thousand people), Syria (32 thousand people, together with the Chechens), only approx. 250 thousand people Total number St. 1 million people Languages ​​- Adyghe and Kabardino-Circassian. believers - Sunni Muslims. The ancient history of A. and the formation of their community are associated with the districts of Vost. Black Sea and Trans-Kuban regions. In the 1st millennium BC. ancient Adygh. tribes are already fixed in Vost. Black Sea region. The process of formation of ancient Adygs. community covered in the main. con. 1st millennium BC - ser. 1st millennium AD It was attended by the tribes of the Achaeans, Zikhs, Kerkets, Meots (including Torets, Sinds) and others, ethnically, apparently, not only the ancient Adyghes. According to Strabo, these tribes inhabited the territory. to the south-east from modern Novorossiysk on the left bank of the Black Sea and in the mountains up to the present. Sochi. The inhabitants of the coast were engaged in agriculture, but their chief. fishing was sea robbery. In the 8th-10th centuries. A. occupied land in the Kuban region, incl. near other Russian. Tmutarakan prince-va. A number of military campaigns (965, 1022) Russian. princes on A.-kasogov. As a result of the Mongol conquests in the 13th century. us. concentrated on arr. in mountain gorges, which led to a high density of us., to a small land of the highlanders. The development of urban life was interrupted, the ethnic territory was reduced, Ch. arr. at the expense of the Kuban region. In the 13th-14th centuries. part of the Kabardians separated. In the 16-18 centuries. terr. A. was the scene of numerous. internecine strife and wars, in which Turkey, the Crimean Khanate, Russia, yes-guest participated. owners. Region settlement A. (Cherkessia) covered the land from Taman 3. to the east. coast of the Caspian in the east, included lands in the bass. Kuban and East. Black Sea coast in S.-Z. from modern Sochi. However, it means that part of these lands was a household. land, in the main pastures for kabards. horse breeding, and did not have a permanent us. In the years Caucasian war(1817-64) occurs int. self-organization app. A. - Adyghe. In the 1st third of the 19th century. in the Trans-Kuban region, a group of Adygs is formed. (Kabardian) us., later called. Circassians. The Caucasian war and the reforms that followed it largely changed ethnicity. and demographic. situation, esp. this is connected with mahadzhirst-vom - the resettlement of the highlanders in the Ottoman Empire, which lasted until the 1st world. war, as well as the settlement of the highlanders on the plain. A. had in many respects a common social structure. At 19 - beg. 20th century many were saved. norms of customary law - the customs of blood feud, atalism, hospitality, kunachestvo, patronage, arts. kinship (milk adoption, twinning). The way of life of the privileged classes differed sharply from the life of the common people; social differences were reflected in clothing, its colors, cut. In society and family life, in addition to customary law (adat), Muslim norms operated. law (sharia). Up to now time A. largely retained a single tradition. culture, differences in a cut (especially in x-ve, settlement, food) are determined in the main. natural-climatic conditions, vertical zoning. The commonality of the spiritual culture of the Circassians was preserved: the pantheon of deities, pl. society traditions. life (for example, the work of improvisational singers), traditional. representation. A. clearly aware of their historical. unity.

ANDIAN PEOPLES, a group of peoples within the Ando-Tsez (Ando-Didoy) peoples of Dagestan: Andians, Akh-Vakhs, Bagulals, Botlikhs, Godoberi, Karatas, Tindals, Chamalals. Total number in Russia (together with the Tsez peoples) - 55-60 thousand people. Indigenous us. highlands of Western Dagestan, are related to the Avars. They speak the Andean languages ​​(Nakh-Dag. group of the North Caucasian family), which have a large number of dialects. Avar, Chechen (among the Andians, Botlikhs, Godoberins), Russian, and Azerbaijani are common. lang. Writing ch. arr. in Russian and Avar. lang. in Russian graphic basis. believers - Sunni Muslims. In the 1st century AD The Andians are mentioned by Pliny the Elder. They occupied vast territories. down the river. Andean Koisu, where they were apparently assimilated by the Avar language. local us. Traditional social relationship - patriarch. A.n. were organized into communities (jamaats) of warriors, herdsmen and farmers. zovamia - unions of villages. communities ("free societies"). Litigation was the main on customary legal regulations (adat) and norms of Muslims. morality (sharia). The predominant form of the family is a small one; surviving forms of an undivided family were preserved only sporadically. Until the 30s and 40s. 20th century the meaning of patriarch, blood relations was preserved. tukhum associations. The heads of tukhums were most often elders in the jamaat. Priority relationship by husband. lines. Until the 40s. 20th century the rudiments of the husband were preserved. unions (multi-day men will amuse, meetings). Now, to solve local nat.-cultural, adm., households. tasks A.n. community associations were created that united b.ch. men. The villages were located on the slopes of the gorges, the layout was staggered-cumulus. 3-4-tier combat towers with loopholes were built. Dwellings made of stone, nryamoug. in plan, more often one-story, with a small courtyard, less often two-story, with a flat roof. Clothing in the main obschedagest. type. Men wore tunic shirts, tight pants, beshmet, cherkeska, cloak, sheepskin coats and hats. Shoes made of rawhide, local chrome, felt, wood. Female clothing: sometimes sheepskin coats, shawls and shawls, a cap-kosnik chuhtu, several. varieties of tunic-shaped detachable and swinging shirt dresses, tight pants; footwear prem. the same as for men. Variety of silver jewelry. Food in the main flour and meat and dairy, fruits, wild plants, fruits and roots. Main dishes: several varieties of bread, cakes, cereals, oatmeal dishes, hiikaly, stews, pies, dumplings, etc. Literature and folklore are bilingual - in Avar. and native language. Each of A.n. developed its own page - x. calendar, developed Nar. the medicine. Calendar and Muslim are marked. holidays. Language is preserved in everyday life. representations: belief in devils, genies, witches, brownies.

CESIS PEOPLES, a group of peoples in Ros. federations within the Ando-Tsez (Ando-Didoy) peoples of Dagestan: Tsez (Didois), Ginukhs, Gunzibs, Bezhtins, Khvarshins. Total number (together with the Andean peoples) - 55-60 thousand people. (1992, estimate). The languages ​​form a subgroup within the Nakh-Dagestanian languages. They are related to the Avars, which include Ts.n. counted in our censuses. USSR (except for the 1926 census). They speak the Tsez languages, which have many dialects. The differences between the Cesian languages ​​are more significant than between the Andean ones. The majority is fluent in Avar, representatives of the middle and older generations are fluent in Georgian. Avar writing. lang. believers - Sunni Muslims . First mentioned in antique. authors of the 1st-2nd centuries. like didurs (didoites). Under the title Dido was known for the union of villages. societies, uniting many mountain peoples Zap. Dagestan. The Bezhta-Capuchins are mentioned in Arabic. geographical writings of the 10th century. Cargo. chronicles mention En-zebs (Gunzibs) and Huayps (Khvarshi-nov). From the 15th century active Islamization of the Central N. begins, associated with the intensification of the expansion of the Avar (Khupzakh) khans. Since that time, Dido has broken up into a number of independent, unions of rural societies. The process of Islamisapia was completed in the main by the end. 18th century All R. 1940s it means that the number of families of Ts.i. was forcibly relocated to the deserted Chechen territories. In 1957-58 they were allowed to return to their original places. Territorially related communities (jamaat) united in military-political tich. unions of rural communities ("free societies"). The highest zakopodat. the organ of the community was the gathering of men (from the age of 15). Execute, and the judicial power was in the hands of the elders. Traditional types of x-va - transhumance cattle breeding, Ch. arr. sheep breeding, agriculture, crafts and crafts. From the 2nd floor. 19th century commodity output grows. In the last decades of the 20th century new branches of agriculture appeared (horticulture, etc.). The small family dominated. Undivided fraternal families were preserved sporadically due to economic. expediency. Of great importance were consanguineous unions of families - tukhums. There could be from 2-3 to 7-8 tuhu-movs (often related to each other) in a ja-maat. The heads of tukhums (most often they are the elders of the community) represented the interests of their tukhum before the community and the union of communities. Tukhum provided support to its members, gave them recommendations and instructions, within its limits the choice of marriage partners was preferable. Families were dominated by patriarchal relations. The villages were located along the slopes of the gorges, had a step-cumulus layout. Access to the village, as a rule, was possible only along one path. In the villages, multi-storey stone battle towers with loopholes were built. The outward buildings were turned by blank walls with loopholes. Most often, a mosque was located in the center of the village. In the villages there were but several godekans - places for gathering and spending leisure time for adult male-chip. The chief godekan was usually located at the mosque. Dwellings are stone, 2-4-storey. Walls top. floors were often built from boards or wickerwork coated with clay. Husband. the clothes are the same as the clothes of other peoples of Dagestan: sheepskin hats, fur coats, burka, bsshmet, cherkeska, trousers with narrowed trousers, on a hold, a tunic shirt without a collar, with long sleeves without cuffs. A mandatory attribute of a husband. costume was a dagger. The most common type of footwear is knitted wool boots with thick quilted wool soles and turned-up toes. Women wore shirts (of a dead-end cut or detachable at the waist), girded with a cloth belt, trousers cut from two panels, on a hold, fur coats, scarves and shawls. An indispensable headdress for girls and women was a cap-kosnik chuhtu: a small bag covering the hair from the forehead to the back of the head and going down the back to the waist. The main food products were flour, cereals, oatmeal, dried and fresh meat, fat tail, milk, butter, cheese, fresh and dried fruits. Unleavened and sour bread, cakes, several varieties of hipkals were prepared from flour; porridge was prepared from flour and cereals; meat was consumed most often boiled, with hipkal, sometimes fried; pies such as chudu and dumplings (kurze) were prepared - with cottage cheese, meat, greens, etc. Calendar holidays: the day of the first furrow, the day of the meeting of winter, etc. - were celebrated with sports competitions, bonfires, processions of mummers, etc. Pre-Muslims were preserved. representations, belief in devils, genies, witches, brownies, etc. Literature and folklore

SHAPSUGI, Shapsyg (self-name), the people of the Adyghe group in Ros. Federation. They live in the Tuapse and Lazarevsky districts of the Krasnodar Territory, a small group lives in Adygea. The censuses were not taken into account. According to indirect data, in 1926 they counted St. 4 thousand people; modern num. OK. 10 thousand people They speak a dialect of the Adyghe language. believers - Sunni Muslims. Sh. constituted one of the largest groups of the Black Sea Circassians (modern Adyghes), inhabited the lands between the rivers. Dzhubga and Shakhe (i.e. Maly Shapsug) and high-mountain wooded regions. to the sowing slopes of the Caucasus Range. by rr. Antkhir, Abin, Athena, Bakan, Shipe and others (Big Shapsug). They took an active part in the struggle of the Circassians against the Crimean Khanate. During the Caucasian War, they were one of the most stubborn opponents of Russia, they entered the union created by Shamil, which existed until 1859. In the end. In 1860, the Mejlis was established, uniting Sh, the Ubykhs, and the Natukhians. In 1864, the main part of Sh., together with other Circassians, moved to Turkey, where they were partially assimilated, partially entered the Circassian community. Approx. 2 thousand Sh., their lands began to be populated by other ethnic groups. element. In 1924 the Shapsugsky nat. district with the center in Tuapse, then in with. Krasno-Aleksandrovskoye and Lazarevskoye, in 1945 transformed into the Lazarevsky district of the Krasnodar kr. At the 1st congress of the Shapsug people in 1990, a declaration was adopted on the restoration of the Shapsug nat. district. On June 12, 1992, the Presidium of the RF Armed Forces adopted a resolution on the creation of the Shapsugsky nat. district. Traditional culture was characterized by common Adyghe features. Millet was sown, in smaller quantities wheat, spelt, rye, barley, oats; with con. 18th century maize spread widely. Bred kr. and small cattle, were engaged in horse breeding. A significant place belonged to horticulture and viticulture. They also practiced beekeeping. In material culture, traditional elements have been preserved Ch. arr. in food (mamaliga from corn flour, widespread use of dairy products, in particular cheeses). Men wear hats in combination with a European costume, women wear head scarves. In social and family life, mp are preserved. patriarchal norms: family solidarity, respect for elders, community mutual assistance. Weddings are usually very crowded and can last for several days, accompanied by equestrian competitions. Pre-Islamic beliefs included the cult of the common Adyghe deities - thunder and lightning Shibls, fertility So-zsresh, patrons of cattle breeding Yemi-sha, Akhip, Khakustash, blacksmithing Tlensh, etc., as well as sacred groves. During droughts, a rite of making rain called Khantssguashe was arranged: a dressed-up doll was carried throughout the village, and then drowned in the river. Folklore includes fairy tales, myths and legends of various plots.

Dagestan

Avars , ma arulal (self-named), people in Russia, indigenous to us. Dagestan. Number in Russia 544.0 thousand people, incl. in Dagestan 496.1 thousand people. They also live in Chechnya, Kalmykia, in addition, in Azerbaijan (Belokansky and Zakatalsky districts - 44.1 thousand people), in Georgia (4.2 thousand people), in Kazakhstan (2.8 thousand people .). Total number 601.0 thousand people They speak Avar. Nakh-Dag. North Caucasian groups. families. Dialects are divided into 2 groups: Sev. adverb - app. (salatavsky), east. and center, (Khunzakh) dialects; south adverb - Andalal, Antsukh, Gidatli, Karakh, Batlukh, Zakatal (Jar). Russian is widespread. lang. Writing on the basis Russian charts. Believers are Sunni Muslims. Main the mass of A. lives in the inner mountain and alpine zones, in the 1940s-60s. part moved to the plain. With A. associated known from the 2nd floor. 1st millennium BC the tribes of Legs, Gels, Caspians, Uti, etc., bring together the Savirs mentioned by Ptolemy (2nd century). From the 5th c. The territory inhabited by A. is known as the kingdom of Serir. Later, Avar were part of the Avar and Mekhtulinsky (sample in the 18th century) khanates and many. (c. 40) "free societies" (unions of village communities). General legal system and political. the consolidation of A. contributed to the development of their so-called. gobolmats! ("language of the guest" or bolmats!, "language of the army"), which is the basis of lit. lang. In the 15th century Islam was established. From the 16th century was written in Arabic. graphic basis. After the accession of Dagestan to Russia (1813), A. took part in the liberation. the struggle of the highlanders of Dagestan and Chechnya under the arms. Shamil. In the 2nd floor. 19th century to A. began to penetrate commodity-den. relations. National Azerbaijan's consolidation accelerated with the formation of the Dagestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1921; from 1991, the Republic of Dagestan). Traditional occupations - livestock and arable farming (barley, wheat, naked barley, rye, oats, millet, legumes, corn, potatoes, flax, hemp). In the mountain regions and foothills, agriculture was combined with cattle breeding; Traditional sheep breeds are coarse-wooled, in owls. time appeared fine-wooled. Engaged in horticulture and viticulture. They practiced terracing of mountain slopes, crop rotation without fallow, alternation of agricultural crops. crops, three-tiered use of plots. There was irrigation. system. Tools of labor: vil. a plow with an iron share, a hoe, a pickaxe, a small scythe, a sickle, threshing boards, a shovel, a pitchfork, a rake, a village. shovel. House. trades and crafts: weaving (clothing), production of felt, carpets, copper utensils, wood. utensils, leather processing, jewelry, blacksmithing, weapons, stone and wood carving, metal chasing (silver, copper, cupronickel). Otkhodnichestvo was developed in other districts of the Caucasus. Settlements of A. in the highlands are small (30-50 houses), often near rivers, in mountain districts they are quite large (300-500 houses) on slopes, along the edge of cliffs and of medium size on the tops of ridges, rocky ledges; south oriented. The layout is crowded, the houses form a solid wall along narrow, winding streets, often covered and reminiscent of tunnels. Mn. villages had battle towers. In the owls period there were settlements of modern. type on the plain. Traditional stone dwellings with a flat earthen roof, one-, two-, three-story, 4-5-story tower-shaped with a separate entrance on each floor, houses-fortresses with a tower. Often the roof of one house served as a courtyard for another. Characterized by a support center, a pillar, decorated with carvings. Modern one-story and two-story multi-chamber dwelling, covered with iron or slate, with a glazed terrace. Traditional communal suit. type. For men: tunic-shaped shirt, pants, besh-met, Circassian coat, hat, hood, sheepskin coats, cloak, leather belt. Footwear leather, felt, knitted. For women: pants, shirt dress, long swing dress with double sleeves, heads. chokhto dress (cap or hood with a bag for braids), colored bedspreads, factory scarves, sheepskin coats, leather, felt and knitted shoes, wool. socks. The costume was trimmed with embroidery, silver, complemented by silver jewelry. Traditional food - flour, meat with garlic seasoning and dairy dishes. Traditional social organization - villages. community, which included patriarchal kinship. associations - tukhums. Family chap. arr. small, two-tiered. Adhered to andogamy (relatives, intratumoral, villages). Sem. relations were determined by Shariah norms. Main form of marriage - conspiracy (by matchmaking). Traditions of intra-tuhum solidarity were strong. There were husband. unions. Societies, life regulated the customs of mutual assistance, hospitality, blood feud. Norms of behavior - respect for elders, strict observance of adat, etiquette. Folklore is developed (epic and lyrical tales, songs, fairy tales, proverbs, sayings). Dances are varied: fast, slow, male, female, paired. Muses. Instruments: chagchana (bowed), chagur, tamur-pandur (stringed), lalu (pipe type), zurna, tambourine, drum. Pre-Muslim vestiges have survived. beliefs (veneration of natural phenomena, holy places, rituals of calling rain and sun, etc.). Vye. reached the level of prof. literature, art, science.

