Understanding Time in Western and Eastern Cultures (translated by Business Insider). They and us

Text: Richard Lewis, Business Insider. Translation: Grigory Nikolaev, Sputnik and Pogrom

Richard Donald Lewis (born 1930) is a British polyglot, cross-cultural communication specialist and consultant, author of books and research. Speaks 11 languages ​​(English, French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, German, Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Finnish and Japanese). The author of the "Lewis model", which typifies the key global cultural norms and allows you to communicate with representatives of other cultures with high efficiency. Head of business cultural consulting firm Richard Lewis Communications.

Eastern and Western cultures see time differently. Moreover, even in these groups, different peoples have different attitudes to the concept of time. Even if we consider only the countries of the Western Hemisphere, close countries, such as the United States and Mexico, view time from diametrically opposed points of view, which often leads to mutual misunderstanding. And if you take Western Europe, it turns out that the Swiss concept of time is still different from the concepts adopted even in Italy, neighboring Switzerland. The Thais understand time differently than the Japanese. In Britain, they believe that the future lies ahead of you. And in Madagascar, it "flows" into the back of the head behind the person.

Linear time

Let's start with American time, the most expensive of all, as anyone who has dealt with American doctors, dentists or lawyers will attest. For an American, time is truly money. In a profit-oriented society, time is a rare commodity. It rushes like a mountain river in the spring, and those who want to make money on it must rush without falling behind. Americans are people of action; they do not tolerate idleness. The past is already gone, but now the present - the present can be cut into pieces, wrapped, packaged and made to work for your future. Chart 1 shows how Americans see time. Scheme 2 - how they use it.

Scheme 1: the idea of ​​time among Americans

Figure 2: How Americans Use Time

In the US, you need to make money - if you can't do it, then you're nobody. Suppose a person has 40 working years ahead, and he wants to earn $ 4 million, that is, $ 100,000 annually. If it takes 250 working days to earn this annual amount, then $400 should be earned per day, or $50 per hour. Considering all this, an American can say that the price of his time is $50 per hour. Americans also discuss ways to spend, squander, plan, and save time. Sounds pretty logical, but only as long as this logic is not transferred to other cultures. Suppose a Portuguese fisherman did not catch a single fish in two hours of fishing. Did he waste his time? If a Sicilian priest failed on Thursday to convince someone to accept his faith - does this mean that his day was wasted? What if German composer, French poet or Spanish artist did not generate a single original idea last week - can their losses be measured in money?

Americans are not the only people obsessed with saving time. This attitude to time is practically a religion in Switzerland or Germany. All these countries, together with Britain, the whole Anglo-Saxon world, Holland, Austria and Scandinavia, they all view time linearly. Like the Americans, all these peoples consider the time not taken up by any activity to be wasted.

These peoples are monochronic; that is, they prefer to perform one action in a certain period of time, following a fixed schedule. They consider such behavior effective and efficient. Moreover, due to the prevalence of the Protestant ethic in their countries, they correlate time spent with success; the more you work, the more time you spend on work, the more successful and richer you will be. To American ears, this sounds perfectly reasonable. For the British, sensitive to classes and estates, it is already more doubtful. Well, the inhabitants of Southern Europe, where proximity to power, privileges and questions of origin at every corner prove the inaccuracy of such a theory, simply consider this idea divorced from reality. In the society that existed in the Soviet Union, it was fair to say that the most successful person was the one who worked the least (or did not work at all), but was rewarded at the same time.

Multi-active time

Southern Europeans do not understand time in a linear-active way, but in a multi-active way (see Lewis's analysis of multi-active, linear-active, and reactive cultures). The more activities they can do at the same time, the happier and more successful they feel. They organize their time (and life) differently than Americans, Germans or Swiss. Multi-active peoples are not interested in schedules or punctuality. Yes, they say they appreciate them, especially when talking to a linearly active partner, but in reality they consider the present time to be more important than any schedule for the future. In their priority order, the top priority is the fun or importance of the action.

Spaniards, Italians and Arabs are more likely to ignore the passage of time if it forces them to end a conversation prematurely. For them, interpersonal relationships are the best way to spend time. For an Italian, for example, time is secondary to human feeling. He can ask a German colleague: “Why are you so angry that I came at 9.30?”. “In my diary, the meeting was scheduled for 9.00,” the German will answer. A perfectly logical Italian response to this would be: "So why don't you rewrite the time for 9.30, and we will both be happy?". Our business and relationship is so important that the time of the meeting does not matter. Only the fact of the meeting is important. The Germans or the Swiss hate this approach, as it goes against their sense of order, neatness, their desire to plan events.

The Spaniard will take the side of the Italian. The disorganization of the Spaniard has a reason. The German believes in one truth - the truth of science. The Spaniard, on the other hand, adheres to a double truth - the truth real world and universal poetic truth. Therefore, the German will assume that he and the Spaniard understand each other (see Diagram 3), and the Spaniard himself, who adheres to the concept of double truth, will understand the situation in accordance with Diagram 4. As for punctuality, in the case of the Spaniards, it is better not to come to meetings on time. Moreover, in Spain, punctuality violates the very process of meetings (see figure 4.5).

Scheme 3: what the Germans and Spaniards see

Diagram 4: how the Spaniards actually see

Scheme 5: the Spaniards schedule: in theory and practice

Few northern Europeans or North Americans are able to understand the multi-active vision of time. The Germans and the Swiss fall into confusion from him (unless they were previously explained the psychological laws of such a perception). The Germans see the compartmentalization of programs, schedules, and procedures as the surest path to productivity. The Swiss, an even more punctual people, have made precision their national symbol. Precision is the basis of their watch industry, their optical instruments, their pharmaceuticals, their banking. Airplanes, buses, trains - everything comes on schedule. Therefore, everything can be calculated and provided for.

In countries inhabited by peoples who consider time linearly, time is firmly tied to clocks and calendars and is divided into abstract segments for our convenience and accuracy of measurement. In cultures of multi-active time, for example, in Arabic and Latin countries, time is tied to events and people, and is a subjective measure that can change, stretch or shrink, regardless of the hour hands.

"We must run," the American will say, "I don't have time." A Spaniard or an Arab, offended by such servility in front of some kind of schedule, will say this only in the event of an imminent and inevitable death.