AGULs , agul, agular (self-named, "inhabitants of Agul"), people in Russia, indigenous to us. Dagestan. They live in the center, parts of the southeast. Dagestan in hard-to-reach gorges, in cities, in the Derbent region (immigrants of the 1960s). Total number 18.7 thousand people Number in Russia 17.7 thousand people, incl. in Dagestan, 13.8 thousand speak the Agul language. Nakh-Dag. North Caucasian groups. families, dialects: Tpigsky (Agulsky), Kerensky (Richinsky), Ko-Shansky, Burkikhansky, Fitinsky. Lezgian, Azeri, Russian are widespread. lang. Writing on the basis Russian charts. Believers are Sunni Muslims. Naib. early information about A. in Arm. source of the 7th century, where they are called. agutakani, about the inhabitants of the Kushan-dere gorge of the 8th-9th centuries. there are references in Arabic sources. The origin of the ethnonym A. can be associated with the name. Gorges - Agulders. In the 14-18 centuries. A. as part of the Kazikumukh shamkhalate united along the gorges into unions of villages. communities. After the annexation of Dagestan to Russia from the 2nd half. 19th century A. are involved in the system of commodity-money relations. Since 1921 Armenia has been a part of the Dagestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (since 1991 - the Republic of Dagestan). Traditional occupations - arable farming (rye, barley, naked barley, wheat, horse beans, peas; from the 2nd half of the 19th century - potatoes, carrots, onions, garlic) and cattle breeding (grain and small horns. cattle, horses, donkeys, mules). Fields, mainly rain-fed, - small areas on the slopes, often terraced. The maintenance of sheep - mountain-stationary, kr. horn. livestock - pasture-stall-pasture. S.-x. community tools. type: light plow (fool), sickles, short scythe for one hand, threshing boards, wood. rakes, pitchforks, shovels, sieves, winnowing trays. Blacksmithing, processing of leather, sheepskin, wool (spinning, making fabrics, carpets, lint-free carpets, knitting jurabs, etc.), wood carving, stone carving were developed. Modern x-in diversified. The settlers to the plains develop viticulture, horticulture, and vegetable growing. From home. crafts in the mountains preserved carpet weaving. The traditional social organization is the rural community. Sat. the community was independent. hoz.-terr. unit. The patriarch, consanguinity, preim. endogamous associations - tukhums. The predominant form of the family is small, decomp. types of an undivided family (15 ~ 20 people) met survivingly before the beginning. 20th century Traditional settlements averaged approx. 60 x-v, were divided into tukhum quarters. They built fortress walls, battle towers, and watchtowers on the roads. The towers inside the villages were connected by underground passages. The layout of the villages: on the slopes - stepped-terraced or randomly-stepped, on level ground, on the crest of a mountain - cumulus, combinations of decomp. types. The houses are adjacent to each other, creating a continuous building. The streets are narrow, winding, often in the form of stairs. The layout of resettlement villages on the plain is block-street. Traditional dwelling stone, rectangular. in plan, 2-3 (rarely 4)-storey with narrow windows and one entrance (house-fortress), with a flat earthen roof. From the 2nd floor. 19th century open loggias and balconies appear, households. premises are allocated in building. Modern dwelling - two-story kam. multi-chamber with a pitched roof (iron, slate), with a glazed veranda, large windows. Traditional communal clothing. type, for men - a tunic-shaped shirt, trousers, beshmet, Circassian coat, sheepskin hat, hood, from the beginning. 20th century - Caucasian shirt and breeches. Outerwear was worn with leather, belts with silver. set. Warm clothes - oar sheepskin coats with regular and false sleeves, cloak. For women - a tunic-shaped shirt dress, colored trousers, a cloth belt, a beshmet, with a con. 19th century - a long dress cut off at the waist, a sheepskin fur coat, a sleeveless jacket, a hair pouch, a scarf, a bedspread on the head. Knitted shoes, leather, morocco. Variety of silver jewelry. Traditional food - flour and meat and milk (khinkal, dumplings, pies, cheese, etc.). In societies, life, the customs of mutual assistance, respect for elders, and hospitality have been preserved. Holidays associated with Nar. s.-x. calendar. Folklore - lyric, everyday songs, laments, fairy tales, proverbs, sayings, dances: slow azerb. (mainly women), fast doubles, collective. Muses. instruments: tar, saz, zurna, drum. developed decorative arts, carving on stone, wood.

ANDINES , andal, andni, gva-nal (self-named), people in Russia. Number 25 thousand people They belong to the Andean peoples, the indigenous population of Dagestan. They speak the Andian language, there are 7 dialects, which are combined into 2 dialects - Upper Andean and Lower Sandy. Writing on the basis Russian charts. Avar, Russian are widespread. and (among men) Chechen. Believers are Sunni Muslims. In the 1st century AD A. mentions Pliny the Elder. In the 14th century Islam was established, earlier Christianity penetrated to A.. Andia was a federation of self-governing villages. societies. In the 14-15 centuries. Andean Shamkhalate existed. After the accession of Dagestan to Russia, A. participated in the Caucasian War. In 1921 A. became part of the Dagestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (since 1991 - the Republic of Dagestan). The basis of tradition The economies of the Upper Andeans are arable terraced farming and distant alpine cattle breeding, while the Low Andeans have specialized horticulture, the products of which were exchanged for livestock and agricultural products. House. crafts - the manufacture of shoulder cloaks, the extraction and production of edible salt. The account of kinship is bilateral, by generations it is descriptive, patriarchal kinships are characteristic. associations - tukhums. Traditional family is small. Traditional the settlements are crowded, Upper Andean relatively free-planning. Andi, like a number of other villages, has a tradition. medieval urban topography. Avar's clothes are of the Avar type, peculiar for women. a costume with heads, a crescent-shaped chuhtu dress, worn with "horns" down. The food is based on agricultural and livestock products, vegetables, fruits. A set of local and general Caucasian dishes. Traditional entertainment - horse racing, naib. means, holidays - weddings, the first furrow, the end of the post. Preserved belief in magic, in decomp. spirits. Folklore is bilingual (Andean and Avar).

Archintsy , archi (laksk.), arshishtib (self-designation), rochisel (Avar.), people in Russia, indigenous to us. Dagestan. They live in a pool. R. Khatar. Number St. 1 thousand people In the censuses, starting from 1939, they were included in the composition of the Avars. Language Archin Nakh-Dag. North Caucasian groups families. Avar, Lak-sky, Russian are also common. lang. Avar writing. lang. based on Russian charts. Believers are Sunni Muslims. In the 17-18 centuries. A. were dependent on the Kazikumukh rulers, in the beginning. 19th century Archinskoye village. The Society became part of the Kazikumukh Khanate. Throughout the 19th century had close contacts with the Avars and united with them in a single union of villages. communities under the leadership of the Dusrakh (Risor) ob-va. The entry of Dagestan into Russia (1813) strengthened the development of commodity-money relations, expanded trade and economics. communications, seasonal work increased A. Since 1921 A. as part of the Dagestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, since 1991 - Rep. Dagestan. Main occupations - pasture cattle breeding (ch. arr. sheep breeding) and rain-fed agriculture. Woolen weaving, the manufacture of carpets, and woodcarving (tools, utensils, crockery, etc.) were developed. The villages of A. are mountainous, crowded. One-, two- and multi-storey stone houses, with flat roofs, with households. rooms and sheds. In the owls time, houses with a gallery along the facade appear, the number of floors and the area of ​​\u200b\u200bhouseholds are reduced. buildings. A.'s clothing has much in common with the clothing of the Avars. From tradition. elements of the costume for men, sheepskin coats and capes are preserved, for women - a headdress with silver ornaments (chuhta), a head cover, long straight trousers and fabric belts of bright colors. In the national the cuisine is dominated by flour and meat and dairy dishes (less - vegetable). Khinkals, dumplings, and flat cakes stuffed with cottage cheese, eggs, wild garlic, and nettles, various meat and lean soups, halva, and others are common. community (jamaat), patriarch. consanguinity. associations - tukhums. Modern the family is small, more often two-generation, traditions of respect for elders, mutual labor assistance, and kinship are maintained. solidarity. In the past, kinship was preferred. marriages. Many customs and rituals are associated with the calendar, households. cycle. Pre-Muslim vestiges persist. beliefs. From tradition. art developed woodcarving. There are letters. monuments in Ar-Chinsk, Avar, Arab. lang. Avar, Lak folklore is widespread. Popular dance - lezginka; music instruments - zurna, kumuz, drum. The national intelligentsia.

Akhvakhtsy , and sh in a do (self-named), sadykyilidu, giakhvalal, people in Russia (4 thousand people) and Azerbaijan (2 thousand people). Total number OK. 6.5 thousand people They belong to the Andean peoples, indigenous to us. Zap. Dagestan. They speak the Akhvakh language, which has 2 dialects: Sev. and southern, the latter includes the Tsekob and Tlyanub dialects. Russian, Avar, Azeri are also common. and Kumyk. Writing in Avar. lang. on the basis Russian charts. Believers are Sunni Muslims. A. presumably descended from the inhabitants of dec. districts of the Accident, Ch. arr. Khunzakh Avars. Ahuali people, ahvali is mentioned in the cargo. historical chronicles of the 14th century. Sev. A. formed the Akhvakh Union of Communities, Tsunta-Akhvakh. South A., Ratlu-Ah-vah, ratlubtsy, tsekobs and tlyanubtsy, approximately from the 17th century. became part of the Gidatlin Union of Communities. From the 15th century fought for independence with the Khunzakhs, Gidatlins, Tiidals, and others. From the 15th century. were Islamized. After the annexation of Dagestan to Russia (1813) from the 40s. took part in the liberation, the struggle of the highlanders of Dagestan and Chechnya under the arm. Shamil. In 1921 they became part of the Dagest. ASSR, since 1991 - Rep. Dagestan. Part A. in the 1st floor. 18th century settled in the Zakatala region of Azerbaijan, part of the owls. period settled on the Kumyk plane, between Tersk and Sudak. Traditional occupations - animal husbandry (main arr. sheep breeding) and arable terraced, partially irrigated agriculture (barley, wheat, rye, oats, spelt, from the 2nd half of the 19th century - corn and potatoes; legumes, onions, garlic, tobacco ). Crafts: processing sheepskin, wood, stone, leather, blacksmithing, etc. From the 2nd floor. 19th century the marketability of production grew. Nowadays, field cultivation, horticulture, and vegetable growing have been developed on the Kumyk plane. A. were organized into communities (jamaats) of warriors, cattle breeders and farmers, the significance of the patriarch was preserved. consanguinity. associations - tukhumov. A small family predominated, met diff. forms of the undivided family. In family life, they adhered to the customs of prohibitions and avoidance. To this day, the traditions of family rituals, honoring elders, and relatives are preserved. and neighborly mutual assistance, tukhum solidarity, hospitality, kunakism. Traditional settlements - farmsteads and villages of a stepped-cumulus layout, located along the slopes of the gorges, the approaches to them were guarded by multi-tiered cameos. watchtowers. From the beginning 20th century and special during the years of collectivization. small tukhumi settlements (there were about 200 of them) moved to the territory-tor.-neighboring villages. Rectangular houses. stone three- and two-story buildings with a flat earthen roof and an open loggia, decorated with art, masonry, arched structures, stone reliefs, and wood. carving. Int. the yard is small or absent. Part of the household buildings were removed from the estate. Traditional general clothing. type. Men's: trousers, shirt, beshmet, Circassian coat, felt jacket, cloak, various. sheepskin coats and hats, shoes made of rawhide, chrome, felt. They shaved their heads, leaving mustaches and beards. Women's: dress-shirt, pants, detachable swing dress, cap-kosnik chukhtu, scarves, shawls. Shoes are the same as for men. Variety of silver jewelry. Food flour and meat and dairy. Main dishes: cakes, unleavened and sour bread, khinkals, cereals, meat and dairy stews, pies. Celebrated calendar and Muslims. holidays. Proverbs, sayings, riddles, parables, lamentations, lullabies, etc. are transmitted to the Avar. and akhvakhsk. lang. Nar. s.-x. calendar, developed Nar. the medicine. Remnants of traditions are preserved. beliefs associated with animistic. representations, cults of the earth, sky, luminaries, fire, thunder, lightning, mountain peaks, forests, groves, otd. reservoirs, ideas about evil and good spirits.

BAGULALY , bagvalals, bagvalins1 (s, bagulal, gaitlyalo (self-named, "poor people eating raw meat", "heroes", "nipples"), people in Russia (5 thousand people). They belong to the Andean peoples, indigenous to us Western Dagestan Language is Bagulal, has dialects: Khushtadin, Tlondodin, Tlibishi.Avar and Russian are widespread.Writing in Avar on the basis of Russian graphics.Believers are Sunni Muslims.Since the end of the 1st 1000 BC, the Bagulal tribal union was part of the Di-duri (Dido) union, and with its collapse in the 15th century, Byelorussia united into the Bagulal village community union with the center in the village of Khushtada, and were Islamized in the 14th century. Since 1921 it has been part of the Dagestan ASSR (since 1991 - the Republic of Dagestan).Traditional occupations are plow farming (cereals, legumes, garden, melons, industrial crops), horticulture, viticulture, beekeeping, and also transhumance sheep breeding. in cloth, felt, processing of wood, metal, leather, stone, pottery. with internal passages between them, along the edges of the villages, watchtowers, to Ch. will defend, the tower in the center of the village has underground passages from all quarters. Settlement of the territory. -neighborly, in the past relatives. (deaf). Traditional the dwelling of the cameo, two- and three-story, square, sometimes with loggias, galleries (now glazed). The floor is earthen, the roof is flat, adobe. Modern two- and one-and-a-half-storey houses, with four-slope and two-slope roofs, covered with slate, wood. floors. Traditional costume: for men - a tuyiko-like shirt, trousers, beshmst, a Circassian coat with gazyrs, a shearling sheepskin coat with false sleeves, a sheepskin hat; for women - a tunic-like black shirt dress, toe-length pants, a dark veil, a black leather cap-iakosnik chuhto, a red sash, a sheepskin coat and jacket, leather, felt and knitted boots. Silver and copper ornaments are plentiful. Men under 40 shaved their heads, leaving mustaches and beards. Food: unleavened bread (flat cakes), boiled beans, flour porridge, khinkal with meat or milk, pies, milk, butter, cottage cheese, meat (fried, boiled, dried). B. were organized in communities-Ja-Maats. A small two-generation (sometimes three-generation) family prevails, in the beginning. 20th century undivided families met. Strong kinship. dumb connections. Cousin marriages are preferred. Rich in song (predominantly in Avar, as well as Bagulal. language) and dance. folklore, proverbs, sayings, legends, fairy tales are preserved. From calendar persons. the feast of the first furrow is characteristic. Remains of traditions have been preserved. beliefs - belief in the spirits of natural objects, cults of saints, ancestors, luminaries, elements of magic. Main mythological characters - genies, azhdaha dragon, etc.

BEZHTINTS , bezhtins (self-named), Khvanal (Avar, "horsemen"), ka-pucha (Georgian), people in Russia (8 thousand people). They belong to the Tsez peoples, the indigenous us. Zap. Dagestan. They also live in Georgia (1 thousand people). Total number 9 thousand people They speak the Bezhtin language. Avar, Russian, Georgian, Tsez, Gunzib, Ginukh languages ​​are widespread. Writing in Avar. lang. on smallpox Russian charts. Believers are Sunni Muslims. On their ethnic terr. live from the 2nd floor. 1st millennium BC Capuchins ("land of Kafuchi") are mentioned in Arabic. geographical op. 10th c. They were part of the military-political tich. union of Dido, from the 15th century - in the Anduho-Capuchinsk union of the Antl-Ratl confederation. Since the 18th century the union broke up into Antsukh-sky and Kapuchinsky unions of villages. general, in the latter B. and Gunzibs were combined. Supported close economy. and military-but-political. connections with Georgia, from the 16th-17th centuries. part of B. lives in Georgia. Shamil. In 1921 they became part of the Dagest, ASSR, since 1991 - Rep. Dagestan. In the owls At that time, part of B. moved to the Kumyk plane, between the Terek and Sulak. Main traditional occupations - transhumant animal husbandry (chief arr. sheep breeding, also kr. horn cattle, goats, horses) and plowed agriculture (barley, rye, wheat, spelled, oats, legumes, garlic, tobacco). In the owls During the period, the area under grain crops increased, horticulture and vegetable growing were developed (main sample on the Kumyk plane). Family Prem. small, up to 30-40s. 20th century there were forms of an undivided family. The definition is saved. meaning patriarch. consanguinity. associations - tu-humov. B. were organized into communities-jamaats. Traditions of family, funeral and memorial rituals, customs of honoring elders and relatives are preserved. and neighbors, mutual assistance, hospitality, kunachestvo. Settlements of two types - a village and a farm (until the 40-50s of the 20th century). The layout is stepped-cumulus and scattered, the approaches were guarded by multi-tiered battle towers. Traditional dwelling - straight, stone, 2-3-storey, multi-chamber, flat roofs, gable roofs in separate buildings. Traditional open loggias have been supplanted by covered galleries. Husband. traditional clothing: trousers, shirt, beshmet, cherkeska, jacket, cloak, sheepskin coats and hats, knitted wool. boots, leather, felt shoes on wood. sole. Until the 2nd floor. 19th century wore a dagger and a knife on their belts. The head was shaved, leaving a mustache and beard. Female clothing: dec. shirt-dresses, dresses, long pants, a fabric belt-bandage, a cap-hawk-iik chukhtu, scarves, shawls, miscellaneous. silver jewelry. Shoes are the same as for men. Traditional food flour and meat and dairy: decomp. khinkals, flat cakes, unleavened and sour bread, oatmeal dough, cereals, stews, boiled meat, cheese, pies. Muslims are celebrated, and calendar holidays are characteristic of amuse, meetings held according to the gender and age principle. Proverbs, sayings, songs, ballads, fairy tales, laments, lullabies, etc. transferred to Avar. and Bezhtinsk. lang.

Botlikhs , Buyhadi (self-designation) Indigenous population of Western Dagestan in Russia Number of about 6 thousand people. They belong to the Andean peoples. They speak the Botlikh language. Avar, Chechen, Russian languages ​​are widespread. Writing is based on the Russian Cyrillic alphabet. In the past, Adjam (Arabic) writing was used. Believers are Sunni Muslims. Presumably, from the 1st millennium AD. B. were part of the political. association Dido in Zap. Dagestan (disintegrated in the 14th-15th centuries), which included ethnic groups of the Ando-Tsez (Dido) language group. B. was Islamized in the 16th century. By the 14th-15th centuries. include the formation of a union of villages. Technutsal communities on the territory. present Bot-likh district. From the 16th century B. fall under the influence of Avars. khanates. In the 20-50s. 19th century B. actively participated in the national liberation struggle of the highlanders of Dagestan and Chechnya. In 1921 they became part of the Dagest. ASSR, since 1991 - Rep. Dagestan. Traditional B.'s occupations are horticulture with artificial irrigation (apricots, peaches, plums, pears, apples, walnuts), viticulture, insignificant terrace plowed agriculture (wheat, rye, barley, oats, millet; from industrial crops - hemp, flax) and playing auxiliary the role is alive - in - a small horn. (sheep, goats) and kr. horn. livestock, in a small number of horses, donkeys. The gardens were artificially irrigated. Wool spinning and weaving, wool felting, leather processing, sewing of papas and shoes were common. B. conducted a brisk trade with Transcaucasia and North. Caucasus, mostly fruits. The villages are compact, closely built-up, with crooked streets, there are streets passing under the houses. The villages are divided into quarters along the territory. principle. The inhabitants were divided into 7-8 tukhums (related groups). Sheba watchtowers (6-8 in number) were placed on the highest places. Dwellings - quadrangular, rectangular and L-shaped. The most widespread types - two-story one-, two-, three-chamber stone, with a flat earthen roof, with living rooms on the second floor and a room for livestock and households. inventory (below). Often the second floor has a gallery on columns along the facade. Tree structures were decorated with carvings. In the masonry of the walls there are flat stones with geometric. ornament, with the image of animals, crosses. National communal clothing. type. The female headdress - "horned chukhta" is characteristic. Husband included. The costume included a tunic-shaped shirt, trousers, a beshmet, a Circassian coat, sheepskin coats, a cloak, and a hat. Shoes made of rawhide, felt, wood, leather. Women wore an undershirt, pants, a waist-length dress, a headdress (k1asht1a), scarves with and without tassels. Traditional food - dishes from agricultural and livestock products, fruits, nuts, vegetables, wild herbs. Popular dishes are khinkal, pies with cottage cheese filling. Traditional genres. Folklore is diverse: fairy tales, legends, historical and et-genetic legends, myths, fairy tales, everyday stories, short jokes, songs, proverbs, sayings, riddles, children's folklore, musical folklore. The folklore of B. is bilingual (in Botlikh and in Avar.).

Ginukh people , genukhs, gynozi, gyenose (self-named), people in Russia. Number 0.6 thousand people They belong to the Tsez peoples, the indigenous us. Zap. Dagestan. They speak Ginuh language. Avar, Russian, Gunzib, Bszhtinsky, Tsez and Georgian languages ​​are also widespread. Writing in Avar. lang. on the basis Russian graphics. Believers are Sunni Muslims. In the early Middle Ages they were Christianized. At 15 - 2nd floor. 18th centuries were Islamized. After the annexation of Dagestan to Russia (1813), they took part in the liberation, the struggle of the highlanders of Dagestan and Chechnya under the arm. Shamil. They took an active part in the anti-colonial uprising of the highlanders of 1877. After its suppression, many moved to Turkey and Iran. Since 1921 as part of the Dagestan ASSR, since 1991 - Rep. Dagestan. In 1947 there were 244 people. In 1944, G. were forcibly relocated to the territory. Chechens; in 1957 they returned to their territory. Main traditional occupation - cattle breeding, ch. arr. sheep breeding. Raised cows, goats; engaged in horse breeding. Barley, rye, wheat, millet, and oats were grown on small terraced plots. They raised bees and hunted. House. crafts: dressing of woolen cloth, rugs, bags, saddlebags, knitted shoes and socks, felt; blacksmith; manufacture of wooden tools and utensils. The gender and age division of labor was strictly regulated. Trade was developed, mainly barter. Main occupations today: transhumance cattle breeding (chief arr. sheep breeding) and field cultivation, vegetable growing, gardening in places of resettlement. The basis of tradition social organizations - a community (jamaat) of herdsmen-warriors. The role of patriarchs and kinship was preserved. associations - tukhumov. The small family prevailed; forms of the undivided family were preserved. To this day, traditions of family rituals, customs of honoring elders and relatives are preserved. and neighborly mutual assistance, tukhum solidarity, hospitality, kunakism. Dwellings are rectangular in plan, stone, ch. arr. two-story, with a barn on the nerve and housing on the second floor. Roofs of two types: gable, covered with shingles, and flat, earthen. The second floor from the facade is often preceded by a gallery; open loggias have been preserved in some places. Husband. traditional clothing: tunic shirt, pants, beshmet, Circassian coat, cloak, dec. sheepskin coats, sheepskin cap, knitted woolen boots with patterned color ornaments, low rawhide shoes, hard-soled shoes, husky boots, felt shoes, shoes, leggings, from the 2nd floor. 19th century boots with a heel of the Russian sample. They wore a belt with silver ornaments; a dagger in a leather (rarely in silver) scabbard. Female traditional clothing: tunic-shaped shirt dresses, detachable swing dresses; pants with narrow legs to the ankles; cap-kosnik chuhtu; woolen and silk scarves, warm woolen shawls; fabric belt bandage. Shoes are the same as for men (except for kid and leather boots). Silver jewelry with precious stones. Food in the main flour and meat and dairy products. Main dishes - khinkals, oatmeal dough, cakes, bread, cereals, pies with cheese, grass, meat, dumplings, milk and meat stews. Oral Nar. creativity (proverbs, sayings, riddles, parables, anecdotes, songs, ballads, fairy tales) in Avar and Ginukh. Developed people. the medicine. Traditions have been preserved. representations associated with magic, the cult of ancestors, animism, totemism, etc., belief in devils, genies, owners of the forest, mountains, rivers, groves, lakes, etc.

GODOBERINTS, gibdidi (self-designation), people in Russia. Number OK. 3 thousand people They belong to the Andean peoples, indigenous to us. Zap. Dagestan. They speak the Godoberian language, which has dialects. Avar., Rus. lang. Avar writing. lang. on smallpox Russian charts. Believers are Sunni Muslims. To con. 14th c. part of G. professed Christianity, part - traditional. beliefs. Islamiziropans G. in the 16th century. The spread of Islam, and then the Arabic script, contributed to the acceleration cultural development G. After the annexation of Dagestan to Russia (1813), they took part in the liberation struggle of the highlanders of Dagestan and Chechnya under the arm. Shamil. In 1921 they became part of the Dagestan ASSR, since 1991 - Rep. Dagestan. According to the 1897 census, there were 1172 people, 1926 - 1512. In February. 1944 residents with. Zibirkhali were resettled in Checheno-Ingushetia, in 1957 in Dagestan on a plain in the Khasavyurt district, with. Grating. Traditional G.'s occupations are arable farming (wheat, barley, millet, and later corn) and cattle breeding. An important place was occupied by horticulture, viticulture, hunting and beekeeping. Home industry and crafts: weaving, leather, wool, metal, wood, stone, felt production. Main modern occupations - agriculture, cattle breeding, gardening, auxiliary - beekeeping. Mn. G. live in cities, are employed in industry. Traditional settlements on the hills, the streets are rather wide, irregularly located. The center of the village is a mosque and gode-kan, where men spent their free time. The approaches were guarded by watch and combat towers. Settlements arose as territorial-tukhum, from the 16-17 centuries. had a clean territory. character. Traditional a dwelling made of stone, wood (in recent times also made of adobe), more often one-story, square in plan, frame-but-pillar; now at home modern. type. Traditional clothing is similar to that of bot-lihtsv. Husband based. costume - a tunic-shaped shirt, trousers, bsshmet, cherkeska, hat, sheepskin coats of various shapes, cloak. They wore belts, gazyrs and daggers. Traditional shoes of several types, made of rawhide, morocco, felt, etc. In the women's complex clothes included a shirt dress, a dress with a waist, pants, a headdress (decorated with silver coins, sewn on rings), a scarf and leather boots with a felt top with a bent toe. In the traditional food is dominated by dairy products (cheese, cottage cheese, sour milk, whey), dishes from meat products (sausage, interior fat, fat tail), from flour, vegetable and vegetable (pumpkin); the most common is khinkal with and without meat, with seasoning. Based on tradition. social org-tion villages. community, the patriarch, kinship were of great importance. associations - tukhums. The family is small, kinship is kept on the paternal and maternal lines. Widespread kinship. and neighborhood help. Funeral-but-pomipalpay rituals combine elements of pre-Muslims. and Muslims. rituals. The genres of folklore are diverse - legends, fairy tales, songs, proverbs, sayings, etc., some are bilingual (also transmitted into Avar.). Legends and stories about the first settlers, about local heroes, about the origin of certain tukhums are popular. Developed people. the medicine. Pre-Muslims are preserved. animistic representations (belief in spirits, cults of ancestors, trees, etc.).

MOUNTAIN JEWS , dzhuhur (self-named), ethnolinguistic. a group of Jews in Russia (11.3 thousand people, including in Dagestan 3.6 thousand people, Kabardino-Balkaria -3.2 thousand people, Chechnya and Ingushetia -2.6 thousand people .). They also live in Azerbaijan - 5.5 thousand people. Total number within the former USSR - 18.5 thousand people. The language is the Tat Iranian group of Indo-European. families. Avar, Kumyk, Azerbaijani, Russian are widespread. languages. Writing on the basis Russian alphabet. Believers are Jews. Judging by the linguistic and indirect historical. data, the community of G.e. was formed in the 7th-13th centuries. during the immigration of Jews from the North. Iran, and also, possibly, from the nearby districts of the Byzantine

Ingushetia. Chechnya.

INGUSHI, galgai (self-named), people in Russia (215.1 thousand people), incl. in Ingushetia and Chechnya (163.8 thousand), in the North. Ossetia (32.8 thousand) and others. Smaller groups live in Kazakhstan (20 thousand people), Cf. Asia, as well as Bl. East. Total number more than 237 thousand people Together with the Chechens (general self-named Vainakh) they belong to the indigenous us. Sev. Caucasus. They speak Ingush, yaz. Nakh-Dag. North Caucasian groups. families. Russian is also widespread. lang. Believers are Sunni Muslims. In the mountains of I. lived otd. societies: Galgaevsky (hence self-named I.), Tsorinsky, Dzheyrakhovsky and Metskhalskos. Migration to the plain begins in the 16th-17th centuries. One of the chap. the directions of the Ingush migration from the mountains were the Tara Valley and other lands along the river. Kambileevka. Here no later than con. 17th century located with. Ongusht (hence the name I.), now with. Tarskos Prigorodny district Sev. Ossetia. The migration process became especially intense in the 19th century. In 1810 Ingushetia became part of Russia. In 1817, the local population was resettled from most of the Sunzha district to Nazran. In 1924, the Ingush Autonomous Okrug was separated from the RSFSR, and its administrative center was located in Vladikavkaz; In 1944 I., together with the Chechens, were forcibly deported to Sr. Asia and Kazakhstan, the republic was abolished. In 1957, the Chechen-Ingush ASSR was restored, the people returned to their territory, while Prigorodny district, accounting for about half of the territory. planar Ingushetia, remained part of the North Ossetian Republic, which serves as a source of conflict between I. and the Ossetians, who occupied houses and lands there. Adoption in Apr. 1991 of the law "On the rehabilitation of repressed peoples" and the self-proclamation of the independence of Chechnya in November. 1991 sparked a movement to create their own. Ingush rep. (sample in 1992 as part of the Russian Federation). As a result, armed conflict in the North. Ossetia and the war in Chechnya, approx. 100 thousand I. In the household of us. mountain Ingushetia, the leading place was occupied by alpine cattle breeding (sheep, cows, horses, oxen), combined with agriculture (barley, oats, wheat), nuschels. Residential, semi-combat (height 8-10 m) and combat (12-16 m) tower buildings were common. Fighting towers of five and less often six floors are known (average height 25-27 m). Castle complexes and barrier walls were erected. On the plain I. lived kr. settlements stretched along rivers and roads. An ancient dwelling - a hut-hut, later a long adobe or turluch house, in which the premises of each marital cell had a separate section. access to the terrace. Next to the room of the head of the family and his wife - kunatskaya (guest room). Modern at home - preim. brick with a tiled or iron roof. Traditional clothes I. obshchekavk. type. Husband. a loose-fitting shirt with a button-down collar in front, tied with a belt, a beshmet with a belt and a dagger attached to the waist. Later, the obshchekavk became widespread. Circassian coat with gazyrs. Warm clothes - sheepskin coat and cloak. Main headdress - a cone-shaped hat, felt hats. In the 20s. 20th century there were caps, Iesk. later - high hats, strongly expanding upwards. Everyday wives. clothes: an elongated shirt dress with a slit collar with a button, wide trousers, beshmet. Everyday headwear - scarves and shawls.
Traditional I. food ~ mainly meat, dairy and vegetable. Naib. common: churek with sauce, cornmeal dumplings, wheat flour dumplings, cheese pies, meat with dumplings, meat broth, dairy products (special feature "data-kodor" - cottage cheese with melted butter), etc. diet included products of hunting and fishing. The family-patronymic organization, blood feud, kunachestvo, customs of hospitality, honoring elders were preserved. With the predominance of small families, large families were not uncommon, especially in the mountains. Marriages are exogamous in both lines, and marriage ransom was practiced. Close solidarity of relatives and strict exogamy are also characteristic of modern. I. Traditional. beliefs: totemism, animism, magic, family and tribal cult of shrines and patrons, agrarian and funeral cults, etc. There was a developed pantheon (the supreme deity was Diela). People were of great importance. medicine, calendar ceremonies. Islam established itself in the 1st half. 19th century, spreads in the foothill flat zone - from the 16th-18th centuries, in the mountains - from the 19th century. In the folklore of I., the heroic Nart occupies a prominent place. epic. Oral Nar. creativity: heroic, historical. and lyric. songs, fairy tales, legends and legends, proverbs and sayings. Favorite dance - pair lezginka. In the applied art, stone carving and the manufacture of felt carpets in red and orange tones with original ornaments (deer antlers, mountain plants, astral figures) stand out.