Cyclic time

Both the linear-active Northerner and the multi-active Romance culture person both feel they are in the best position to manage their time. But in some Eastern cultures, adapting a person to the time is only one of the alternatives. In these cultures, time is seen as a cycle, non-linear and not tied to events. Every day the sun rises and sets, the seasons change, the heavenly bodies revolve around us, people age and die, and their children take their place. This cycle has been going on for hundreds of thousands of years. Cyclic time is not a value - it is infinite and renewable. As they say in the East: "When God created time, he created enough of it."

Therefore, it is not surprising that business decisions in the East are made from a different end than in the West. Westerners often expect Asians to make quick decisions and evaluate a case in terms of its present merits, which have nothing to do with the past. But Asians can't think like that. The past creates the context for present decisions that will lead to something in the future. Asian philosophy ties their hands. Americans view the past tense in which no decisions were made or actions taken as wasted. Asians, on the other hand, do not consider the past tense as lost - it will make a circle and return, bringing with it all the same opportunities, risks and dangers that a person can meet using past experience. Cyclic time is easy to understand - after all, we ourselves often say to ourselves: "If I knew then what I know now, I would not have done such and such in the past."

Figure 4.6 shows a comparison of the speed of Western chains of action and Asian reflection. An American, a German and a Swiss go home at the end of the day, satisfied that all the actions have been completed. French or Italian can leave something "for tomorrow". Jean-Paul Fig in his book "Common core: Thais and Americans" described the attitude of Thais to time - they see it as a pond that you can walk around. This metaphor lends itself very well to most Asian peoples, who, rather than taking on problems one at a time as they arise, circle around them in a kind of circle for days or weeks before looking for a solution. After some thought, problems A, D and F may be worth solving (see figure 4.6). But problems B, C and E will be ignored. But looking at the whole scheme of problems can lead to the realization that problem G, which no one noticed at first, will turn out to be the most important of all.

Procedure in the West and East

In Buddhist cultures (for example, Thai or Tibetan), not only time, but life itself moves in a circle. Whatever we plan, however we organize our world, generations follow generations; governments and rulers succeed each other; harvest after harvest ripens in the fields; hurricanes, earthquakes and other natural disasters have occurred and will continue to occur; taxes will be collected; the sun and the moon will rise and set; stocks and markets will rise and fall. Even the Americans cannot change this, especially with their haste.

Chinese

Like most Asian peoples, the Chinese "walk around the pond" in order to take the right decision. But they also understand the value of time. This is especially evident in the way they apologize for taking up someone's time. In China, at the end of business meetings, people often thank the interlocutors for their time. Punctuality in meetings is also valued more than in other Asian cultures. For example, if a meeting is scheduled between two people, the Chinese will often arrive 15–30 minutes earlier than scheduled, “in order to finish business before the time appointed for their discussion” - so as not to waste the interlocutor's time. In China, it is also considered polite to leave 10-15 minutes after the start of the meeting - also to save the interlocutor's time. Of course, the Chinese will not leave without an agreement, but propriety will be respected.

Of course, this is a double standard. The Chinese understanding of modesty requires a person to value other people's time; at the same time, the Chinese expect that the interlocutor will give them a lot of time to re-evaluate the terms of the deal and maintain good relations with the people making this deal. The Chinese often complain about the habit of Americans doing business in China to leave immediately after a meeting, "right in the middle of a conversation." The Americans believe that the parties have already discussed everything; the Chinese, on the other hand, think that the interlocutors have not yet reached that level of mutual understanding, trust, and community of interests, which in Chinese culture is considered the foundation of a deal and subsequent business relations.

Japanese

The Japanese have a subtle sense of the passage of time - this is perfectly described in John Hendry's book Wrapping culture. People familiar with Japan will remember the contrast between the lightning speed of a Japanese factory worker and the slowness of tending a garden or the slowness of a classic Noh production. Hendry in his book highlights the accurate and detailed division of time by the Japanese. This division is not like the American or German system, where actions are arranged in a logical sequence, which should lead to the highest possible productivity and speed of their execution. The Japanese are not very interested in the issue of speed. They are interested in how the waste of time is consistent with politeness, tact and tradition.

In many Japanese social rituals, there are phases and time layers, precisely marked beginnings and ends, regulating everything from seeing off a colleague in retirement to weddings and even parent meetings at school. In the conformist and regimented Japanese society, people want to know exactly what they are doing. This applies to both social and business meetings. Mandatory two-minute exchange business cards at the beginning of a business meeting is a great example of how a fixed amount of time is given to the start of a business relationship. The same goes for the beginning and the end school lessons in Japan. The lesson cannot begin without the students formally asking the teacher to start and cannot end without the ritual gratitude of the students for the knowledge gained.

There are many rituals that are impossible without strictly defined beginnings, ends and intermediate phases - the tea ceremony, New Year's celebrations, annual house cleaning, contemplation of cherry blossoms, spring strikes, summer holidays, gift giving, corporate picnics, going to bars, even judo classes, karate or kendo. A Japanese cannot take part in all these things as easily and without thinking as a Westerner would. Americans and Northern Europeans prefer to get right to the heart of the matter. The Japanese must first carry out all the proper rituals leading to the same result. This is due both to the general Asian tendency to avoid direct demands, and to Japanese traditionalism and admiration for the ritual itself.

In general, when dealing with the Japanese, you can expect them to devote enough time to you. In exchange for this, you agree to "do the right thing in right time". In Japan, form and symbol are more important than content.

Back to the Future

In linearly active, industrialized Western cultures, time is seen as the road we walk on. Life is often compared to a "wandering", while death is compared to the "end of the road". We imagine ourselves as wanderers walking on the road, leaving the past behind us and not yet knowing the future that lies ahead.

Line-oriented people don't see the future as completely unknowable because they've already partially planned it out. American CEOs, based on quarterly forecasts, can even say how much money they will earn in the next three months. The Swiss stationmaster will not hesitate to tell you that the train will leave Zurich at exactly 9:03 tomorrow morning and arrive in Lucerne at 10:05. Most likely, he will be right. Clocks, calendars and computers not only contribute to punctuality, but also teach us to work towards achieving some goal, teach us to understand what a deadline is. We sort of "make the future happen." We can't know everything (it will completely mess up racing and detective genre), but we can make assumptions about the future. Our personal program tells us that for the next year we will get up at a certain time, work a certain number of hours, take vacations for certain period, play tennis every Sunday morning and pay taxes on certain dates.

Cyclic time, on the contrary, is presented not as a straight road leading beyond the horizon, but as a curved path that will still lead us through the same places that we have already passed. Those who adhere to the idea of ​​cyclical time plan their future worse, because they believe that this is impossible, and it is better for a person to live in harmony with the laws of repeating time. But even in such cultures, planning for future events is still possible, since many things are fundamentally clear to people and doomed to repeat themselves again and again.