CHECHEN, nokhchiy (self-designation), people in Ros. Federation (899 thousand people), main. us. Chechnya. Number in Chechnya and Ingushetia 734 thousand people. They also live in Dagestan (about 58 thousand people), Stavropol kr. (15 thousand people), Volgograd region (11.1 thousand people), Kalmykia (8.3 thousand people), Astrakhan (7.9 thousand people), Saratov (6 thousand people), Tyumen (4.6 thousand people). ) region, North Ossetia (2.6 thousand people), Moscow (2.1 thousand people), as well as in Kazakhstan (49.5 thousand people), Kyrgyzstan (2.6 thousand people). ), in Ukraine (1.8 thousand people) and others. number - 957 thousand people. The believers of Ch. are Sunni Muslims. Sufi teachings of two kinds are widespread - nakshbapdi and padiri. They speak Chechen. Nakh-Dagestan group. Dialects: planar, Akkin, Cheberloevsky, Melkhinsky, Itumkalinsky, Galanchozhsky, Kistinsky. Russian is also widespread. lang. (fluent 74%). Writing after 1917, first on the basis. Arabic, then - lat. graphics, since 1938 - based on Russian. alphabet. In the "Geography" of Straboia, the ethnonym Gargarei is mentioned, the etymology of which is close to the Tsakh "Gergara" - "native", "close". The ethnonyms Isadiks, Dvals, etc. are also considered Nakh. sources of the 7th c. Ch. are mentioned under the name Nakhcha Matyan (i.e. "speaking the Nokhchi language"). Chronicles of the 14th century "Nokhchi people" are mentioned. In Persian 13th century sources given name. Sasapy, later included in Russian. the documents. Documents from the 16th and 17th centuries there are tribal names. Ch. (Ichke-rintsy - nokhchmakhkhoy, oki - akkkhy, shubuty - shatoy, charbili - cheberloy, crayons - malkhy, chanty - ch1antty, sharoytsy - sharay, terloytsy - t1erloy). Anthropol. the type of pranakhs can be considered formed in the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age. Ancient Ch., who mastered not only sowing. the slopes of the Caucasus, but also the steppes of Ciscaucasia, early came into contact with the Scythian, and then with the Sarmatian and Alanian nomadic world. In the flat zone of Chechnya and nearby regions. Sev. Caucasus in the 8th-12th centuries. polyethnic was formed. Alanian kingdom, in the mountainous zone of Chechnya and Dagestan - state. Sarir education. After the Mongol-Tatars. Invasions (1222 and 1238-1240), the Zaterechnaya steppe and partly the Chechen plain became part of the Golden Horde. To con. 14th c. the population of Chechnya united in the state of Simsism. In the 16th and 17th centuries Kavk. the isthmus was the object of constant claims of the Ottoman Empire (with its vassal, the Crimean Khanate), Iran and Russia. In the course of the struggle between these states, the first Rus. fortresses and Cossack towns are being established diplomatically. Chech connections. rulers and village communities with Russia. Then the modern ones are finally formed. settlement boundaries of Ch. In the last years of the reign of Catherine II, Rus. troops occupied the left bank of the Terek, building a section of Kavk here. military line, founded the military. fortresses from Mozdok to Vladikavkaz in Chech.-Kabard. border. This led to an increase in free. Ch.'s movements in con. 18-1st floor. 19th centuries By 1840 on the territory. Chechnya and Dagestan develops theocratic. state - Shamil's imamate, which initially waged a successful war with Russia, but was defeated by 1859, after which Chechnya was annexed to Russia and included, together with the Khasavyurt district, inhabited by Aukh Ch. and Kumyks, in the Terek region. In 1922, the Chechen Aut. region within the RSFSR. Even earlier, Chechnya was returned part of the lands taken from them during the Kavk. wars. Paperwork and teaching in the native language were introduced, other cultural and social economy and transformations were carried out. However, it began in the 1920s. collectivization, accompanied by repressions, caused great damage to Chechnya. In 1934 Chechnya was merged with Ingush. AO in Chech.-Ingush. AO, since 1936 - Chech.-Ingush. ASSR. Feb. 1944 ca. 500 thousand Ch. and Ingush were forcibly deported to Kazakhstan. Of these, a number died in the first year of exile. In Jan. 1957 Chech.-Ingush. The ASSR, abolished in 1944, was restored. But at the same time, tsesk were closed for Ch. mountain districts, and the former inhabitants of these districts began to settle in lowland villages and Cossack villages. The Ch.-Aukhites returned to Dagestan. In 1992, the congress of the people. deputies of Ros. Federation decided to transform the Chech.-Ingush. Rep. in Ingush. Rep. and Chech. Rep. Traditional agricultural crops - barley, wheat, millet, oats, rye, flax, beans, etc. Later they began to grow corn, watermelons. Horticulture and horticulture were developed. Arable tools - a plow (gotha), a useful tool (noh). A three-field system was common. In the mountain regions transhumance sheep breeding was developed. On the plains bred kr. horn. livestock used incl. as a labor force. Thoroughbred horses were also bred for riding. Between the mountainous and lowland regions of Chechnya, there were farms with a specialization: receiving bread from the plains, the mountain Chechens sold their surplus livestock in return. Handicrafts played an important role. Chech was very popular. cloth produced in Grozny, Vedensky, Khasavyurt, Argun districts. The processing of leather, the manufacture of felt carpets, cloaks, etc., were widespread. felt products. Villages were the centers of weapons production. Old Ata-gi, Vedeno, Dargo, Shatoy, Dzhu gurty and others, potter's - villages. Shawls, Duba-Yurt, Stary-Yurt, Novy-Yurt, etc. Jewelry and blacksmithing, mining, silk production, bone and horn processing were also developed. Mountain villages had a disorderly crowded layout. Two-story stone houses with a flat roof were common. In the bottom The floor housed livestock, the top floor, which consisted of two rooms, was housing. Many villages had housing-defenses. towers of 3-5 floors. The settlements on the plain were large (500-600 and even up to 4000 households), stretched along roads and rivers. Traditional dwelling - turluchnoe, consisted of several. rooms, stretched out in a row, with a department, exits to a terrace that ran along the house. Main the room belonged to the head of the family. Here was the hearth and the whole life of the family flowed. The rooms of married sons were attached to it. One of the rooms served as a Kunatskaya room, or a special building was erected for it in the yard. Yard with owner buildings were usually surrounded by a fence. Distinguished by a feature of the interior Chech. there was an almost complete lack of furniture in the dwelling: a chest, a low table on three legs, several benches. The walls were hung with skins, carpets, weapons were hung on them, the floor was covered with mats. The hearth, the hearth chain, the ashes were considered sacred, disrespect for them attracted blood feuds and, conversely, even if the killer grabbed the hearth chain, he received the rights of a relative. They swore and cursed with an over-the-ring chain. The older woman was considered the guardian of the hearth. The hearth shared the room with the husband. and wives. half. Woolen fabrics were of several varieties. The highest quality was considered to be the "iskhar" fabric made from the wool of lambs, the lowest - from the wool of dairy sheep. No later than the 16th century. Ch. was known for the production of silk and linen. Traditional clothing had a lot in common with the obshchekavk. suit. Husband. clothing - shirt, pants, beshmet, Circassian coat. The shirt was of a tunic cut, the collar with a slit in front was fastened with buttons. A beshmet was worn over the shirt, belted with a belt with a dagger. Circassian was considered festive clothing. Circassians were sewn with cut-offs, but at the waist, flared down, metal fastened to the waist. clasps, gas caps were sewn onto the chest. Pants, narrowed down, were tucked in and leggings made of cloth, morocco or sheepskin. Winter clothes - sheepskin coat, cloak (vert). Husband. heads, headdresses were high, widening hats made of valuable fur. Shepherds wore fur hats. There were also felt hats. The hat was considered the personification manhood, knocking it down entailed blood feud. Main female elements. clothes were a shirt and pants. The shirt had a blunt cut, sometimes below the knees, sometimes to the ground. The collar with a slit on the chest was fastened with one or three buttons. Top. the clothes were beshmet. Served as festive clothes

Kabardino-Balkaria

Kabardians, Adyghes (self-designation), people in Russia (number 386 thousand people), the indigenous population of Kabardino-Balkaria (about 364 thousand people). They also live in the Krasnodar and Stavropol Territories and the North. Ossetia. Total number within the former USSR - approx. 391 thousand people They also live in many countries of Southeast Asia, Zap. Europe and North. America. They speak Kabardino-Circassian. Abkhaz-Adyghe group of the North Caucasian family. Writing based on Russian. alphabet. believers - Sunni Muslims Mozdok K. are mostly Orthodox Christians. Together with the Adyghes and Circassians they make up an ethnic group. community of Circassians. The ancestors of K., like other Adyghe peoples, were aboriginal us. Sev. and North-West. Caucasus. They are known in the 1st-6th centuries. as zihi, in the 13-19 centuries. like Circassians. All R. In the 1st millennium, part of the Circassians were driven back by the Huns beyond the Kuban. In the 13th-15th centuries. there was a reverse movement to the Center. Ciscaucasia, which ended with the formation of Kabarda, is independent, watered, units and the formation of Kabarda. nationalities. In 1557 top. Prince Temryuk of Kabarda asked the Russian. Tsar Ivan IV to take him under his hand; in 1774, according to the Kyuchuk-Kainarji agreement with Turkey, Kabarda was ceded to Russia. In the 16-18 centuries. there was a tributary dependence of part of the neighboring Ossetians, Chechens, Ingush, Balkars, Karachays, Abazins from Kabards. princes. Preserved archaic. forms of power: Nar. meetings, secret men. unions. In 1921, Kabard was formed as part of the RSFSR. AO, since 1922 - united Kab.-Balk. JSC, in 1936 it was transformed into Kab.-Balk. ASSR. From 1944 to 1957, when the Balkars were forcibly deported, the republic existed as the Kabardian ASSR. In 1957 Kab.-Balk. ASSR was restored. In Jan. 1991 The Supreme Council of Kabardino-Balkaria adopted the Declaration of Sovereignty and proclaimed Kab.-Balk. SSR, since March 1992 Kab.-Balk. Republic. an important role in the national movement is played by Congress Kabard. people (created in 1991). Traditional occupations - arable farming and pasture cattle breeding, ch. arr. horse breeding (Kabard breed became world famous). Crafts and crafts are developed: for men - blacksmithing, weapons, jewelry, for women - fulling, felt, gold embroidery. Settlement planning up to ser. 19th century cumulus, then street. The princes, nobles and wealthy peasants, in addition to a residential building, built a house (yard) for guests - kunatskaya. The dwelling is turluch, rectangular in shape, with a gable or four-slope thatched roof. Samanny and kam. buildings, roofs made of iron and tiles appeared in the second floor. 19th century Traditional husband. costume - a Circassian coat with a stacked silver belt and a dagger, a hat, morocco boots with leggings; top - cloak, sheepskin coat, cap. Traditional female clothes - bloomers, a tunic-shaped shirt, a long toe-length oar dress on top, silver and gold belts and bibs, a cap embroidered with gold, morocco boots. Traditional food - boiled and fried lamb, beef, turkey, chicken, broths from them, sour milk, cottage cheese. Dried and smoked lamb is widespread, from which shish kebab is made. Meat dishes are served with pasta (cooked millet porridge). Drink - makhsima is made from millet flour with malt. At least until the 19th century. dominated by a large family. Then the small family became widespread, but its way of life remained patriarchal. The power of the father of the family, the subordination of the younger to the elders and women to men are reflected in etiquette, incl. avoidance between spouses, parents and children, each of the spouses and older relatives of the other. There was a neighborhood-community-iaya and family-patronymic. an organization with family exogamy, neighborly and kindred mutual assistance. Blood feud already by the 19th century. was largely superseded by compositions. In the upper classes, atalychestvo was widespread. Hospitality, which had a ritualized, even sacralized character, was highly valued, as well as kunachestvo. Much attention was paid to Adyghe Khabze - a set of customary law, moral precepts and rules of etiquette. Mm. elements of the Adyghe Khabze, along with those well adapted to the military. life elements of material culture, like a husband. clothes, methods of saddle riding, dzhigitovka, etc., were widely spread among neighboring peoples. In spiritual culture since the 15th century. the influence of Islam increased, to-ry more and more crowded out the language. and Christ. beliefs. Traditional games and spectacles had a paramilitary character: shooting at stationary and moving targets, shooting at a gallop, the fight of riders for a sheep's skin, the battle of horsemen and footmen armed with sticks. Folklore is rich: the Nart epic, historical and heroic songs, etc. Trad. will depict, motifs - stylized elements of the animal and plant world, horn-shaped curls are characteristic. Modern life is becoming more and more urbanized, but many traditions are retained in it. crap. Food preferences are preserved and many nat. dishes. Basically, the rules of etiquette are preserved, especially in relations between older and younger, men and women, at a feast. K., like other Adygs. peoples, a strong desire for ethnic. self-affirmation and cultural revival. The Khasag ("People's Assembly") society was created. Relations were established with the Circassian and Adyghe societies of the same name. The World Circassian Association was established. There is a noticeable desire to restore the Islamic worldview and cult, the everyday rules of Islam.

BALKARS, taulula (self-designation, "highlander"), people in Russia (78.3 thousand people), indigenous people. Kabardino-Balkaria (70.8 thousand people). They also live in Kazakhstan (3.0 thousand people), Kyrgyzstan (2.1 thousand people). Total number 85.1 thousand people Local groups: Balkars (Malkars, Malkarlyla), Bizingians (Byzyngychyla), Kholamtsy (Kholamlyla), Chegemians (Chegemlile), Urusbians, or Baksans (Baksanchyla). The Karachay-Balkar language of the Turkic group of the Altai family. Writing on the basis Russian graphics (created in 1924 on the basis of Arabic graphics Believers - Sunni Muslims Apparently, three cores took part in the formation of B. ethnic component: the oldest - Caucasian-speaking people, Iranian-speaking Alans, who appeared in the mountainous strip of the Center. Caucasus in the 4th-5th centuries, and the Turkic-speaking tribes, possibly the Kuban Bulgarians and, undoubtedly, the Kipchaks, who settled in the 13th century. in the mountains of the Caucasus and partially assimilated Alans-Ossets. Residents of all Balkar villages had close ties with neighboring peoples: Kabardians, Svans, Karachays, Georgians-Rachinians. All R. 17th century Russian ties were established directly with Balkaria (in Russian sources - Balkars, Balkhar taverns), through which one of the embassy routes to Western Georgia ran. In the 1st third of the 19th century. Balkarian ob-va became part of Ros. empire. In the 60-70s. 19th century in the process of carrying out cross reforms, part of the landless B. was settled on the plain. Despite migration, and in con. 19th century part of B. suffered from lack of land; in the beginning. 20th century excess us. in the mountains of Balkaria it was 67%. In 1922 the Kabardino-Balkarian Aut. region, in 1936 transformed into the ASSR. In 1944, B. were forcibly deported to the districts of Sr. Asia and Kazakhstan. In 1957 the Kabardino-Balkarian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was restored and B. returned to their homeland. In 1991, the Kabardino-Balkarian Republic was proclaimed. Leading branch of tradition. x-va - distant pastoralism (sheep, as well as kr. horn. cattle, goats, horses, until the end of the 18th century - pigs). They were also engaged in mountain terraced arable farming (barley, wheat, oats, from the end of the 19th century - potatoes, garden crops). House. trades and crafts - dressing of felts, cloaks, cloths, processing of leather and wood, salt production, extraction of sulfur and lead, production of gunpowder and bullets. Beekeeping and hunting were of great importance. In the post-reform period, the dairy industry began to develop. Traditional settlements - large multi-family, located in ledges on the slopes of the mountains, in the main. crowded planning (there were also free planning, castle type); towers (kala) were erected for defense purposes. On the plain, the villages are multi-yard, with street planning, with estates. Traditional dwellings in mountain villages made of raw stone, one-story, rectangular, in the Baksan and Chegem gorges also of wood. log cabins with earthen roofs, on the plain - turluchnye. Almost to the end. 19th century the dwelling was single-chamber (with male and female halves), the residential part was combined with households. premises. Houses in 2-3 rooms with a guest room (kunatskaya) appear in families in the post-reform period. In the 20th century two-story multi-room houses from trees spread. floors and ceilings, instead of a sacred open hearth - a wall-mounted fireplace, rus. bake. Traditional North Caucasian clothing type: for men - an undershirt, trousers, sheepskin shirts, beshmet, a Circassian coat with gazyrs, belted with a narrow belt belt, a weapon hung on the rum; fur coats, cloaks, papakhas, hoods, felt hats, leather, felt, morocco shoes, leggings. Women wore tunic-shaped shirts, shir. pants, caftan, long open dress, belt, sheepskin coats, shawls, scarves, scarves, hats, various decorations. The festive dress was decorated with galloon, gold or silver embroidery, braid, and patterned braid. At the heart of the tradition. nutrition - dairy food, meat ate preim. on holidays and in celebrations, occasions. Many dishes were prepared from barley, incl. beer, corn, bread and pies were also baked from wheat flour. Honey was widely used. Balkaria included several. sat down societies. Great was the role of Nar. meetings (tere), patronymic. org-tion. The rulers are called ta-ubi, free community members - karakishi, dependent peasants - chagars, the house is known. slavery of prisoners of war (kul). Family Prem. small, exogamous marriages. Restrictions must be respected. Family life is characterized by a patriarch, traditions, decomp. avoidance prohibitions. The customs of blood feud, twinning, kunachestvo, atalystvo, hospitality, etc. were widespread. The process of Islamization of Byelorussia began before the 17th century; however, as early as the 19th century. their beliefs were a complex synthesis of Christianity, Islam and pre-Christ. traditions. Faith in magic, sacred trees, stones, patron deities was preserved. Characterized by calendar and other holidays, paramilitary sports games. Folklore is diverse - the Nart epic, ritual, labor, heroic. and other songs, good wishes (algysh), etc.