Cultures of both linear and cyclical times regard the past as what has already happened and the future as what is yet to happen. But, for example, in Madagascar, the opposite is true (see Figure 4.7). The Malagasy imagines the future entering at the back of our heads and then becoming the past lying in front of us. The past lies before them because it is visible, known and affects life. People can admire it, enjoy it, learn from it, even "play" with it. Malagasy pay a large number of time for consultations with ancestors, digging up their bones, even holidays with their participation.

Malagasy understanding of time

The people of Madagascar consider the future to be unknowable. It lies behind, invisible to the eye. How can they plan something? Buses in Madagascar leave the stop not on schedule, but when the cabin is full. The situation drives the event. This makes not only economic sense - the bus starts when the majority of passengers need it. In Madagascar, goods are brought to the store only when the shelves are already empty, gas stations buy gasoline only when the tanks are empty, and crowds of passengers at the airport find out that despite the purchased tickets, they will have to sit down again - people choose their seats only when they get on the plane.

Validity of temporary concepts

Malagasy, Thais, Japanese, Spaniards and many other peoples will continue to use time in a way that will conflict with the linear concepts of other peoples in the social and business spheres.

Seen objectively, the concept of time is, of course, related to the history and level of industrial organization. We imagine that time extends both into the past and into the future, and we foresee events in the future based on the facts of the past. We create commercial structures based on the ratio of time and actions: hourly pay, rent, loans, interest, accruals and insurance.

For the most part, we (North America and Northern Europe) are convinced that we have reached the optimum in our time use. But many cultures (including the powerful economies of the future such as China, Japan and Southeast Asia) allow the concept of linear time to influence itself only up to a certain limit. An industrial organization requires synchronization of schedules and goals, but here are philosophies that understand time and its value differently - they will forever remain different.

The first attempts to classify business and organizational cultures were carried out in the 1980s. Selected such classification parameters

1. Attitude different cultures before time

2. Attitude towards nature

3. Interpersonal relationships

Relation to time

On the. East the flow of time for people is slower than on. In the West, in relation to it and planning for the future, there are always notes of fatalism. Time there is not a resource for achievements, but an eternal river, a given that was d to us, is now and will be after us. "When God created time, He created it enough," they say. Go to. Get off.

The same attitude towards nature, the world around. The main idea of ​​many famous ancient treatises. East is formulated as follows: "We are only part of this eternal peace and with this world you need to live well for the next year."

Perception of space and time. The West is in many ways the opposite. Here, the rhythm of life and the constant process of change dictate the need for a kind of markup, taking into account even small time intervals. Here they say: "A minute saves a year", "Accuracy-politeness of a queen"...

Different business cultures treat time differently. Obviously, this is important for the successful management of an organization. The success of cooperation often depends on how business partners from different countries relate to time.

Business cultures, depending on their relationship to time, are divided into monochronic and polychronic.

For representatives of monochronic cultures (Scandinavia, England, Germany, USA, etc.), an important psychological attitude in business is consistency and concentration on one thing. By the time here are taken seriously. Accuracy and punctuality are seen as a virtue and an indispensable attribute of a serious businessman. The simultaneous solution of several issues is considered the inability to organize.

Representatives of polychronic cultures (Asian, Latin American, Arab countries, southern Europe, as well as Spain and Portugal), on the contrary, consider it normal to do several things at the same time. The fact that because of this there are constantly changes in the work schedule is perceived here as a whole calmly. Obviously, in this case, some of the cases will not be completed on time. Both Ukraine and Ukraine gravitate towards polychronic cultures. Russia.

Representatives of monochronic cultures (apart from the desire to do no more than one thing per unit of time) are usually distinguished by extraordinary punctuality. Their slogan is: "Time is money" Being late for business zust. Treach is usually seen as a breach of business protocol. At the talks, one can feel the desire to immediately focus on the main thing on the main one.

Polychrons of culture refer to time freely. Being 10-20 minutes late for a meeting is often part of the protocol, and sometimes can even be seen as a statement of the significance of the position of someone who is late and has serious business.

According to traditions, in polychronic cultures it is not customary to start a meeting or a business breakfast with a discussion of the matter. This is considered impolite. It will be normal if the discussion is transferred to the second or third meeting.

important is the creation general context for cooperation: establishing informal connections through the search for common acquaintances, identifying common interests and hobbies (sports, hunting, fishing, travel and weather, etc.). Attempts to speed up the transition to business, "pushing" the interlocutor with remarks like "let's now move on to the topic of our negotiations" can be perceived as tactlessness, you cause a subconscious rejection of you as a partner and you as a partner.

. Table 51

. Perception of time in manager's behavior

. Table 52

. Perception of time by German and Russian managers

As can be seen from the table, the Germans (typical representatives of a monochronic culture) prioritize planned tasks fairly evenly. Russian managers have a clear "failure" in the number of days of the table: the right is either done right away, or shelved, which is typical for polychronic cults of polychronic cultures.

A society that focuses on multiplying profits treats time as a precious and even rare commodity. Each nation plans its own working time and cultivates self-organization in accordance with the ethnic perception of time.

For example, Americans, British, Germans and Scandinavians build their time management in linear time. Those. gradually one thing is done after another, at the time and date appointed for it, and several things are never carried out in parallel. In their opinion, in this way it is possible to keep up with everything, while not sacrificing either speed or quality.

In Southern Europe, things are a little different. Southern Europeans are bored with one thing, they load themselves with several activities at once and believe that this is the only way to feel the richness of life. They are quite dismissive of the schedule and punctuality. For them, emotionality and the fact of communication are important, and how much time it will take is not important, the main thing is to finish the conversation, they are ready to invest as much time as they like. If an Italian is late for a meeting, he will not understand the German why he is so annoyed and indignant, and will advise him to simply rewrite the meeting time in the schedule. For the Italians, the meeting itself is important, for the Germans and the Swiss, for it to take place on time.

By the way, both parties believe that their attitude to time is the most correct and they manage time most efficiently.

But there is another point of view in relation to time - the Eastern one. In Eastern cultures, time is perceived not as linear, but as cyclical. Accordingly, this leaves its mark on decision-making. For a Western person, it is important to make a decision quickly, based on current advantages, while an Eastern person necessarily takes into account the past, since that is where the context lies, the background of the present decision. Therefore, they ponder everything for a long time and weigh various circumstances.

The Chinese are generally not characterized by quick decisions, but they still appreciate the time, especially what was taken from another person, for which they will definitely apologize at the end of the meeting. The Chinese also try to be punctual and their arrival at a meeting 15 minutes earlier is the norm, such as “the sooner we start, the sooner we finish.” By this they demonstrate their desire not to take away the interlocutor's time. And they treat those who try to leave earlier as people who save time, but they themselves will never leave the meeting until all issues are resolved, the essence of the matter is clarified and negotiations are not completed.

The Japanese, on the other hand, do not worry at all how long it will take to complete this or that task, they are more concerned about how to properly distribute it so that it is appropriate, polite and does not contradict traditions.

Each meeting begins with the ritualization of time and ends in a similar way, while in the West this is completely absent. For example, any meeting begins with a long greeting and ends with obligatory expressions of gratitude, which also takes some time.

Another important criterion for differentiating cultures is their relation to time. Different business cultures treat and use time differently. It is traditionally believed that there are two poles - East and West. Time in Eastern cultures "flows" more slowly than in Western ones. But this is only a superficial look at the difference in the perception of time. Concepts of time vary from region to region, from country to country. For example, in Taiwan they perceive time differently than in Japan, and an American evaluates time in a completely different way than a Mexican. Different attitudes towards time create serious problems between peoples, especially in business. The stronger the difference between cultures, the more difficult it is to build relationships. Therefore, it is very important for a modern manager to understand how your partner relates to time in order to avoid unpleasant situations, properly organize planning and achieve effective cooperation.
Consider how people in monactive, polyactive, and reactive cultures relate to time. Let's start with monoactive cultures. Representatives of this type of culture are characterized by a linear relationship to time. This means that it goes from the past through the present to the future (Fig. 10).

The flow of time goes in one direction, it cannot go back, therefore, what was, can no longer be returned, a person must live in the present and plan for the future. In this understanding, time is a limited resource, it is fleeting, therefore every second counts. Therefore, in cultures that perceive time linearly, the desire for its effective use develops. Managers show strict linearity and consistency in planning and conducting their affairs, preferring to do one thing rather than perform several tasks in parallel. “... One American leader every morning laid out a memo on the tables for employees - a list of tasks that needed to be done today. Foreigners have everything that is possible planned: for a day, for a week, for a month. It is not for nothing that compact computers are so popular in the West, which are just used as gliders. On fig. 11 schematically depicts how representatives of monoactive cultures plan their time.

For Americans, for example, time is money in the fullest sense of the word. They created the so-called "material equivalent" of time. The American already knows how much his working day costs and performs certain tasks in a planned sequence. Suppose that case A will bring him $50 in 1 hour, and case B will already bring him $100 in 2 hours. It turns out that for 8 hours of work he will receive $ 400 (Fig. 12). And if the planned business D and E failed, then the American lost 2 hours or $ 100 (Fig. 13).

Rice. 12. "Time is money!"

specific situation. “American businessmen from California, well-known producers of dried fruits, decided to try to create a joint venture in Russia. They set a number of clear conditions for the future Russian partner, what he should have to create such an enterprise. These were orchards or the possibility of buying fruit, some equipment, the possibility of hiring workers and a few other questions. An agent in Russia found a seemingly suitable businessman in southern Russia. He answered all questions in the affirmative. The partners agreed on the time of the meeting (at 9 o'clock in the office of the Russian businessman), and the Americans flew to Russia.
The Americans arrived, of course, on time, but the Russian businessman kept them in his waiting room for almost an hour and a half. His secretary explained to them that he was holding an emergency meeting. When he finally accepted them, they never heard an apology. There was only lamentation about their hard life, workload, etc.
The Americans were at a loss, but the Russian businessman nevertheless offered to start discussing the future case. During the discussion, he tried to evade the questions asked, answered in in general terms and did not cite any facts proving that he had all the conditions for conducting a joint business.
After negotiations, the Russian businessman offered to discuss further issues the next day. The Americans, on the other hand, said that they would think about his proposal and send him a message about their further actions. But the Russian businessman never received this message.
The conflict arose because of a different attitude to time. The Russian businessman did not take into account that for Americans "time is money." They don't like waiting in reception areas and wasting their precious time. It is also important for them not to put things off until tomorrow and to fully cover the planned transaction.
In the USA, there are strict requirements for holding events - you can’t be late, but it’s not recommended to come earlier either (because in both cases you take away not only time, but also money). For example, when holding conferences or meetings, they always have a clearly defined start and end time. If you came to an interview with an American and were given 30 minutes for this, then all this time should be spent with benefit. Ask primary questions first, then secondary ones. It is advisable to meet the allotted time, but if the conversation interests your partner, then he will most likely ask if you have time to continue the conversation. And he will not be offended if you answer "no." In this country, it is customary to respect not only your time, but also the time of your partner.
Other representatives of the monoactive type of culture adhere to the same line of behavior. Germans, Swiss, Australians - they all keep track of time, use every second. You can't relax, you have to work! They believe that consistently completing tasks at pre-planned times contributes to good productivity, and as a result, more income.
Unlike monoactive cultures, representatives of polyactive cultures are not tied to clocks and calendars. Representatives of this type of culture (inhabitants of South America, Mexico, Italy, Spain, etc.) demonstrate a personal attitude to planning and organizing affairs. They do not like schedules and instructions, they are notable for the irrational distribution of time.
specific situation. “An American ambassador came to see the president of a Latin American country. Sat at his office door for 10 minutes, 20 minutes. Then he asked the secretary: does the president know that they are waiting for him? Of course, don't worry, he'll see you soon, was the reassuring reply. After 40 minutes, the ambassador was rude to the secretary, turned around and left. In turn, the president was genuinely surprised - he was busy state affairs and did not at all intend to offend anyone, especially the ambassador of a country like the United States. Such logic of reasoning does not suit the American, as it disgusts his sense of order. When he is made to wait so long, he takes it as an insult.
For polyactive cultures, time is a kind of subjective value that can be disposed of in accordance with one's own plans and intentions. At the same time, representatives of this type of culture believe that the more things they do at the same time, the better. In the process of distributing their cases, they first of all take into account the relative importance of each meeting. Time should be measured not only by value (in terms of money), but also by the interest and importance of the planned event. Of great importance is the personal factor - the degree of closeness, friendship with a person ("if we are friends, then you will not be offended if I am late for half an hour or shift the timing of our transaction"). Often on this basis, conflicts arise between representatives of different types of cultures.
Suppose a Spaniard makes a deal with a German. They conclude a contract for the supply of goods on June 9th. On fig. 14 shows how partners should theoretically treat this. The German is sure that they completely agree with the Spaniard. But when June 9 comes, it turns out that the Spaniard is not ready to deliver the goods. Why is this happening?
In fact, the Spaniard sees the situation differently. For him, interpersonal relationships are of great importance.