Karachayevo - Cherkessia

Karachays. Self-name karachaililar, the indigenous population of Karachay in Russia. The number is over 150 thousand people, of which 129 thousand are in Russia. They also live in Central Asia, Kazakhstan, Turkey, Syria, and the USA. They speak the Karachay-Balkarian language of the Turkic group of the Altai family. Writing in Russian graphic features basis (since 1937). believers - Sunni Muslims Local Kavkas took part in the ethnogenesis of K.. tribes that have lived since the Bronze Age, as well as newcomers - Alans, Bulgars and Kipchaks (Polovtsy). In the pre-Mongolian time, K. were part of the Alans. tribal union. Naib. Burial grounds of the 13th-14th centuries are considered to be early Karachay-Balkar monuments. on the territory Karachay and Balkaria. After the Mongol invasion, the ancestors of K. were driven back to the mountain gorges of the Center. Caucasus. In 1828 K. became part of Russia. Settled compactly, they formed part of the adm. Elbrus district. After the civil wars and the establishment of owls. authorities (1920) determined the status of K. within the nat.-terr. autonomy: 1920 - Karachay district, 1922 - Karachay-Cherkess Autonomous Okrug; 1926 - Karachay Autonomous Okrug, liquidated in 1943 in connection with the deportation of K. to Sr. Asia and Kazakhstan. In 1957, after K. returned to the historical. homeland restored Karachay-Cherkess Autonomous Region; in 1991 it was transformed into a republic. Main traditional occupations - transhumance (alpine) animal husbandry (sheep, goats, horses, red horn cattle), as well as plowed terraced agriculture with artificial irrigation (barley, oats, millet, wheat, corn, potatoes, garden crops). Animal husbandry continues to be Ch. occupation of the mountainous and foothill part of us. Prem. direction received breeding kr. horn. livestock and sheep breeding (fine-fleeced merino and Karachai sheep). Handicrafts - broadcloth, weaving of felt hats, cloaks, production of patterned felts, carpets, weaving of mats, knitted woolen products, processing of leather, skins, wood and stone carving, gold embroidery Trad. settlements - crowded in the mountains, large, divided into family quarters (tiirs), and in the foothills and on the plane - street, rectangular layout. The dwelling is a rectangular (sometimes polygonal) one-, two-chamber log building with a gable earthen roof. Lived. and host. the buildings constituted a complex of a closed yard (waterbaz). The walls of the dwelling were hung with felt carpets, and the shelves with appliqué. Inside the dwelling stood out a wall hearth (odzhak) with an open chimney. Dep. a house or room was set aside for receiving guests (kunatskaya). From con. In the 19th century, multi-chamber, two-story buildings appeared, the roofs of houses were covered with hew, iron, and later slate. Monuments of tradition. architecture - log houses, battle towers, crypt constructions. National K.'s clothing is similar to the clothing of other peoples of the North. Caucasus. Husband. clothing consisted of a shirt, trousers, beshmet, cherkeska, sheepskin or fur coat, cloak and hood. On a belt from a narrow belt - a dagger or a knife, an armchair, etc. Summer goal. attire - felt hats, winter - sheepskin hats with a cloth hood. Female clothing was distinguished by a variety of types and age characteristics: a long shirt made of paper or silk fabric of a tunic cut with a slit on the chest and a clasp at the collar, with long and wide sleeves; long trousers made of dark colored fabrics were tucked into morocco socks or shoes; over the shirt - dress. The waist was intercepted by a wide silver belt. From silk or paper fabric quilted on wadding, outerwear was sewn - kaptal, repeating the cut of the Circassian coat. Fur coats made of lambskin or chicken-pey, as well as squirrel ones. Female headdresses: a girl’s festive dress is a hat (high cone-shaped or truncated, richly decorated with galloons or gold embroidery), over it is a large scarf. The basis of nutrition is meat-milk-vegetable. Traditional dishes - boiled and fried meat, dried sausage from raw meat and fat, fermented milk (ayran), kefir (gypy ayran), various types of cheese. Of the flour dishes, unleavened cakes (gyrdzhyny) and pies (khychyny) with various fillings, fried or baked, soups in meat broth (shorna) are popular, among the delicacies - decomp. halva options. Drinks: dairy - kefir and airai, festive - buza and beer (cheese), everyday - tea from kavk. rhododendron (kaara tai). The center of the general life was sat down. community (eljamagat), connected by a common territory. and collective labor in the construction and maintenance of irrigation facilities. Within the tribal community (qaum and tukum), strict exogamy, a common settlement (tiire), joint cemeteries, a name from one mythic. or real ancestor. Remnants of family communities (yuyur) with collective ownership of livestock and land, with joint labor and egalitarian consumption, were preserved among the K.. To con. 19th century due to the disintegration of family communities in the villages. monogamous families (yuydsgi) began to predominate in the community. Naib. developed type of people. art was the manufacture of patterned felts, embroidery, weaving of mats, wood and stone carving, gold embroidery. In Nar. etiquette is of great importance in life. Numerous people. holidays (calendar holidays, bringing the herd to alpine pastures, harvesting, etc.) are accompanied by horse races, horse riding, wrestling of strong men, throwing stones, games of mummers, lifting weights, and other competitions. With Islam (established in the late 18th century), they entered into the tradition: fasting (oraza), prayers (namaz), sacrifice (kurman). Along with the general dances (Lezginka, Islamei) are also widespread ritual Karachay-Balkars. dances - gollu, sandrak, tepene, tegerek, etc. Rich folklore is preserved: Nart legends, historical, labor, heroic, satirical, love and lullaby songs, fairy tales, proverbs and sayings, stories about Nasr Khoja (Khodja Na-sreddin ). Traditional music Instruments - reed flute, 2-string violin, 3-string plucked instrument, plane rattle, dole and accordion.

Circassians, Adyghe (self-named), people of the Adyghe group in Ros. Federation. Number 50.8 thousand people, incl. in Karachay-in-Cherkessia - 40.2 thousand people. In the past, the ancestors of modern. Neighboring peoples called Ch. "Kabardians", "Besleney" or "Circassians". They also live in the countries of Bl. East, where they moved in the 2nd floor. 19th century Here under the name "Ch." people from the Circassians and other peoples of the North often unite. and Zap. Caucasus, who emigrated after the annexation of the Caucasus to Russia. The language is Kabardino-Circassian (common with Kabardians) Abkhaz-Adyg. group of the North Caucasian family. believers - Sunni Muslims Name "Ch." probably goes back to "ker-ket", as they called other Greek. the authors of one of the groups of the Adyghe us. north-east coasts of the Black Sea. Modern Circassia was settled by the Adygs in the 5th-7th centuries. In the 12th-13th centuries. part of the Circassians moved to the Terek, founding here the principalities of Greater and Lesser Kabarda, the power of which extended to Cherkssia. In con. 18 - beg. 19th centuries there was a mass resettlement of Kabardians in Circassia. Other main component in the formation of modern. Ch. were Besleneyites. The first information about them in Russian. documents date back to the 16th century. In the 16-18 centuries. they were known as Beslenei, Beslintsy, Beslenysky Cherkasy, and the area they occupied - Besleney, Bysleney, Besleneysky taverns.
In 1922, the Karachay-Cherkess Autonomous Okrug was formed (divided in 1926 into the Karachay Autonomous Okrug and the Cherkess National Okrug, since 1928 - the Autonomous Okrug; in 1957 they were again merged), in 1991 it was transformed into a republic. axes. occupation - transhumance (sheep, goats, horses, kr. horn. cattle; before the adoption of Islam, they also bred pigs). A special place was occupied by the breeding of horses of the Kabardian breed. Traditional the craft was in the main. associated with the processing of livestock. products: dressing of cloth, making clothes, cloaks, etc. Circassian cloth was especially highly valued by neighboring peoples. Woodworking was developed in South Cherkessia. Blacksmithing and gunsmithing were widespread. Ch. were united in independent villages. communities that had their own self-government bodies (mainly from wealthy community members). Their members were bound by mutual responsibility, enjoyed common land and pastures, the right to vote on the nar. meetings. Patrilineal kinships were preserved. groups (members of which sometimes formed special quarters in villages), customs of blood feud, hospitality, kunachestvo. A large patriarchal family, including several. generations and numbering up to 100 people, prevailed until the 18th century. Family communities partially began to revive in con. 19th century Marriage was strictly exogamous. Marriage prohibitions extended to all relatives along both lines, to the descendants of people who were in a milk relationship. There were levirates and sororates, atalism, fictitious kinship. Marriages were concluded through the payment of bride price. The emergence of most of the modern villages of Circassia dates back to the 2nd half. 19th century At 19 - beg. 20th century 12 auls were founded, in the 20s. 20th century - 5. The estate was surrounded by a fence. Residential premises were usually built with a facade to the south. The dwelling had wicker walls on a pillar frame, plastered with clay, a two- or four-slope wattle roof covered with straw, and an adobe floor. Consisted of one or more rooms (according to the number of married couples in the family), adjacent to each other in a row, the doors of each room overlooked the courtyard. Kunatskaya served as one of the rooms or otd. building. At the wall between the door and the window, an open hearth with a wicker smoker was arranged, inside which a crossbar was installed for hanging the boiler. Household buildings were also made of wattle, often had a round or oval shape. Modern Ch. erect square multi-room houses. Traditional husband. costume - a Circassian coat, besh-met, trousers, a fur hat with a cloth crown, a cloak, a typesetting belt, on the legs - dudes, leggings, the rich have red morocco boots embroidered with gold. Now only a few have a complete set of nat. costume and appear in it on holidays. Female clothing in its fullest form took shape in the 19th century. The dress had a slit from the waist to the floor. An elegant dress was sewn from silk or velvet, decorated with galloon and embroidery. A red dress was allowed to be worn only by noble women. The dress was girded with a silver belt. From above they put on an embroidered caftan made of dark red or black matter, decorated with gold and silver galloon, silver clasps. Shoes made of leather were embroidered with silver. The headdress of a Circassian woman depended on her age and marital status: girls wore headscarves or bareheaded, adult girls and young women (before the birth of their first child) wore a “golden hat” with a high, hard band decorated with galloon and embroidery, and a cloth top or velvet; a thin silk scarf was thrown over it; after the birth of a child, a woman completely covered her hair with a dark scarf (its ends were passed behind the braids and tied at the crown with a special knot) and a shawl. Modern Circassians wear national dresses only on holidays.
In the summer they feed on preim. dairy products and vegetables; flour and meat dishes predominate in winter and spring. The most popular is puff bread made from unleavened dough, which is consumed with Kalmyk tea (green with salt and cream). They also baked yeast bread. Cornmeal and groats are widely used. A favorite dish is chicken or turkey with a sauce seasoned with crushed garlic and red pepper. The meat of waterfowl is consumed only fried. Lamb and beef are eaten boiled, usually seasoned with sour milk, crushed garlic and salt. After boiled meat, broth is always served, after fried meat - sour milk. Bouza is prepared from millet and corn flour with honey for a wedding and on major holidays. On holidays, they make halva (from toasted millet or wheat flour in syrup), bake pies. In folklore, the central place is occupied by legends on general Adyghe plots, the Nart epic. The art of storytellers and song performers (jeguaki) has been developed. Crying songs, labor and comic songs are widespread. Traditional music instruments - violin, bzhamey (pipe), pkharchach (percussion instrument), decomp. tambourines, which were played with hands and sticks. In con. 18th century the harmonica was borrowed from the Russians, it is played by ch. arr. women, on other instruments - men. In the 14-15 centuries. Ch. were considered Christians. Christianity penetrated here from Byzantium and Georgia in the 10th-12th centuries. In the 14th century Islam began to penetrate here. Ch. was finally Islamized by the 18th century, but traces of Christianity remained in Circassia until the 20th century. Ch. worshiped many. ancient deities - the god of fertility Thagaleju, the patron saint of hunting Mazythe, beekeeping - Merissa, kr. horn. cattle - Ahina, goats and sheep - Yamsha, riding - Zeik1uetkhe, the god of lightning and thunder Shible, metal and blacksmiths - Tlepshu.

ABAZINS, Abaza (self-designation), people in Russia, in Karachay-Cherkessia and in V. Adygea. Number 33.0 thousand people, incl. in Karachay-Cherkessia 27.5 thousand people. They also live in Turkey, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon (about 10 thousand people). Total number OK. 44 thousand people The language of Abaza is Abkh.-Adyg. North Caucasian groups. family, has two dialects: Tapant (lies in the main lit. language) and Ashkhar. Distributed Kabardino-Circassian, Russian. lang. Writing in Russian graphic basis. Believers are Sunni Muslims. A. - indigenous people of the Caucasus. Their ancestors were neighbors of the Abkhazians and, apparently, already in the 1st millennium AD. partially assimilated by them. In the 14th-17th centuries. A., who lived along the Black Sea coast between the river. Tuapse and Bzyb, moved to the North. Caucasus, where they settled in the neighborhood with the Adyghe tribes. In the future means. part of A. was assimilated by the Circassians, the other experienced their strong cultural influence. K ser. 19th century traditional occupations, life and Nar. creativity A. differed little from the Adyghe, however, some features of the traditions. A. cultures bring them closer to the Abkhazians (developed horticulture and beekeeping, features of folklore and ornamentation, etc.). In the 1860s grew up The government carried out the resettlement of A. to the plain. Before the resettlement the branch of the economy was distant pastoralism (ch. arr. small, as well as kr. horn. cattle, horses; horse breeding is a prestigious occupation), from the 2nd floor. 19th century agriculture began to predominate (millet, barley, corn; horticulture, vegetable growing). House. trades and crafts: wool processing (clothing, felts - smooth and patterned, cloaks, felt hats, leggings, belts, blankets, etc.), dressing of hides and skins, woodworking, blacksmithing. Traditional social organization - villages. communities, large and small families, patronymics. Traditional auls were divided into patronymic. quarters, on the plain - crowded, in the mountains of the nesting type. The oldest dwelling was round, wicker, rectangular single- and multi-chamber houses made of wattle were also common; in con. 19th century adobe began to be used. From the 2nd floor. 19th century appeared brick and wood. log houses under iron or tiled roofs. Traditional the estate included one or more. residential buildings, incl. a room for guests - kunatskaya, and, at a distance from them, a complex of households. buildings. Traditional general caucasian clothing type. The basis of tradition cuisines are grown., dairy and meat products. Favorite dish - white sauce with chicken, seasoned with garlic and spices. They drank a low-alcohol drink (buza). Characteristic customs and rituals associated with the annual cycle. Folklore is preserved: the Nart epic, dec. genres of fairy tales, songs. The features of traditional-everyday culture are most of all preserved in food, family and other rituals, etiquette, nar. creativity. The assimilation of A. continues, incl. due to frequent mixed marriages with Circassians; at the same time, the Movement for Cultural Revival and nat. autonomy

Ossetia

OSSETIANS , iron, digoron [self-designation; the ethnonyms Tualag (Dvals, O. group of the Naro-Mamison region) and Khusayrag (Khusars, O. group in South Ossetia)], a people in Ros. Federation (main population of North Ossetia, number approx. 335 thousand people) and Georgia (main population of South Ossetia, number 65 thousand people); they also live in Kabardino-Balkaria (10 thousand people), in Karachay-Cherkessia (4 thousand people). Number in Russia 402 thousand people. Main subethnic groups: Irons and Digors (in 3. North. Ossetia). They speak Ossetian. Iranian group Indo-European. families. It has 2 dialects: Iron (formed the basis literary language ) and Digorsky. Writing (from the 19th century) based on Russian. alphabet. Believers are Orthodox, there are Sunni Muslims. For the first time in historical sources, Digors (Ashdigors) are mentioned in "Armenian Geography" (7th century). Dvals are named in the same source. Cargo. historian Leonty Mroveli (11th century) points to the significance of the "Great Dval road", which passed from Georgia through the territory. Dvalov to the North. Caucasus. O. is one of the ancient peoples of the Caucasus. Already since the time of the Scythian. campaigns in Western Asia, they are referred to as cargo. chronicle of ovsami (osami, hence the Russian name for Ossetians). The Svans called them Saviars, the Mingrelians called them Ops, the Abkhazians called them Auaps, the Chechens and Ingushs called them Iri, the Balkars and Karachays called them Duger, and the Kabardians called Kuschkhe. Osset formation. people associated with the aboriginal population of the North. Caucasus (the creators of the Kobai culture) and with the alien Iranian-speaking peoples - the Scythians, Sarmatians and especially the Alans (from the 1st century AD). As a result of the sedimentation of the latter on the Center. In the Caucasus, the indigenous population adopted their language and many features of culture. The powerful union of the Alans (was - in Georgian and yasses, dormouse - in Russian Middle-Century sources) that formed here laid the foundation for the formation of Osets. nationalities. In the 13th century The Alanian state was defeated by the Mongol-Tatars, and the Alans were pushed back from the fertile plains to the south, into the mountain gorges of the Center. Caucasus. On his sowing slopes formed 4 large "society" dating back to the tribes. division (Digorsky, Alagirsky, Kurtatinsky, Tagaursky), into the southern - many smaller "societies" that were dependent on the cargo. princes. A lot of Ossetian-Alans went to Mongolia and especially to the countries of the East. Europe (a large compact group of descendants of the Alans settled in Hungary, who call themselves Yases, but lost their native language). Already since the 40s. 18th century formed Russian-Osset. relations. Rus. The government created the Ossetian Spiritual Commission. Members of the commission organized Osset. embassy in St. Petersburg (1749-52), contributed to the resettlement of O. in Mozdok and the Mozdok steppes for settlement and development of new lands. O., experiencing an acute need for land, repeatedly applied through the commission with a request to the Russian. to the government about their resettlement in the foothill districts of the North. Caucasus. In 1774 Ossetia "voluntarily" became part of Russia. The consolidation of the Ossetian people has intensified. In con. 18th-19th centuries the migration of part of O. from the mountains to the plains began. The lands transferred to O. grew up. government, assigned mainly to the Ossetians. nobility. After 1917 there was a massive migration of O. to the plains. 20 Apr. 1922 South Osset was formed. AO as part of Cargo. SSR, in 1924 - Sev. - Osset. AO, k-paradise 5 Dec. 1936 was transformed into North Osset. ASSR within the RSFSR. In 1990 Top. Council of the Republic adopted the Declaration on sovereignty of the Rep. Sev. Ossetia. On the plain traditional occupation - agriculture (wheat, corn, millet, barley, etc.). In the mountains, along with agriculture, cattle breeding was developed (sheep, goats, kr. horn. cattle). Traditional the farming system on the plain is three-field. Ch. a tool in the mountains - a ralo with an iron coulter, a team with a pair of bulls, on the plain - a heavy plow, in a team of which there were 8-10 oxen. Livestock was the most important occupation, providing O. with food, raw materials, and draft power. Sheep and goat breeding prevailed, on the plain - cattle, horses. Home crafts were developed, crafts - the production of cloth, sheepskin, furniture, dishes, wood and stone carving, blacksmithing, jewelry, embroidery, and other traditions. settlements in the mountains (kau) - small, cumulus or ordinary layout, on the plains - larger, street layout. Main builds, the material is stone, in wooded gorges - wood. The houses are one- or two-storey, the first floor is for livestock, the roofs are flat, earthen. Inside the walls were plastered with clay, with the advent of a stove with a chimney they were whitewashed. The floor is earthen. The windows are small and rectangular. The houses were multi-room, designed for a large family. The dining room, combined with the kitchen, had an open hearth with an over-hearth chain (they were considered sacred, like the center, a support pillar supporting the ceiling) and was divided into male and female halves. A kunatsky room was arranged for the guests.
Ossetian society was divided into several social groups. Preserved blood feuds extending to close and distant relatives. It arises from land, defamation, abduction of women, and so on. The trial ends with the payment of livestock, valuables (weapons, a brewing kettle, etc.) and the arrangement of a "blood table" for treating the parties to the victims. The customs of hospitality, kunachestvo, twinning, mutual assistance, atal-chestvo differed little from those of other peoples of the North. Caucasus. The remnants of the tribal system were manifested in the division into patronymics - small (mygkag) and large (osrvadosltoe). Large families persisted even in the first years of owls. authorities. All issues were resolved at the family council. The rights of the head of the family were limited. Usually the head was the eldest in age. Responsibilities between women were distributed by his wife or an older woman. Main family was a small family. It was dominated by patriarchal principles: the unconditional subordination of the younger to the elder, the lack of rights of women. At the same time, many elements of matriarchy have been preserved. The elderly woman was especially respected. The older woman was the manager of family and societies, celebrations. Most O. professed Orthodoxy, which penetrated into the 6th-7th centuries. from Byzantium, later from Georgia, from the 18th century. from Russia, a minority - Islam (accepted in the 17-18 centuries from the Kabardians); language was preserved. beliefs and rituals. Among the various genres of folklore, the epic about Narts, heroic. songs, legends, laments. In the 2nd floor. 19 - beg. 20th century Osset is formed. intelligentsia. In 1798 the first book on osset was published. lang. ("Short Catechism"). In the 40s. 19th century Russian philologist and ethnographer A.M. Sheg-ren compiled oset. grammar and osset. practical alphabet in Russian. basis. Spiritual and secular literature, folklore texts, school textbooks began to appear on it, and "Oset. Lira" ("Iron Fandyr") was also published. Until ser. 1910s in Ossetia there were more than 200 early. and cf. schools, which means the number of nat. intelligentsia, developed thin. literature, dramaturgy, prose appeared. In the future, education, culture, art, health care, science were developed, prof. theatres, state ensembles, teams.

Adygea

ADYGEES, Adyghe (self-designation), people in Russia (122.9 thousand people), indigenous people. Adygea (95.4 thousand people). They also live in neighboring districts of the Krasnodar Territory (20.8 thousand people). Some live in Turkey (5 thousand people) and the countries of Bl. East. Until the 20th century subethnic existed. groups: Abad-zekhs, Besleneyites, Bzhedugs, Zhaneyevtsy, Egerukhayevtsy, Makhegs, Makhoshevtsy, Natu-Khaytsy, Temirgoevtsy, Khatukaevtsy, Shapsugs, Khakuchis. They speak the Adyghe language. Abkhaz-Adyghe gr. North Caucasus. families, dialects: Temirgoevsky (lies in the main lit. language), Abadzekh, Bzhedug, Shapsug. Russian is widespread. lang. Writing in Russian. graphic basis. Believers are Sunni Muslims. A., like other Circassians - Kabardians and Circassians - are the descendants of the autochthonous us. North-West Caucasus. After the territory isolation in the 13th-14th centuries. ethnic Kabardians. processes among the rest. us. led to the formation of modern BUT. social development A. proceeded unevenly. Shapsugs, Na-Tukhais and Abadzekhs (the so-called democratic tribes) managed to limit the rights of their nobility, they were ruled by elected foremen. so-called aristocratic tribes (Bzhedugs, Temirgoevtsy, Khatukaevtsy, etc.) were ruled by princes. Since the 1820s the royal government began the systematic conquest of Adygea. The lift will release. movement during the years of the Caucasian war stimulated the Islamization of Azerbaijan, was accompanied by internal. self-organization of A., the foundations of the military state were formed. union of all groups of A. The last pockets of resistance A. were suppressed by the tsarist troops in 1864. Several. hundreds of thousands of A. in the 1860s. were deported and dispersed throughout the countries of Bl. East, a smaller part of A. moved to the flat districts. In 1922 arr. Adyghe avt. region, since 1937 as part of the Krasnodar Territory, since 1991 - Rep. Adygea. Traditional occupations - arable farming (millet, barley, since the 19th century the main crops - corn and wheat), horticulture, viticulture, cattle breeding (cr. and small horns. cattle, horse breeding). House. crafts - weaving, weaving, cloak and leather production, stone and wood carving, gold and silver embroidery. Traditional The settlements consisted of farmsteads, divided into patronymic. parts, on the plain - street-block layout. Traditional dwelling turluchnoe, single-chamber, attached to the Krom will add. insulated premises with entrance for married sons. Clothing of the general North Caucasian type, for men - undershirt, beshmet, Circassian coat, belt belt with a silver set, trousers, felt cloak, hat, hood, narrow felt or leather leggings; for women - harem pants, lower. a shirt, a tight-fitting caftan, a long swinging dress with a silver belt and long shoulder blades-pendants, a high cap trimmed with silver or gold galloon, a scarf. Grains, meat, dairy products are used in food, vegetables are widely used. In the beginning. 20th century with the predominance of small families, large-family communities (up to several tens of people) remained. The family way of life was determined by patriarchal customs and norms. However, in general, the position of women was quite high. Atalics were widespread. For the traditional beliefs are characterized by a branched pantheon, veneration of trees, groves, forests, etc. Folklore includes the Nart epic, various songs - heroic, lyrical, everyday, etc., dances.

Everyday life of the highlanders of the North Caucasus in the 19th century Kaziev Shapi Magomedovich

Family way

Family way

By the beginning of the 19th century, among many peoples of the North Caucasus, large patriarchal families give way to small, compact ones. Highlanders begin to settle, to conduct an independent economy, without losing family ties. The old family towers and large hall houses are no longer used for permanent residence, but for public, representative purposes. Weddings and other tribal and social celebrations and rituals are celebrated in these family nests. The transition to a small-family way of life was caused both by the improvement of the means of production and by the peculiarities of the agrarian system in the mountains, which was formed on the basis of terraced agriculture.

The formation of a new family began with the creation of a material base for its existence. The father, before marrying his eldest son, built a house for him within the aul. If this was not possible, he allocated a room in his house or built an extension. If there was not enough space, then, at the request of the father, for a fee or free of charge, with the permission of the jamaat (here - the council of the community, the people's assembly, in a broader sense - the council of elders and elders), land was allocated from public funds (usually in new settlements built at the edge of society).

Relatives, and even the whole society, helped build the house. The ancient, characteristic of all mountaineers, tradition of mutual assistance (gwai - among the Avars, belkhs - among the Chechens) gathered people both to help an individual person and to perform public works. This tradition still exists today. A highlander cannot pass by if someone is doing a job that he can be helped with. How will he not remain indifferent if other people need help.

The poet Gamzat Tsadasa, in an essay on family and marriage, wrote that “After the marriage, after a little time, the newlyweds were separated for independent living. They were given everything they needed to run an independent household. If the parents are unable to work - due to old age or illness, the division of the economy was not carried out.

Families with many sons enjoyed special respect. An Avar proverb: “If a son is born, a house will be built, if a daughter, the house will collapse” (“Vas gavuni ruk gabula, yas gayauni ruk bikhkhula”) meant not only the continuation or extinction of the family, but also the custom of the highlanders to build houses for their sons. This tradition, like most others, has survived to this day.

In addition to building a house, the head of the family alienated in favor of the married son on the rights of full ownership a share of arable land, mowing, farm buildings, forests and livestock. The same was allocated to a daughter who was getting married as a dowry, with the exception of residential and farm premises. Providing a new family with everything necessary was controlled by public opinion. After the separation, the older sons, who had already received their share, did not claim the inheritance of the parents, with whom the younger son remained, inheriting their property.

Weak and ruined families were given public support. If the newly formed family could not be provided with land from the property of the parents, the jamaat came to the rescue: the young were given land from the public fund. In Andia there were even public herds from which young married men were given horses if they did not receive them from their parents.

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Caucasus - a mighty mountain range stretching from west to east from the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov to the Caspian. In the southern spurs and valleys settled down Georgia and Azerbaijan , in the western part of its slopes descend to the Black Sea coast of Russia. The peoples that will be discussed in this article live in the mountains and foothills of the northern slopes. Administratively the territory of the North Caucasus is divided among seven republics : Adygea, Karachay-Cherkessia, Kabardino-Balkaria, North Ossetia-Alania, Ingushetia, Chechnya and Dagestan.

Appearance many indigenous people of the Caucasus is homogeneous. These are fair-skinned, mostly dark-eyed and dark-haired people with sharp features, with a large (“humped”) nose, and narrow lips. Highlanders are usually taller than plains dwellers. Among the Adygei blond hair and eyes are often found (perhaps as a result of mixing with peoples of Eastern Europe), a in the inhabitants of the coastal regions of Dagestan and Azerbaijan one feels an admixture, on the one hand, of Iranian blood (narrow faces), and on the other hand, of Central Asian blood (small noses).

It is not for nothing that the Caucasus is called Babylon - almost 40 languages ​​are "mixed" here. Scientists identify Western, Eastern and South Caucasian languages . In West Caucasian, or Abkhazian-Adyghe, they say Abkhazians, Abaza, Shapsugs (they live northwest of Sochi), Adyghes, Circassians, Kabardians . East Caucasian languages include Nakh and Dagestan.To the Nakh refer Ingush and Chechen a Dagestan are divided into several subgroups. The largest of them - Avar-Ando-Tsez. However Avar- the language of not only the Avars themselves. AT Northern Dagestan lives 15 small nations , each of which inhabits only a few neighboring villages located in isolated high mountain valleys. These peoples speak different languages, and Avar for them is the language of interethnic communication , it is taught in schools. In South Dagestan sound Lezgi languages . Lezgins live not only in Dagestan, but also in the neighboring regions of Azerbaijan . While the Soviet Union was a single state, such a division was not very noticeable, but now, when the state border has passed between close relatives, friends, acquaintances, the people are experiencing it painfully. Lezgi languages ​​are spoken : Tabasarans, Aguls, Rutuls, Tsakhurs and some others . In Central Dagestan dominated Dargin (in particular, it is spoken in the famous village of Kubachi) and Lak languages .

Turkic peoples also live in the North Caucasus - Kumyks, Nogais, Balkars and Karachays . There are mountain Jews-tats (in D Aghestan, Azerbaijan, Kabardino-Balkaria ). Their language tatian , refers to Iranian group of the Indo-European family . belongs to the Iranian group Ossetian .

Until October 1917 almost all the languages ​​of the North Caucasus were unwritten. In the 20s. for the languages ​​of most of the Caucasian peoples, except for the smallest ones, alphabets were developed on the Latin basis; A large number of books, newspapers and magazines were published. In the 30s. the Latin alphabet was replaced by Russian-based alphabets, but they turned out to be less adapted to the transmission of Caucasian speech sounds. Nowadays, books, newspapers, and magazines are published in local languages, but more people still read literature in Russian.

In total, in the Caucasus, not counting the settlers (Slavs, Germans, Greeks, etc.), there are more than 50 large and small indigenous peoples. Russians also live here, mainly in cities, but partly in villages and Cossack villages: in Dagestan, Chechnya and Ingushetia, this is 10-15% of the total population, in Ossetia and Kabardino-Balkaria - up to 30%, in Karachay-Cherkessia and Adygea - up to 40-50%.

By religion, most of the indigenous peoples of the Caucasus -Muslims . However Ossetians are mostly Orthodox , a Mountain Jews profess Judaism . Traditional Islam has long coexisted with pre-Muslim, pagan traditions and customs. At the end of the XX century. in some regions of the Caucasus, mainly in Chechnya and Dagestan, the ideas of Wahhabism became popular. This trend, which arose on the Arabian Peninsula, requires strict observance of Islamic norms of life, the rejection of music, dances, and opposes the participation of women in public life.

CAUCASIAN TREAT

Traditional occupations of the peoples of the Caucasus - arable farming and transhumance . Many Karachay, Ossetian, Ingush, Dagestan villages specialize in growing certain types of vegetables - cabbage, tomato, onion, garlic, carrot, etc . In the mountainous regions of Karachay-Cherkessia and Kabardino-Balkaria, transhumance sheep and goat breeding predominate; sweaters, hats, shawls, etc. are knitted from the wool and down of sheep and goats.

The nutrition of different peoples of the Caucasus is very similar. Its basis is cereals, dairy products, meat. The latter is 90% lamb, only Ossetians eat pork. Cattle are rarely slaughtered. True, everywhere, especially on the plains, a lot of birds are bred - chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese. The Adyghe and Kabardians know how to cook poultry well and in a variety of ways. The famous Caucasian kebabs are not cooked very often - lamb is either boiled or stewed. The ram is slaughtered and butchered according to strict rules. While the meat is fresh, different types of boiled sausages are made from the intestines, stomach, offal, which cannot be stored for a long time. Part of the meat is dried and dried for storage in reserve.

Vegetable dishes are not typical for the North Caucasian cuisine, but vegetables are constantly eaten - fresh, pickled and pickled; they are also used as a filling for pies. In the Caucasus, they love hot dairy dishes - they dilute cheese crumbs and flour in melted sour cream, they drink a chilled fermented milk product - ayran. The well-known kefir is an invention of the Caucasian highlanders; it is fermented with special fungi in wineskins. Karachays call this dairy product " gypy-airan ".

In a traditional feast, bread is often replaced with other types of flour and cereal dishes. First of all, this various cereals . In the Western Caucasus , for example, with any dishes much more often than bread, they eat cool millet or corn porridge .In the Eastern Caucasus (Chechnya, Dagestan) the most popular flour dish - khinkal (pieces of dough are boiled in meat broth or just in water, and eaten with sauce). Both porridge and khinkal require less fuel for cooking than baking bread, and therefore are common where firewood is in short supply. On the highlands , for shepherds, where there is very little fuel, the main food is oatmeal - fried to brown coarse flour, which is kneaded with meat broth, syrup, butter, milk, in extreme cases, just with water. Balls are molded from the resulting dough, and they are eaten with tea, broth, ayran. Of great everyday and ritual significance in the Caucasian cuisine are all kinds of pies - with meat, with potatoes, with beet tops and, of course, with cheese .Ossetians , for example, such a pie is called " phydia n". On the festive table, there must be three "walbaha"(cheese pies), and arrange them so that they are visible from the sky to St. George, whom the Ossetians especially revere.

In autumn, housewives prepare jams, juices, syrups . Previously, sugar in the manufacture of sweets was replaced with honey, molasses or boiled grape juice. Traditional Caucasian sweetness - halva. It is made from toasted flour or cereal balls fried in oil, adding butter and honey (or sugar syrup). In Dagestan they prepare a kind of liquid halva - urbech. Toasted seeds of hemp, flax, sunflower or apricot kernels are rubbed with vegetable oil diluted in honey or sugar syrup.

Fine grape wine is made in the North Caucasus .Ossetians long time ago brew barley beer ; among the Adyghes, Kabardians, Circassians and Turkic peoples replaces him booza, or mahsym a, - a kind of light beer made from millet. A stronger buza is obtained by adding honey.

Unlike their Christian neighbors - Russians, Georgians, Armenians, Greeks - mountain peoples of the Caucasus don't eat mushrooms gather wild berries, wild pears, nuts . Hunting, favourite hobby mountaineers, has now lost its importance, since large sections of the mountains are occupied by nature reserves, and many animals, such as bison, are included in the International Red Book. There are a lot of wild boars in the forests, but they are rarely hunted, because Muslims do not eat pork.

CAUCASUS VILLAGES

Since ancient times, the inhabitants of many villages, in addition to agriculture, were engaged in crafts . Balkars famous as skillful masons; laks manufacture and repair of metal products, and at fairs - original centers of public life - often performed residents of the village of Tsovkra (Dagestan), who mastered the art of tightrope walkers. Folk crafts of the North Caucasus known far beyond its borders: painted ceramics and patterned carpets from the Lak village of Balkhar, wooden items with metal notches from the Avar village of Untsukul, silver jewelry from the village of Kubachi. In many villages from Karachay-Cherkessia to Northern Dagestan , are engaged wool felting - cloaks, felt carpets are made . Burke a- a necessary part of the mountain and Cossack cavalry equipment. It protects from bad weather not only while riding - under a good cloak you can hide from bad weather, like in a small tent; it is absolutely irreplaceable for shepherds. In the villages of South Dagestan, especially among the Lezgins , make magnificent pile carpets highly valued all over the world.

Ancient Caucasian villages are extremely picturesque . Stone houses with flat roofs and open galleries with carved pillars are molded close to each other along the narrow streets. Often such a house is surrounded by defensive walls, and a tower with narrow loopholes rises next to it - earlier, the whole family hid in such towers during enemy raids. Now the towers are abandoned as unnecessary and are gradually being destroyed, so that the picturesqueness gradually disappears, and new houses are built of concrete or brick, with glazed verandas, often two or even three stories high.