He believes that, since they are friends with the German and have known each other for a long time, it is possible to wait with the delivery dates, to shift the dates. A punctual German will not understand this (Fig. 15).

Thus, when scheduling business meetings with representatives of multi-active cultures, you can not stick to the appointed time. It should be borne in mind that they are used to shaping the time “for themselves”, depending on the circumstances.
But if, despite all the disagreements, representatives of monoactive and polyactive cultures manage their time, then representatives of some Eastern cultures adapt to it. Time is perceived as rotating in a circle with a certain cyclicity. One day follows the next, the seasons constantly change each other, people grow old and die, but children are born who repeat everything from the beginning. Business contacts are carried out by planning activities in accordance with the principle of cyclic development of time. Why rush to close a deal or sign a contract? Tomorrow will be a new day, enough time to do everything. Time is not linear, it is cyclical, it constantly rotates in a circle and returns with the same opportunities, problems and risks, but a person becomes wiser at the same time. Representatives of this type of culture believe that there is always a second chance.
The inhabitants of the East are accustomed to thinking carefully about decisions, taking their time. On fig. 16 shows an oriental view of the course of events. Here people are accustomed to gradually, little by little to do their business. They will not solve problems one by one (as is customary in the Western linear time model), they will think about them for a long time. After a period of time, it turns out that certain things have already been done (A, D and F), but new tasks appear, so the old ones (B, C and E) can be safely excluded from the list. And in the end, after careful consideration, it may turn out that task G is the most significant, although it was not taken into account at all before.

Communicating with representatives of reactive cultures, one must learn to respond to the situation, adapt to their behavior. The Chinese, for example, avoid hasty decisions but have a keen sense of the value of time. They are very punctual. In China, it is considered respectful to come to a meeting 15 minutes early and resolve all problems before the scheduled time. But, on the other hand, the Chinese are waiting for the partners to take the time to strengthen personal relationships and for a more thorough consideration of the details of the transaction. Therefore, negotiations can drag on for months or even years.
In Japan, any procedure or process has its own stages, the beginning and end of which are clearly defined. The Japanese love to divide time into parts. At a wedding, a funeral, or a school assembly, people operate according to a set, strict schedule. The difference between the Japanese is that they allocate time according to appropriateness, courtesy rules and traditions in society. For them, symbols, the beauty of the rite, and customs are important. For example, a two-minute exchange of business cards at the first meeting, a tea ceremony, admiring the cherry blossoms, a sake drinking ceremony, or a joint picnic.
Different approaches to the explanation and perception of time often lead to misunderstandings, conflicts, communication problems. Time is the main organizer of human activity. Obviously, for effective cooperation, you need to learn to understand how your business partner estimates time. It is necessary to pay attention to the pace of life and the rhythm of activities adopted in a particular culture. An indicator of how they manage over time in different cultures, is the attitude of people towards punctuality and time planning.
Summing up, we can say that a person's behavior largely depends on what culture he belongs to. For example, the Germans and Norwegians tend to carefully plan their activities, clearly stipulate the date of the next negotiations. Italians pay less attention to working time planning. The Spaniards easily break schedules and conduct business depending on momentary preferences. The Japanese will listen carefully to the interlocutor, and will not rush to answer.
In table. 4 are the most General characteristics monoactive, polyactive and reactive crops.

Note that, for successful interaction with a foreigner, it is important not only to know, but also to understand the reasons for his behavior, so you should carefully study the history and culture of the partner's country.

There is a wonderful book: Lynn Visson "Russian Problems in English speech”(I read selectively the chapters, pleasant reading).

"Russian Problems in English Speech (Words and Phrases in the Context of Two Cultures)" is both a textbook, a guide to oral English and a collection of exercises.

Below, for example, is an interesting fragment (a lot of text) about the relationship to time in different cultures.

"Two accounts of time

Communication and mutual understanding of people largely depend on how they relate to time and what lexical means they express it. Constituting an important area of ​​conscious human activity, this attitude and linguistic means change so much from culture to culture that they sometimes become the cause of those serious misunderstandings that happen with native speakers of Russian and English. For example, they diverge even in the semantics of such a simple expression, howjust a minute. Although in both Russian and English "minute" is a unit of time consisting of 60 seconds, in its meaning and use just a minute does not coincide with the similar Russian phrase "one minute".

How to explain such discrepancies is the question, the answer to which was given by the American culturologist Edward Hall, who put forward two concepts of time - monochronic and polychronic. In the countries of monochronic culture (USA, England, Germany and the Scandinavian countries), time strictly regulates the behavior of people and, at the same time, the relationship between them. The American, for example, focuses all his attention on a difficult problem, solves it, and moves on to the next one. For him, completing the task is more important than relationships with the people who assist him. He takes deadlines seriously, appreciates promptness, and doesn't place much value on a short-term relationship with a person with whom he made a one-time deal, played a game of tennis, and may never meet again.

In other cultures (Russian, many Mediterranean, Arabic, Latin American and some Asian) time is often perceived polychronically, that is, people's attention is drawn to several events at the same time: a person knows how to behave flexibly, doing three or four planned things at once. When something is planned in such countries, friendly relations are put at the forefront, not deadlines, and personal relationships can prevail over the interests of the case.

In terms of the concept of time, Russia and the United States, with their strong tradition of rigid punctuality, are two extremes that have so far converged very slowly. Both American and Russian businessmen now start their business meetings at exactly the right time. We agreed on 10 o'clock in the morning, which means that the meeting will begin at ten, and not at a quarter past ten. If the partner was late due to the fact that he got into a terrible traffic jam, explanations are accepted extremely unfriendly. People are supposed to take into account traffic accidents and other unforeseen circumstances and leave early for the meeting.

The counting of life by minutes and seconds is especially evident in America, where the pedantic punctuality of overbusy business people has long led them to the conclusion that time and money are much more important than friendships and kinship. Such has been and remains the spirit of American business, setting the tone for the whole society. In the 1920s and 30s, the tough owner of the company did not have the opportunity to imprison a worker who came to the factory with a delay of 5-10 minutes, as was the case at one time in the USSR under Stalin, but he tried to get rid of those who were constantly late and treated irrelevant to the matter.

In the United States and other countries with similar cultures, meeting deadlines for business commitments extends to other areas of life. Lectures and dinner parties should begin strictly at the appointed time with allowances of no more than 5-10 minutes. If a personal or business meeting is scheduled on the street, it will take place exactly on time. And the future is planned long in advance. Guests can receive an invitation to lunch at home or in a restaurant three weeks before the meeting, this is now generally accepted. The American will definitely specify the date, place and time of lunch: On May 22, three weeks from Tuesday at the French restaurant Chez Jean on the southwest corner of 35th street and Third Avenue at 1:15.

The difference between monochronic and polychronic relation to time creates a real puzzle for the English-speaking Russian literally at every turn. In the US, for example, people do not need to “call up” the day before or the day before to clarify the hour or place of the appointment, which is still accepted in Russia, where the incredibly vague verb “phone up” passes from mouth to mouth, which has no exact equivalent in English and which puzzles people in America. What does this verb mean: who should call whom - “you call me” or “I will call you”? It is not clear to the American why his Russian interlocutor offers to “phone him up” - whether he still does not know when he can make an appointment, or he is evading the exact answer, leaving room for maneuver. Literally in English it is we'll call each other or, more colloquially, we'll be in touch. But if you invite an American to call, he will naturally think that you have serious doubts about whether you will be able to come to lunch, or that you are not at all sure that you want to come. If for any serious reason you insist on a "test call", the most polite way to put it is in words: I'll call you the day before/ just in case anything/ unexpectedly comes up(“I’ll call you the day before the meeting if anything unexpected comes up.”)

Usually Russian people think like this: “Well, how can I arrange a meeting a week or a month in advance! Who knows what might happen during that time. What just does not happen in life. Behind all these bewilderments and doubts is, most likely, a fatalistic fear of planning the future and uncertainty about tomorrow, which have been characteristic of Russia for centuries and have changed little in the Soviet Union. Americans have the opposite philosophy of life: they seem incomprehensible to people who find it difficult to imagine the course of events or manage them. A person brought up in the USA has a different way of thinking: he believes (or prefers to believe) that he controls events, and not they control them, that the future can be foreseen and painted. Since all his attention is focused on the present moment and a carefully calculated future, long-term planning is very important for him. As noted recently in New York Times one American journalist, words with the prefix have always been popular in English pre-, signifier in advance- precooked meals("prepared food") prepaid phone card(“prepaid card for telephone calls”), preboarding at the airport gate- ("preliminary landing on the plane by children and the elderly"). In America there is even a special expression: plan ahead(“plan ahead!”).

The differences between the approach to time planning in the US and Russia are vividly illustrated by an episode told by a Russian writer now living in the West:

“One friend calls us, invites us to borscht. Especially for us, she will cook a real Russian borscht. When? Well, let's say next Sunday. No, on Sunday we can't, on Sunday we are busy. Then next Sunday? And the next ... Then another week later? Well, what are you going to do? So I wrote down in my calendar: borscht, friend, in three weeks.

Well, how can this be in Moscow? I cooked borscht, or someone came, or brought an interesting book, or just a brilliant idea came - am I really going to wait three weeks? Now! Immediately! Drop everything! And come! And they came…”

Although this fragment was written by the author in the style of a joke, there is a large amount of truth in it. An American proverb says: time is money, That's why it's so important to take care of yourself and others' time. It is impolite to invite guests on the same day or an hour before dinner. This means that you do not respect the time of other people, you think that they do not have their own plans and that they can come when you want to invite them. (That's why it's so hard to find an idiomatic English equivalent for the still common Russian custom of "peeping into the light": to drop in on the spur of the moment, without calling). From the point of view of American ethics, it seems extremely bad form to enter a house without warning, where the owners can dine, receive guests, wash, sleep, etc. This is a complete disregard for the order of life of others.

Both money and time, if well spent, are highly valued in the US. Hence phrases like time / money is saved, gained, filled, made the most of, well spent. If time is lost, then time is lost, wasted, squandered. If it is not planned in advance, unplanned, it may even be "killed" (killed): I arrived so early for my doctor's appointment that I had to kill half an hour window-shopping. Therefore, in America, not only do they agree on lunch three months in advance, but even during breakfast, called power breakfast, conclude major deals and negotiate critical business relationships.

Americans say: There's no such thing as a free lunch(cp. free cheese only happens in a mousetrap). The meaning of the proverb is obvious: you have to pay for everything, and a person, inviting you to lunch or dinner, undoubtedly expects that the possible benefits of negotiations will more than justify the money spent on refreshments. Now in the USA the expression is becoming more and more popular. quality time("quality time"). But the meaning invested in these words is much broader than the horizon of the miner. Spend quality time on a client or on your children - it means actively devoting every minute to them, and not just sitting next to you.

Although the attitude to time has changed a lot in post-perestroika Russia, and the younger generation of business people are fully aware of the importance of punctuality, traces of the old mentality are still alive. In Soviet times, at least after the death of Stalin, when the screws stopped tightening tightly, being late for work no longer affected the salary and did not entail such serious disciplinary action, like before. A few years ago, the authors of the book “Russians at First Sight” wrote that “unfortunately, Russians are rather careless and free not only with their own, but also with other people's time. You must forgive our inconsistency and lack of punctuality." However, the authors of this book continue, many Russians have noticed that the Americans are disgusted by forgiving them these weaknesses.

The fundamental difference in the perception of time in Russia and America is realized today not only theoretically and not only by young Russian businessmen. The famous Russian emigrant sculptor Ernst Neizvestny said: “It was only when I arrived in America that I felt for the first time that time is money. I used to understand this phrase vulgarly. America taught me to value time, taught me discipline and composure. Behind his recognition is the understanding that in America time is so highly valued precisely because it is really money. If here someone promises that he will finish the work in five months, then he will break into a cake, but finish. He will ask for an extension of the term only as a last resort, and at the same time will not refer to health or family circumstances as good reason delays.

The attitude to time of people in Russia and in the States differs from each other in much the same way as rubber from metal. In America there is fixed concept of time, the so-called concept of exact time, Russians have time - fluid, the concept is flexible. In countries with a fixed time, it is expressed in exact hours. For an American, a minute is literally exactly 60 seconds. If he speaks I'll be with you in a minute, what he means is that he may be only two or three minutes late, no more. For such a person, it is surprising that the Russian “I will be right this minute” can stretch for ten to fifteen minutes, or even more.