These houses are not so original, but they are comfortable, and their furnishings are sometimes the same. from the city - a modern kitchen, plumbing, heating (although the toilet and even the washbasin are often located in the yard). New houses often serve only for receiving guests, and the family lives either on the ground floor or in an old house turned into a kind of living kitchen. In some places you can still see the ruins of ancient fortresses, walls and fortifications. In a number of places, cemeteries with old, well-preserved grave crypts have been preserved.

HOLIDAY IN THE MOUNTAIN VILLAGE

High in the mountains lies the Jezek village of Shaitli. At the beginning of February, when the days are getting longer and for the first time in winter, the sun's rays touch the slopes of Mount Hora, which rises above the village, to Shaitli celebrate the holiday igby ". This name comes from the word "ig" - this is the name of the Jezes baked with a ring of bread, similar to a bagel, with a diameter of 20-30 cm. For the Igbi holiday, such breads are baked in all homes, and young people prepare cardboard and leather masks, masquerade costumes.

The morning of the holiday is coming. A squad of “wolves” takes to the streets - guys dressed in sheepskin coats turned inside out with fur, with wolf masks on their faces and wooden swords. Their leader carries a pennant made of a strip of fur, and the two strongest men carry a long pole. "Wolves" go around the village and collect tribute from each yard - holiday bread; they are strung on a pole. There are other mummers in the squad: "goblin" in costumes made of moss and pine branches, "bears", "skeletons" and even modern characters, such as "policemen", "tourists". The mummers play funny siennas, bully the audience, they can even throw them into the snow, but no one is offended. Then a "Quidili" appears on the square, which symbolizes the past year, the passing winter. The guy depicting this character is dressed in a long hoodie made of skins. A pole sticks out of a slit in the hoodie, and on it is a “Quidili” head with a terrible mouth and horns. The actor imperceptibly from the audience controls the mouth with the help of ropes. "Quidili" climbs onto a "tribune" made of snow and ice and makes a speech. He wishes good luck to all good people in the new year, and then turns to the events of the past year. He names those who committed bad deeds, idled, hooligans, and the "wolves" grab the "guilty" and drag them to the river. More often they are let go halfway, only covered in snow, but some people can be dipped into the water, though only their feet. On the contrary, those who distinguished themselves by good deeds are “quited”, congratulating them and giving them a donut each from a pole.

As soon as the "Quidili" leaves the podium, the mummers pounce on him and drag him onto the bridge across the river. There the leader of the "wolves" "kills" him with a sword. A guy under a hoodie playing "quiddly" opens a hidden bottle of paint, and "blood" pours profusely on the ice. The "killed" is put on a stretcher and solemnly carried away. In a secluded place, the mummers undress, share the remaining bagels among themselves and join the merry people, but without masks and costumes.

TRADITIONAL COSTUME K A B R D I N T E V I C E R K E S O V

Adygs (Kabardians and Circassians) for a long time were considered trendsetters in the North Caucasus, and therefore their traditional costume had a noticeable influence on the clothes of neighboring peoples.

Male costume of Kabardians and Circassians developed at a time when men spent a significant part of their lives in military campaigns. The rider could not do without long cloak : she replaced his house and bed on the way, protected him from cold and heat, rain and snow. Another type of warm clothing - sheepskin coats, they were worn by shepherds and elderly men.

Also served as outerwear. Circassian . She was sewn from cloth, most often black, brown or gray, sometimes white. Before the abolition of serfdom, only princes and nobles had the right to wear white Circassians and cloaks. On both sides of the chest on a Circassian coat they sewed pockets for wooden gas tubes, in which they kept charges for guns . Noble Kabardians, in order to prove their dashing, often wore a tattered Circassian coat.

Under a Circassian coat, over an undershirt, they put on beshmet - caftan with a high stand-up collar, long and narrow sleeves. Representatives of the upper classes sewed beshmets from cotton, silk or thin woolen fabric, the peasants - from home cloth. Beshmet for the peasants was home and work clothes, and the Circassian was festive.

Headdress considered the most important element of men's clothing. It was worn not only for protection from cold and heat, but also for "honor". usually worn fur hat with cloth bottom ; in hot weather wide-brimmed felt hat . In bad weather, they threw over the hat cloth cap . Ceremonial hoods were decorated galloons and gold embroidery .

Princes and nobles wore red morocco shoes, decorated with galloons and gold , and the peasants - coarse shoes made of rawhide. It is no coincidence that in folk songs the struggle of the peasants against the feudal lords is called the struggle of "rawhide shoes against morocco".

Traditional women's costume of Kabardians and Circassians reflected social differences. Underwear was long silk or cotton shirt in red or orange . They put on a shirt short caftan trimmed with galloon, with massive silver clasps and. In cut, he looked like a man's beshmet. Over the caftan long dress . He had a slit in front, in which one could see the undershirt and caftan decorations. The costume was complemented belt with silver buckle . Red dresses were allowed to be worn only by women of noble origin..

Elderly wore wadded quilted caftan , a young , according to local custom, not supposed to have warm outerwear. Only a woolen shawl covered them from the cold.

Hats changed depending on the age of the woman. Girl went in a headscarf or bareheaded . When it was possible to marry her, she put on "golden cap" and wore until the birth of her first child .The hat was decorated with gold and silver galloon ; the bottom was made of cloth or velvet, and the top was crowned with a silver knob. After the birth of a child, a woman changed her hat for a dark scarf. ; above he was usually covered with a shawl to cover his hair . Shoes were sewn from leather and morocco, festive ones were always red.

CAUCASIAN TABLE ETIQUETTE

The peoples of the Caucasus have always attached great importance to the observance of table traditions. The basic prescriptions of traditional etiquette have survived to this day. Writing was supposed to be moderate. Not only gluttony was condemned, but also "polyeating". One of the writers of everyday life of the peoples of the Caucasus noted that the Ossetians are content with such an amount of food, "with which a European can hardly exist for any long time." This was especially true for alcoholic beverages. For example, among the Circassians it was considered dishonorable to get drunk at a party. Drinking alcohol was once a sacred act. "They drink with great solemnity and reverence ... always with their heads bare as a sign of the highest humility," an Italian traveler of the 15th century reported about the Circassians. G. Interiano.

Caucasian feast - a kind of performance, where the behavior of everyone is described in detail: men and women, older and younger, hosts and guests. As a rule, even if the meal was held in the home circle, men and women did not sit at the same table together . The men ate first, followed by the women and children. However, on holidays they were allowed to eat at the same time, but in different rooms or at different tables. Seniors and juniors also did not sit at the same table, and if they sat down, then in the established order - the elders at the "upper", the younger at the "lower" end of the table. In the old days, for example, among the Kabardians, the younger ones only stood at the walls and served the elders; they were called like that - "supporters of the walls" or "standing over their heads."

The manager of the feast was not the owner, but the eldest of those present - "master of ceremonies". This Adyghe-Abkhazian word has become widespread, and now it can be heard outside the Caucasus. He made toasts, gave the floor; assistants relied on the toastmaster at large tables. In general, it is difficult to say what was done more at the Caucasian table: they ate or made toasts. The toasts were lavish. The qualities and merits of the person they spoke about were extolled to the skies. The solemn meal was always interrupted by songs and dances.

When they received a respected and dear guest, they necessarily made a sacrifice: they slaughtered either a cow, or a ram, or a chicken. Such "shedding of blood" was a sign of respect. Scientists see in it an echo of the pagan identification of the guest with God. No wonder the Circassians have a saying "The guest is God's messenger." For Russians, it sounds even more definite: "A guest in the house - God in the house."

Both in the solemn and in the ordinary feast, great importance was attached to the distribution of meat. The best, honorable pieces relied on the guests and the elders. At Abkhazians the main guest was presented with a shoulder blade or thigh, the oldest - half a head; at Kabardians the best pieces were considered the right half of the head and the right shoulder blade, as well as the brisket and navel of the bird; at Balkarian - right scapula, femur, joints of the hind limbs. Others received their shares in order of seniority. The animal carcass was supposed to be divided into 64 pieces.

If the host noticed that his guest, out of decency or embarrassment, stopped eating, he offered him one more share of honor. Refusal was considered indecent, no matter how full he was. The host never stopped eating before the guests.

Table etiquette provided standard invitation and refusal formulas. This is how they sounded, for example, among the Ossetians. They never answered: "I'm full", "I ate". You should have said, "Thank you, I'm not shy, I've treated myself well." Eating all the food served on the table was also considered indecent. The dishes that remained untouched were called by the Ossetians "the share of the one who cleans the table." The famous explorer of the North Caucasus V.F. Muller said that in the poor houses of Ossetians, table etiquette is observed more strictly than in the gilded palaces of the European nobility.

At the feast, they never forgot about God. The meal began with a prayer to the Almighty, and every toast, every well-wishes (to the host, home, toastmaster, those present) - with the pronunciation of his name. The Abkhazians were asked that the Lord bless the person in question; among the Circassians at the festival, say, about the construction of a new house, they said: "May God make this place happy," etc.; Abkhazians often used such a feast wish: "May both God and people bless you" or simply: "May people bless you."

Women in the men's feast, according to tradition, did not participate. They could only serve the feasters in the guest room - "kunatskaya". Among some peoples (mountain Georgians, Abkhazians, etc.), the mistress of the house sometimes still went out to the guests, but only to proclaim a toast in their honor and immediately leave.

THE FESTIVAL OF THE RETURN OF THE PLOWERS

The most important event in the life of a farmer is plowing and sowing. Among the peoples of the Caucasus, the beginning and completion of these works were accompanied by magical rituals: according to popular beliefs, they were supposed to contribute to a bountiful harvest.

Adygs went to the field at the same time - the whole village or, if the village was big, by the street. They elected a "senior plowman", determined a place for the camp, built huts. Here they installed banner" plowmen - a five-seven-meter pole with a piece of yellow matter attached to it. The yellow color symbolized the ripened ears, the length of the pole - the size of the future harvest. Therefore, they tried to make the "banner" as long as possible. He was vigilantly guarded - so that the plowmen from other camps would not steal. Those who lost the "banner" were threatened with crop failure, while the thieves, on the contrary, had more grain.

The first furrow was laid by the most successful grain grower. Before that, arable land, bulls, a plow were doused with water or booze (an intoxicating drink made from cereals). Lili buzu also on the first inverted layer of the earth. The plowmen tore off each other's hats and threw them on the ground so that the plow plowed them. It was believed that the more caps in the first furrow, the better.

The entire period of spring work plowmen lived in the camp. They worked from dawn to dusk, but nevertheless there was time for funny jokes and games. So, secretly visiting the village, the guys stole a hat from a girl from a noble family. A few days later, she was solemnly returned, and the family of the "injured" arranged feasts and dances for the whole village. In response to the theft of a hat, peasants who did not go to the field stole a plow belt from the camp. To “rescue the belt”, food and drinks were brought to the house where it was hidden as a ransom. It should be added that a number of prohibitions are associated with the plow. For example, it was impossible to sit on it. The "guilty" was beaten with nettles or tied to the wheel of a cart that had fallen on its side and turned around. If a "stranger" sat on a plow, not from his own camp, they demanded a ransom from him.

The famous game shaming the cooks." They chose a "commission", and she checked the work of the cooks. If she found omissions, relatives had to bring treats to the field.

Especially solemnly the Circassians celebrated the end of the sowing. Women prepared buza and various dishes in advance. Carpenters for shooting competitions made a special target - a tavern ("kabak" in some Turkic languages ​​- a type of pumpkin). The target looked like a gate, only smaller. Wooden figures of animals and birds were hung on the crossbar, and each figure denoted a certain prize. The girls worked on the mask and clothes for the azhegafe ("dancing goat"). Azhegafe was the main character of the holiday. His role was played by the witty, cheerful person. He put on a mask, an inside-out fur coat, tied his tail and a long beard, crowned his head with goat horns, armed himself with a wooden saber and a dagger.

Solemnly, on decorated carts, plowmen returned to the village . A "banner" flaunted on the front arba, and a target was fixed on the last one. Horsemen followed the procession and fired at the tavern at full gallop. To make it harder to hit the figures, the target was specially swung.

Throughout the journey from the field to the village, azhegafe entertained the people. Even the most daring jokes got away with it. The servants of Islam, considering the liberties of azhegafe as blasphemy, cursed him and never participated in the holiday. However, this character was so loved by the Circassians that they did not pay attention to the prohibition of the priests.

Before reaching the village, the procession stopped. The plowmen laid out a platform for a joint meal and games, with a plow they made a deep furrow around it. At this time, azhegafe went around the houses, collecting treats. He was accompanied by his "wife", whose role was played by a man dressed in women's clothes. They acted out funny scenes: for example, azhegafe fell dead, and for his "resurrections, treats were demanded from the owner of the house, etc.

The holiday lasted several days and was accompanied by plentiful refreshments, dancing and fun. On the final day, they arranged horse races and horse riding.

In the 40s. 20th century the holiday of the return of the plowmen disappeared from the life of the Circassians . But one of my favorite characters - agegafe - and now can often be found at weddings and other celebrations.

HANZEGUACHE

Can the most ordinary shovel become a princess? It turns out that this also happens.

The Circassians have a rite of calling rain, called "khanieguashe" . "Khanie" - in Adyghe "shovel", "gua-she" - "princess", "mistress". The ceremony was usually performed on Friday. Young women would gather and use a wooden shovel to win the grain to work for the Princess: they attached a crossbar to the handle, dressed the shovel in women's clothes, covered it with a scarf, and girded it. The "neck" was decorated with a "necklace" - a sooty chain, on which a cauldron is hung over the hearth. They tried to take her in a house where there were cases of death from a lightning strike. If the owners objected, the chain was sometimes even stolen.

Women, always barefoot, took a scarecrow by the "hands" and with the song "God, in Your name we lead Hanieguashe, send us rain" went around all the yards of the village. The hostesses took out treats or money and poured water over the women, saying: "God, accept favorably." Those who made stingy offerings to Hanieguasha were condemned by the neighbors.

Gradually, the procession increased: it was joined by women and children from the yards where Hanieguashe was "brought in". Sometimes they carried with them milk strainers and fresh cheese. They had a magical meaning: as easily as milk passes through a strainer, it should rain from the clouds; cheese symbolized moisture-saturated soil.

Having bypassed the village, the women carried the scarecrow to the river and set it on the bank. It was time for the ritual baths. Participants of the ceremony pushed each other into the river and poured water over them. They especially tried to pour over young married women who had small children.

The Black Sea Shapsugs then threw the scarecrow into the water, and after three days they pulled it out and broke it. The Kabardians, on the other hand, brought the scarecrow to the center of the village, invited musicians and danced around Chanieguashe until dark. The celebrations ended with seven buckets of water dousing the scarecrow. Sometimes, instead of it, a dressed-up frog was carried through the streets, which was then thrown into the river.

After sunset, a feast began, at which they ate the treats collected in the village. Magical significance in the rite had universal fun and laughter.

The image of Khanieguashe goes back to one of the characters in the mythology of the Circassians - the mistress of the rivers Psyhoguashe. She was asked to send down rain. Since Hanieguashe personified the pagan goddess of waters, the day of the week when she "visited" the village was considered sacred. According to popular notions, an unseemly act committed on this day was a particularly grave sin.

The vagaries of the weather are not subject to man; drought, like many years ago, visits the fields of farmers from time to time. And then Khanieguashe walks through the Adyghe villages, giving hope for a quick and plentiful rain, amusing old and small. Of course, at the end of the XX century. this rite is perceived more as entertainment, and mainly children participate in it. Adults, not even believing that it is possible to make rain in this way, give them sweets and money with pleasure.

ATALYCHESTVO

If a modern person were asked where children should be brought up, he would answer with bewilderment: "Where, if not at home?" Meanwhile, in antiquity early Middle Ages was widespread the custom when a child immediately after birth was given to be raised in a strange family . This custom was recorded among the Scythians, ancient Celts, Germans, Slavs, Turks, Mongols and some other peoples. It existed in the Caucasus until the beginning of the 20th century. all mountain peoples from Abkhazia to Dagestan. Caucasian scholars call it the Turkic word "atalyism" (from "atalyk" - "like a father").

As soon as a son or daughter was born in a respected family, applicants for the position of atalyk hurried to offer their services. The more noble and richer the family was, the more people were willing. To get ahead of everyone, a newborn was sometimes stolen. It was believed that an atalyk should not have more than one pupil or pupil. The breadwinner was his wife (atalychka) or her relative. Sometimes, over time, the child moved from one atalyk to another.

Adopted children were raised in much the same way as relatives. The difference was in one thing: the atalyk (and his whole family) paid much more attention to the adopted child, he was better fed and clothed. When the boy was taught to ride, and then horseback riding, to wield a dagger, a pistol, a gun, to hunt, they looked after him more carefully than their own sons. If there were military skirmishes with neighbors, the atalyk took the teenager with him and covered him up with his own body. The girl was introduced to women's housework, taught to embroider, initiated into the intricacies of complex Caucasian etiquette, and instilled accepted ideas about women's honor and pride. An exam was coming up in the parental home, and the young man had to show what he had learned in public. Young men usually returned to their father and mother, having reached the age of majority (at 16 years old) or by the time of marriage (at 18 years old); girls are usually earlier.

All the time while the child lived with the atalyk, he did not see his parents. Therefore, in native home returned as if to a strange family. Years passed before he got used to his father and mother, brothers and sisters. But closeness with the atalyk's family was maintained throughout life, and, according to custom, it was equated to blood.