Mutual understanding between Russians who speak English and Americans is also hampered by their different understanding of the word "moment", which in English has a direct and literal correspondence to its meaning - moment. Russian word"moment" is ambiguous and semantically not covered entirely by English moment, although the common meaning for both languages ​​here is a short period of time equal to minutes. That is the meaning of the English word moment. "One moment - now I'm going" can be translated: I'll be there in a minute. Phrase: Would you have a moment now? means: Would you have a few minutes?

However, English moment can mean a convenient (or inconvenient) time: This is not the right moment / time to talk to him about that matter, which does not always correspond to the Russian word "moment". For its part, the Russian "moment" has several other meanings that are missing in English moment, -feature/aspect/ component/ element. Therefore, in the context of the "positive / important point" of something (a report, a statement, a project) this word is rendered in English as a positive element or feature of a report, a statement, a project."We should consider this point" is equivalent to English We must take this aspect of the matter / this point / this issue into account. « Important point In human life" - an important period / event / stage / turning point in someone's life. And the "fundamental moment" - an important point / element / aspect, but never - moment. Of course, the phrase: You don't understand this moment sounds very strange for an English-speaking interlocutor. For him, this statement means that the interlocutor does not understand the importance of this particular period of time, and not the problem.

The Russian "now" is a vague concept, meaning a period of five to twenty-five minutes. It means Yes, I'll be with you when I've finished what I'm doing now. You can also say: (I'm) coming/ I'll be there/ will do it, that is, everything will be done very soon, but not "right now" (right away/ right now).

Another divergence of both cultures in the understanding of time is reflected in the phrase "in the near future." Translated literally, it puzzles the American. I will do it in the very near future sounds vague, evasive and does not convey the fullness of the meaning: everything will be done, but not immediately (right away). very soon doesn't sound very necessary. For clarity, the English sentence should be clarified by the adverb of time: I'll do it in the next few days/ this week/ the next two weeks.

The word "promptly" in a certain context is a false friend of the translator. The phrase "Will be done promptly" cannot be translated into English using the word operationally. Depending on the situation and context, English equivalents work well here. This will be done quickly/promptly/ effectively/ efficiently.

The Russian words that are used to set the time for a meeting, call, etc. are obscure to Americans. The phrase "I'll call you tomorrow afternoon" in literal translation contains little accurate information. Can't an American have things to do that will not allow him to sit by the phone for half a day and wait for a call?! For him, the phrase is much clearer I'll call/phone you tomorrow afternoon, and an indication of a more specific call time: I'll call/ phone you between three and four tomorrow.

In Russian and American business circles, partners try to be extremely punctual. But the situation is different with informal meetings both in Russia and in America: they are appointed in different ways. When inviting guests, Americans usually ask to come at seven (come at seven) and never "about seven" (around seven). And seven that means seven. In extreme cases, the guest can afford to come at a quarter to seven, but not later, because otherwise he creates a lot of unnecessary trouble for the hostess of the house, and also forces other guests to wait longer than the appointed time. According to the old custom, if guests in America were late, they always informed the hostess by phone.

The Russian invitation "Come at six o'clock" in the English version also needs at least a little clarification. What does "six o'clock" mean? At six or a quarter past seven? This confuses Americans who want to know the exact time. The phrase "Let's meet around three" creates the same problem. The best way out predicament - let's meet at 2:45. The message "It's already the seventh hour" is also puzzling, for which there is no exact equivalent in English. The closest thing to this It's already well after / past six.

In institutions and private homes in Russia, people often say, while waiting for someone: "He will be there by three o'clock." This, of course, puzzles the Americans. In English He'll be back at three means that it will be exactly at three, a He'll be back by three means that a person can come before three, but in no case later. And if it is assumed that this person may be late, the modal form of the verb is used: Notshould be back at three.

The American divides time into in the morning, - Roughly speaking, from nine to noon; lunch time- from noon to two; and in the afternoon- from two to five. Russian linguist A. Shmelev accurately noted that

“The differences between the “Western” and “Russian” ideas about the division of the day are most clearly manifested in the conceptualization of “morning”. For a bearer of Western ideas, "morning" is opposed to "afternoon", as the first half of the working day (before lunch break) - the second half (after lunch break)".

Russian speakers often stumble when translating the expression "after dinner". For Americans, "After Dinner" Means Immediately after lunch, but not during the afternoon, what is essentially meant in Russian. Forgetting this detail leads to misunderstandings, one of which was told to me by an American woman who worked and lived with her husband in Moscow. Her four-year-old son's Russian nanny said one evening that Johnny was bothering her: "He didn't eat anything after dinner." The boy's parents were surprised. The nanny's anxiety was devoid of any meaning for them - if the child ate well at lunch, why should he feel hungry immediately after eating?

"Evening" in the American style lasts from six to ten. Russian adjective"evening" and American evening do not match in meaning. As Shmelev confirms, for a bearer of Russian ideas, “the first half of the working day is designated as “morning”, and the second half automatically receives the designation “evening”, and not “afternoon”, that is, what is called in English noon. The Russian "evening session" or "evening session" may begin immediately after lunch or in the afternoon. In English evening meeting - This is an event that always takes place after six in the evening. For a native Russian speaker, "morning" is "when a person wakes up", and if he had a bad night's sleep before, he regrets that he woke up "at three in the morning."

The beginning of the countdown of the day for Americans begins at midnight. Am, that is ante meridiem- interval from midnight until noon- after midnight to noon, and the time from noon until midnight, that is, from noon to midnight, constituting the second half of the day, is indicated by the abbreviation pm(post meridium) . So when an American suffers from insomnia, he says: I woke up at twoo'clock in the morning and couldn't't get back to sleep, although the time 2 pm in English means two o'clock in the afternoon, and 2 am- corresponds to Russian two o'clock in the morning.

Many Americans are not familiar with the European timekeeping system, where the hours from noon to midnight are indicated by numbers from 12 to 24. If you are Russian or French and invite your American acquaintance to a theater performance that starts at 19.00, then you risk watching this performance alone . Russian guests in the US often make mistakes when they want to say in English, "last night", "tonight", "tomorrow night". In English it is respectively last night, this evening, tomorrow evening or tomorrow night. But of course never tomorrow in the night!

It is impossible to translate Russian phrases about time literally. "Last night I was awakened by noise in the street" - Last night I was awakened by noise in the street, but never Yesterday in the night"This morning" - this morning, "Today" - this afternoon. Word today is not used in these expressions, and Russianism today in the morning sounds very strange to Americans. "Yesterday Morning" is yesterday morning,"yesterday afternoon" - yesterday evening,"tomorrow morning" tomorrow morning;"tomorrow afternoon" - tomorrow afternoon."I'll meet you tomorrow at two o'clock in the afternoon" corresponds to the English phrase I'll meet you at two, tomorrow afternoon, but not at two of the afternoon.

“One of these days” is another expression that is difficult to translate, as it can refer to both the past action and the future: “I found out about this the other day” - within the last few days, or "I'll give you an answer one of these days" - within the next few days. In English, such phrases necessarily contain a temporary specification: for example, I found out just a few days ago or only very recently- for action in the past. For future action: I'll get back to you with / about / concerning that issue within the next few days / in a couple of days / in a day or two. This also applies to "for the weekend", which translates as on weekends. For example, On weekends they go to their country-house. Or (one-time action) This weekend / For this weekend we're going to the beach.

The correct use of tense is especially important when talking on the phone. Calling a business partner or just a friend with a request, the so-called average American usually spends only one or two minutes exchanging pleasantries and immediately gets down to business He is aware that he is wasting the precious time of his interlocutors, and therefore for it is quite natural for him to immediately take the bull by the horns, starting a conversation with the purpose of the call or asking: What can I do for you?

In general, American phone calls are shorter than those of Europeans. In his memoirs of his years in America, an Italian journalist recently wrote: “Too much time on the phone is seen in America as a sign of immaturity. A teenager can croak on the phone for hours, but his mother should not do this. It is easy to explain why it is so common here to call people at home, and they are so willing to answer the phone: their telephone conversations do not drag on for long.

For Russians, the telephone is a sacred matter. Russia has its own tradition, in which, at the beginning of conversations, out of courtesy, interlocutors ask at least a couple of personal questions. If a friend calls, all other things recede into the background. When the owner of a house in the USA is having lunch and they call him, he will most likely pick up the phone and, without hesitation, answer: I'd really like to talk to you, but we just sat down to dinner. Could I call you back in an hour? If there are guests in the house, then the answer will be essentially the same, but with slight variations: I'd love to chat with you, but I have company / guests / somebody / people here. When could I get back to you? / Will you be home later? /tomorrow? / What would be a good time to call you? / What would be a good time for you?

Almost every example of the transition from the Russian manner of addressing over time to the American one indicates the need not to lose sight of respect for the interlocutor's daily routine, and for one's own too. Telephone conversation starting with the words: helloJohn, this is Igor. Is this a good time for you? - a very good translation of the Russian question "Are you comfortable talking now?" Answer yes means that for a lengthy conversation (a request for a favor, complex issue) the green light comes on. Answer: Well, we're just about to leave or I'm really pressed for time right now contains the exact answer: the interlocutor does not have time for a serious conversation at the moment.

When communicating with Americans, one rule should not be forgotten: after listening to a message from someone on your answering machine, try to answer this call as soon as possible. And if you didn’t find your friend at home or at work, then also leave at least a few phrases on his answering machine: hello, this is Oleg Smirnov. I got your call. Sorry I missed you, please do get back to me.

And, finally, about the relationship between the attitude to time and the style of speech of people in the States. Behind this connection is all the same positive, focused not on the past, but on the present and future. Favorite American proverb Time waits for no man- time waits for no one; Take care of today and tomorrow will take care of itself- take care of today then tomorrow you will be fine (literally “tomorrow will take care of itself”). And to live in the present means to be practical, to be able to speak clearly, directly and, therefore, to be short and precise, if only for the sake of saving time and money. “It is customary in America to express one's thoughts with all possible frankness,” remarked one American observer. - An American always says what he thinks, even if it would be better to keep his thought to himself. Language delights, hidden meanings, irony, which are so dear to other peoples, confuse Americans, they are used to taking every phrase literally, checking for accuracy and ignoring what they do not understand. They call things by their proper names. A shovel, for example, a shovel, and complex metaphors only upset them.

Indeed, when talking, Americans usually do not beat around the bush, so their attitude to conversations is very different from Russian. For example, the main subject of Russian gatherings - endless gossip courts - are simply not to the liking of business Americans, and many Russians, in turn, find that the American laconic style of speaking is dry and cold. When answering a question, Americans prefer a frontal style, while Russians consider it impolite to answer briefly, and if it comes to serious subjects, long arguments are indispensable, which the American cannot stand. “When my mother asked my Russian husband how his aunt felt,” a young American woman complained to me, “he laid out the entire biography of his relative to her.”

propensity to respond simple questions, starting his story from Tsar Gorokh or spreading his thoughts along the tree, is a tribute to the inertia of thought habits that have developed in the past in Russia, but are completely incomprehensible in the USA. For Americans, simplicity and brevity are the essence of intelligence and wit, which manifests itself in a variety of circumstances. So, when leaving a company or a party, they usually do not say goodbye to each guest individually, but, in order to save time, they say a general “goodbye” to everyone, and none of those present consider this offensive to themselves. On the contrary, the Russian custom seems strange to the American to make the rounds- “approach everyone”, say goodbye personally. As the anthropologist Edward Hall has written, brevity and precision are an article of American faith. "The verbosity often makes them feel out of place."

Differences in conversational styles, as well as between verbose and non-talkative interlocutors, sometimes lead to mutual misunderstanding when communicating with citizens of Russia and the United States, even at the highest international level. The famous American psycholinguist Deborah Tannen wrote:

“I'm willing to bet that the notorious antipathy between Nancy Reagan and Raisa Gorbacheva was the result of cultural differences in communication style. As Nancy Reagan spoke of R. M. Gorbacheva, “from the first day we met, she kept talking and talking, so that I could hardly get a word in.” I suspect that if someone asked Raisa Gorbacheva what she thought about meetings with Reagan's wife, she would probably answer that she never ceased to wonder why her American interlocutor spoke so little, and that she (Raisa) had to take take all the initiative."

The opinion of the psycholinguist Tannen was confirmed when another US First Lady, Barbara Bush, described her conversation with Raisa Maksimovna. “Why, Raisa Maksimovna asked Bush's wife, Nancy Reagan didn't like me?” “She,” writes Barbara, “answered her own question, saying that she was unfamiliar with our customs and wanted to know more about them. She really dominated the conversation, but most likely believed that this was exactly what was expected of her. It seems that Bush's wife hardly invented this episode, which illustrates the conflict situation that arose because of the difference in cultures. Raisa Maksimovna believed that she should "entertain" the First Lady of America, and she was indignant that her interlocutor's long monologues were stealing her precious time. In other words, one of the same misunderstandings that occur in communication between ordinary people in Russia and the United States was repeated here.