Returning the pupil, atalyk gave him clothes, weapons, a horse . But he himself and his wife received even more generous gifts from the pupil's father: several heads of cattle, sometimes even land. A close relationship was established between the two families, the so-called artificial relationship, no less strong than blood.

Kinship by atalism was established between people of equal social status. - princes, nobles, rich peasants; sometimes between neighboring peoples (Abkhazians and Mingrelians, Kabardians and Ossetians, etc.). Princely families entered into dynastic unions in this way. In other cases, the superior feudal lord transferred the child to be brought up by a subordinate or a wealthy peasant - a less prosperous one. The father of the pupil not only gave gifts to the atalyk, but also supported him, protected him from enemies, etc. In this way, he expanded the circle of dependent people. Atalik parted with part of his independence, but acquired a patron. It is no coincidence that among the Abkhazians and Circassians adults could become "pupils". In order for milk kinship to be considered recognized, the "pupil" touched his lips to the breast of the atalyk's wife. The Chechens and Ingush, who did not know a pronounced social stratification, did not develop the custom of atalism.

At the beginning of the 20th century, scientists proposed 14 explanations for the origin of atalism. Now any serious explanations two left. According to M. O. Kosven, a prominent Russian Caucasian scholar, atalychestvo - the remainder of the avunculate (from lat. avunculus - "mother's brother"). This custom was known in antiquity. As a relic, it has been preserved among some modern peoples (especially in Central Africa). Avunculate established the closest connection between the child and the uncle on the mother's side: according to the rules, it was the uncle who raised the child. However, supporters of this hypothesis cannot answer a simple question: why did not the mother's brother, but a stranger, become the atalyk? Another explanation seems more convincing. Education in general and Caucasian atalyism in particular was recorded no earlier than at the time of the decomposition of the primitive communal system and the emergence of classes. Old kinship ties were already torn, but there were no new ones yet. People, in order to acquire supporters, protectors, patrons, etc., established artificial kinship. One of its types was atalism.

"SENIOR" AND "JUNIOR" IN THE CAUCASUS

Politeness and restraint are highly valued in the Caucasus. No wonder the Adyghe proverb says: "Do not strive for a place of honor - if you deserve it, you will get it." Especially Adyghes, Circassians, Kabardians are known for their strict morals . They attach great importance to their appearance: even in hot weather, a jacket and a hat are indispensable details of clothing. You need to walk sedately, talk slowly, quietly. Standing and sitting are supposed to be decorous, you can’t lean against the wall, cross your legs, all the more carelessly fall apart in a chair. If a person passes by, older in age, albeit a complete stranger, you need to stand up and bow.

Hospitality and respect for elders - the cornerstones of Caucasian ethics. The guest is surrounded by vigilant attention: they will allocate the best room in the house, they will not leave one for a minute - all the time until the guest goes to bed, either the owner himself, or his brother, or another close relative will be with him. The host usually dines with the guest, perhaps older relatives or friends will join, but the hostess and other women will not sit at the table, they will only serve. The younger members of the family may not show up at all, and even making them sit down at the table with the Elders is completely unthinkable. They sit down at the table in the accepted order: at the head is the toastmaster, that is, the manager of the feast (the owner of the house or the eldest among those gathered), to the right of him is the guest of honor, then in seniority.

When two people walk down the street, the youngest usually walks to the left of the oldest. . If a third person joins them, let's say middle-aged, the younger one moves to the right and a little back, and the newly approached one takes his place on the left. In the same order they sit down in an airplane or car. This rule dates back to the Middle Ages, when people went armed, with a shield on their left hand, and the younger was obliged to protect the elder from a possible ambush attack.

Life
and life of peoples
Caucasus

abstract
Completed by: student of 9 "B" class
Asochakova Ekaterina
Askiz 2017

The Caucasus is a region where several dozen representatives of various nationalities live. Thanks to their mixing, today it is possible to draw up an approximate picture of the life and traditions of the Caucasian peoples as a whole.
Basic family traditions
Family customs in the Caucasus are revered by everyone - both old people and young people. The head of the family is naturally a man. A man in the Caucasus is the head and patron, he has a very high authority. The most important people are the elders, they are always right and they are listened to and not misunderstood. In general, it is customary among Caucasians that if you honor and respect your elders at a young age, life will be happy and successful. At the same time, many believe that the manifestation of such respect is the secret of the longevity of the inhabitants of the Caucasus. It is worth noting that in houses where people of different consanguinity live together, the rooms are arranged in such a way that they do not meet each other. Even by chance, a daughter-in-law with her father-in-law, for example, cannot collide in a dwelling. If an elder or a fair sex is present nearby, the man should modestly stand aside.
traditional hospitality
Everyone knows how hospitable the peoples of the Caucasus are. Even if some random traveler wanders into the house, in most cases he will be offered food and shelter for the night. For guests who are expected in Caucasian families, either a separate house or a room is necessarily prepared in advance. Guests are treated with due respect and protected if difficult relationships arise with other family members. At the festival, the head of the family takes the dominant place in the center of the table.
Facts about holding marriages in the Caucasus
Surprisingly, for girls, the appointment of a betrothed takes place at a very young age - at 9 years old. A young man gets married when he turns 15 years old. The rite of marriage is fixed by a special contract, before signing which the bride and groom never see each other in their lives. After the conclusion of the marriage contract, the celebration itself begins in honor of the wedding. Many people know that wedding festivities in the Caucasus do not last one day, but much more. A huge number of guests are invited. After marriage, absolutely all household chores fall on the wife. A man is obliged to keep his family in abundance, work and feed his wife. If a couple becomes engaged without having a home of their own, the husband must rebuild it as quickly as possible.
Wedding and wedding ceremonies and rituals
The wedding, as well as the matchmaking, was filled with a number of etiquette moments. First of all, these are congratulations addressed to the parents of the bride. According to the rules of etiquette, men congratulated the father of the bride, women congratulated the mother.
Men and women who arrived for the wedding were arranged in different tents, the guests were seated according to seniority. Boys served men at the table, and girls served women. At the table, all the rules of table etiquette were observed. In addition, men observed the rules for drinking intoxicating drinks.
One of the entertainments of the wedding celebration was the performance of folk songs by the singers, during which the listeners had to adhere to certain rules of behavior: they were not supposed to talk, shout out lines from the place, interrupt the singer, give someone various signs, gesticulate. It was forbidden during the collective listening to songs, music defiantly leave your place. If such a need arose, then this should have been done as inconspicuously as possible. The presence of women was not forbidden, but they never sat next to men.
According to etiquette, the newlyweds at the wedding were not supposed to be together. Dancing was another entertaining moment at the wedding. Dancing couples also followed certain norms of behavior: the initiative to invite to the dance always came only from the man, and its completion - from the girl. It was strictly forbidden to force a girl to dance, to make unnecessary movements not provided for by the dance, to laugh, to make faces, the girl had to behave modestly, not run out to meet her partner, not show a special desire to dance, etc.
According to etiquette, the bride was met by all older relatives, except for the groom. Etiquette did not allow the groom's family to openly express their dissatisfaction with the small size of the dowry, its composition and the quality of the things included in it. As a sign of respect for the new family, the bridegroom's relatives stood until the end of the wedding. According to the etiquette of each visitor, the bride greeted with a nod of her head.
The toastmaster led the feast. If someone wanted to leave for a short time, he had to ask permission from the toastmaster. Those present showed respect to the departing and returning by standing up. These traditions were strictly adhered to by other Turkic peoples. After the wedding, the newlyweds continued to observe the customs of avoidance, they did not talk to each other in front of strangers and did not retire.
One of the final stages of the wedding ceremony was a visit to the newlywed's parental home after the wedding. Her visit to her parents was also furnished with a number of etiquette moments. So, a young daughter-in-law from her husband's aul had to leave unnoticed, on foot, and drive up to her father's aul in a cart. Being visiting her parents, she was not supposed to show that some changes had taken place in her life. She also tried to leave her father's house unnoticed, without drawing attention to herself. Approaching her husband's aul, she again got off the cart and tried to enter the house unnoticed. On subsequent visits to the parental home, this concealment was no longer observed.
The end of the wedding ceremonies was the invitation of the son-in-law to the wife's parental home. Conversational taboos and avoidances were observed between the son-in-law and the wife's relatives. They became less strict after an official invitation to the father-in-law's house, although even after that the son-in-law was not allowed to address the father-in-law by name, drink, smoke in front of him, etc. The son-in-law did not call the mother-in-law by name either, did not go into her room, did not sit next to her, did not touch the mother-in-law, did not expose her head and other parts of the body to her. Communication between them was reduced to a minimum. The mother-in-law behaved in a similar way with regard to the son-in-law.
The abduction of the bride
There is such an unusual tradition here, called "bride kidnapping", which is still in effect. There were times when one could end up in prison for kidnapping a person in the Caucasus. But this never stopped the hot highlanders. And so, there is a guy who had a desire to create a strong family. He wants to take a certain girl as his wife. After that, he draws up a clear plan for the kidnapping of the future bride and coordinates it with his closest friends. On the appointed day, the young guy goes for the chosen one. If earlier young men rode a horse to be kidnapped, then modern Caucasians go by car. The bride was usually kidnapped in broad daylight and just from the street. As soon as the girl spends the night in the possessions of her visitor, she immediately automatically becomes his wife. This custom is usually resorted to by young people in love, whose families for one reason or another are at enmity.
Birth of a child
The birth of a child in all nationalities is considered a joyful event. However, some peoples have special rituals associated with the birth of a new person. For example, in the Caucasus, the rite of the birth of a child completely excludes the presence of a man during childbirth and even in the house where a woman gives birth. Most often, the husband had to leave his home for several days, until the child was born, and all the necessary rites were performed. Let's talk about this in more detail.
The birth of a son is honor and respect
According to Caucasian traditions, a woman who gave birth to a son received the right to communicate with influential family members, who were often her husband's parents, as well as other privileged persons. Prior to this, a woman could communicate with them only through her husband, not having the right to personally apply for any reason. All relatives were informed about the birth of a child by the boys who were in the premises where the woman in labor was. Most often, such an important mission fell on the shoulders of male children who were related to a woman who produced offspring. When the news reached the happy father, he had to give the children who reported the good news a dagger and checkers.
The first days of a baby's life
Another interesting custom that was performed at the first bath of a newborn was cleansing from possible damage and the evil eye. In the container where the baby was bathed (basin), it was necessary to put scissors and say certain words. It was believed that in this way, any connection with the sins that the mother had before the birth of the child and could pass on to the baby is interrupted. In addition, by a special sentence, all evil spirits that could seduce a new inexperienced soul were driven away from the child.
Feeding a newborn
In Caucasian families where a child was born, the newly-made mother was forbidden to feed the baby in the first days of life. Relatives of the woman in labor or neighbors were engaged in feeding. After some time, the mother began to feed the child on her own. Another important tradition associated with the birth of a baby in Caucasian families was the moment of presenting the cradle. Relatives had to give a kind of bed. At the same time, very often one cradle was inherited many times. In addition, a beautiful cradle, inherited by the daughter's mother, is a sign of prosperity and wealth, and also promises a good future for the baby.
Religion
Three main religions are practiced in the Caucasus:
1) Christian (two sects: Greek and Armenian);
2) Islam (two sects: Omar, or Sunnis, and Ali, or Shiites); 3) idolatry, or paganism.
The Greek (Orthodox) religion is widespread among Georgians, Imeretians, Mingrelians, Tushins, Khevsurs and among part of the Ossetians.
The inhabitants of the Transcaucasian regions, starting from Derbent, Cuba, Shirvan, Karabakh and ending with Baku, are Muslims, they treat the Ali sect like the Persians (they are Shiites). The population of northern Dagestan, Tatars, Nogais and Trukhmens are Sunnis (from the Omar sect); the same religion was not so long ago adopted by the Circassians, Chechens, part of the Abaza, Ossetians and Lezgins. There are also many Sunnis in the regions of Transcaucasia.
Idolatry is widespread among the Abazins, Ossetians, Kist peoples and some Lezgin tribes. The Jews, here called Uriah, are scattered in small numbers throughout the Caucasus.
All actually Caucasian peoples once professed Christianity. They still have many ruins of ancient temples and the remains of Christian customs. Only at the end of the last century did the Circassians and Chechens change their religion under the influence of the sermons of the famous false prophet Sheikh Mansur. They adopted the Islam of the Omar sect, but did not become better Mohammedans than they were Christians, since most of the inhabitants of the Caucasus can neither read nor write: they know the laws of the Koran very superficially and follow only the advice of their fanatical mullahs, mostly Turks by origin, inspiring they hate Christians and Muslims of the Ali sect. It would seem that in order to civilize these still semi-savage barbarians, it would be quite easy to re-subordinate them to the dogmas of the Christian religion, but in order to achieve this goal, it would first be necessary to develop in them a greater taste for agriculture, trade, to let them feel the advantages and joys of civilization.
Caucasian treat
The traditional occupations of the peoples of the Caucasus are arable farming and transhumance. Many Karachay, Ossetian, Ingush, and Dagestan villages specialize in growing certain types of vegetables—cabbages, tomatoes, onions, garlic, carrots, and so on. sweaters, hats, shawls, etc. are knitted from the wool and down of sheep and goats.
The nutrition of different peoples of the Caucasus is very similar. Its basis is cereals, dairy products, meat. The latter is 90% lamb, only Ossetians eat pork. Cattle are rarely slaughtered. True, everywhere, especially on the plains, a lot of birds are bred - chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese. The Adyghe and Kabardians know how to cook poultry well and in a variety of ways. The famous Caucasian kebabs are not cooked very often - lamb is either boiled or stewed. The ram is slaughtered and butchered according to strict rules. While the meat is fresh, different types of boiled sausages are made from the intestines, stomach, offal, which cannot be stored for a long time. Part of the meat is dried and dried for storage in reserve.
Vegetable dishes are not typical for the North Caucasian cuisine, but vegetables are constantly eaten - fresh, pickled and pickled; they are also used as a filling for pies. In the Caucasus, they love hot dairy dishes - they dilute cheese crumbs and flour in melted sour cream, they drink a chilled sour-milk product - ayran. The well-known kefir is an invention of the Caucasian highlanders; it is fermented with special fungi in wineskins. The Karachays call this dairy product "gypy-airan".
In a traditional feast, bread is often replaced with other types of flour and cereal dishes. First of all, these are various cereals. In the Western Caucasus, for example, with any dish, much more often than bread, they eat cool millet or corn porridge. In the Eastern Caucasus (Chechnya, Dagestan), the most popular flour dish is khinkal (pieces of dough are boiled in meat broth or simply in water, and eaten with sauce). Both porridge and khinkal require less fuel for cooking than baking bread, and therefore are common where firewood is in short supply. In the highlands, among the shepherds, where there is very little fuel, the main food is oatmeal - wholemeal fried to brown, which is kneaded with meat broth, syrup, butter, milk, in extreme cases, just water. Balls are molded from the resulting dough, and they are eaten with tea, broth, ayran. All kinds of pies are of great everyday and ritual significance in Caucasian cuisine - with meat, with potatoes, with beet tops and, of course, with cheese. Among Ossetians, for example, such a pie is called "fydiin". Three "walibakhs" (pies with cheese) must be on the festive table, and they are arranged so that they are visible from the sky to St. George, whom Ossetians especially revere. In autumn, housewives prepare jams, juices, syrups. Previously, sugar in the manufacture of sweets was replaced with honey, molasses or boiled grape juice. Traditional Caucasian sweetness - halva. It is made from toasted flour or cereal balls fried in oil, adding butter and honey (or sugar syrup). In Dagestan they prepare a kind of liquid halva - urbech. Toasted seeds of hemp, flax, sunflower or apricot kernels are rubbed with vegetable oil diluted in honey or sugar syrup.
Fine grape wine is made in the North Caucasus. Ossetians have been brewing barley beer for a long time; among the Adyghes, Kabardians, Circassians and Turkic peoples, it is replaced by buza, or makhsyma, a kind of light beer made from millet. A stronger buza is obtained by adding honey.
Unlike their Christian neighbors - Russians, Georgians, Armenians, Greeks - the mountain peoples of the Caucasus do not eat mushrooms, but gather wild berries, wild pears, and nuts. Hunting, a favorite pastime of the highlanders, has now lost its importance, since large sections of the mountains are occupied by nature reserves, and many animals, such as bison, are included in the International Red Book. There are a lot of wild boars in the forests, but they are rarely hunted, because Muslims do not eat pork.
Poetic creativity
In the poetic work of the peoples of the Caucasus significant place occupied by epic stories. Georgians know the epic about the hero Amirani, who fought the ancient gods and was chained to a rock for this, the romantic epic Esteriani, which tells about the tragic love of Prince Abesalom and the shepherdess Eteri. Among the Armenians, the medieval epic "Sasun bogatyrs" or "David of Sasun" is widespread, reflecting the heroic struggle of the Armenian people against the enslavers.
Oral poetic and musical folk art continues to develop today. It has been enriched with new content. Life is widely reflected in songs, fairy tales and other types of folk art. Soviet country. Many songs are dedicated to the heroic labor of the Soviet people, the friendship of peoples, and heroic deeds in the Great Patriotic War. Ensembles of amateur performances enjoy wide popularity among all the peoples of the Caucasus.
Conclusion

The Caucasus is Russia in miniature. Numerous population with their own customs, traditions, beliefs, languages, culture and history. There is much in common in the social life, traditions and customs of the peoples of the Caucasus, although, of course, each people has its own differences.