French Renaissance (XVI - XVII centuries). history of france

The renaissance in France had basically the same prerequisites for its development as in Italy. However, there were significant differences in the socio-political conditions of both countries. In France, the nobility continued to be the ruling class.

From all this follows a certain backwardness of the French bourgeoisie and its weak participation in the humanist movement. Humanistic ideas found significant support in the advanced circles of the nobility, who came into direct contact with the culture of Italy.

The strong influence of Italy is one of the most important features of the French Renaissance. The rapid flowering of humanistic thought coincides with the first half of the reign of Francis 1 (1515 - 1547). The Italian campaigns greatly expanded cultural relations between the two peoples. Increased imports of Italian Renaissance culture to France began. Appear in in large numbers translations of Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio and others. French a large number of Italian words from the field of art, technology, military affairs, secular amusements, etc. penetrate.

In parallel, there was an in-depth study of antiquity. Francis 1 ordered the publication of translations of the works of Thucydides, Xenophon, and others. He ordered the translation of Homer's poems and persuaded Amio to begin his famous translation of Plutarch's Biographies.

Francis 1 wanted to personally lead the French Renaissance in order to direct it and keep it under his control. In 1530, the Collège de France arose, which immediately became the citadel of free humanistic knowledge.

Second the most important moment that determined the fate of the French Renaissance is its special relationship with the Reformation, at the beginning consonant with humanism, but then abruptly diverged from it.

In the history of French Protestantism, two periods must be distinguished - until the mid-1530s. and after. The first Protestants of France were scattered intellectuals of a humanistic way of thinking. The outstanding mathematician and Hellenist Lefebvre d'Etaples (1455 - 1537) put forward two positions, which later became the main ones for Protestantism of all persuasions: 1) justification by faith, 2) "holy scripture" as the only basis of religious doctrine.

Several of Lefebvre's followers were executed, and he himself had to flee abroad for a while. Executions of Protestants and free-thinking humanists became commonplace.

At this very time, French Protestantism enters its second phase. Jacques Calvin (1509 - 1564) becomes its head.

The bourgeois essence of the Reformation appears clearly in the teachings of Calvin, who recommends frugality and the accumulation of wealth, justifies usury and even allows slavery. The basis of Calvin's doctrine are two provisions - on "predestination" and on the non-interference of God in the life of the world, subject to immutable laws. According to the doctrine of the "worldly vocation" of the followers of Calvin, everyone should strive to extract from their profession as much profit and benefit as possible. The doctrine of "worldly asceticism" prescribes frugality and moderation in meeting one's needs for the sake of increasing one's property.

Humanism had some points of contact with both parties (Catholics, Protestants), but even more differences. Many humanists were attracted to the Catholic party by the idea of ​​national unity (Ronsard and the members of the Pleiades), but most of them could not put up with the narrowness of thought and the superstitions of Catholicism. Humanists were repelled from Calvinism by its bourgeois narrow-mindedness and fanaticism. But still, the rationalistic leaven of Calvinism, its heroic spirit, high moral exactingness attracted many humanists to it (Aggrippa d'Aubigne, Maro).

The writers of the French Renaissance, in comparison with the early medieval authors, are characterized by an extraordinary expansion of the horizon, a large coverage of intellectual interests. The greatest of them take on the features of the "universal man" typical of the Renaissance. The most striking example is the work and activities of Rabelais.

Typical features are spontaneous materialism, susceptibility to everything material and sensual, the cult of beauty, concern for the elegance of form. New genres are born and old ones are transformed. A colorful and realistically developed short story appears (Marguerite of Navarre, Deperrier), a peculiar form of a satirical novel (Rabelais), a new style in lyrics (Marot, Ronsard, Pleiades), the beginnings of a secular Renaissance drama (Jodele), an anecdotal-moral type of memoirs (Brantome ), civic accusatory poetry (d′ Aubigné), philosophical "experiments" (Montaigne).

The prose of the French Renaissance is characterized by a broad, realistic approach to reality. Images are more specific and individual.

In the French Renaissance, several stages should be distinguished. In the first half of the century, humanistic ideas flourished, optimism prevailed. In the second half of the century, the first signs of doubt and disillusionment are observed in the context of religious wars. Starting from the 1560s. the crisis of humanism reaches its full strength, and literature reflects the fighting and fermentation of minds, deep searches.

François Villon (1431 - 1463), representative of the Parisian student poem, in 1456, about to flee Paris after one theft he had committed, wrote his comic "Small Testament". Over the next 6 years of wandering life, Villon experienced many hardships. With exceptional frankness, the poet tells in the "Great Testament" about his hobbies and debauchery, suffering and vices. Villon is the enemy of mysticism and metaphysics. The idea of ​​perishability, the death of all beauty, passes through his poetry (“The Ballad of the Ladies of Bygone Times”). The most terrible impression is made by his "Ballad of the Hanged", written in prison, awaiting execution. Villon's poetry is woven from contradiction: it is the decline of the Middle Ages and the threshold of the Renaissance.

Margaret of Navarre (1492 - 1549). Her court became one of the major humanistic and literary centers of France in the first half of the 16th century. Humanists found shelter at her court. Being a highly educated woman, Margarita was a prolific writer. In her work, she is an exponent of humanistic ideas.

Margarita owns a large number of poems and poems in which religious and moral themes prevail. More often her poems are devoted to the Neoplatonic ideals of sublime love and endless moral self-improvement.

"Heptameron". A collection of short stories written in imitation of Boccaccio. Consists of 72 short stories. Hence the name "Semidnevnik". Margarita draws a completely neutral and ordinary situation. 5 gentlemen and 5 ladies from good society, returning from Kotre, where they were cured by the waters, were delayed on their way by downpours that washed out the road. To pass the time, they decided to tell each other entertaining stories. Margarita herself, King Francis, their mother, and others act under the conditional names of travelers. Novels convey real incidents from court life. A prominent place among them is occupied by the love affairs of Francis 1.

"Heptameron" is a document for studying the morals, feelings, ideological contradictions of the French Renaissance. The short stories reflect the various ideological and moral aspirations of the era. However, Margarita's horizons are limited, she lacks genuine courage of thought. The coarse frankness of the language alternates here with the sophistication of individual expressions.

Clement Marot (1496 - 1544). Chamber junker at the court of Margaret, then moved to the service of Francis 1. Belonging to Protestantism and made without control catholic church the translation into French of the psalms brought on him persecution, up to and including his imprisonment. Maro fled to the possessions of Margarita, then to Italy. Amnestied, he returned to Paris, then fled to Geneva, from where he moved to Turin, where he died.

Maro is a court poet, reflecting in his poems the morals and feelings of the advanced circles of the nobility. In addition to two poems - the youthful work "Temple of Cupid" and the satirical poem "Hell", where Maro describes his stay in prison - he owns several hundred epigrams, rondos, messages, elegies, etc. These are live, direct responses to everything that takes place in the court circle and in the personal life of the poet. Maro is an Epicurean, who most of all loves leisure, pleasure. Sometimes mild melancholy is mixed in him, the thought of death visits the poet.

Marot's graceful humor is best expressed in his epigrams ("The Judge and Samblance"). Another genre is poetic messages, which take on the character of a heart-to-heart conversation with the addressee. In them, he shows a wide variety of intonations, is cheerful, gentle, sad, mocking.

Marot's lyrics represent a significant step forward in the development of French poetry. Subjectivism and the sensuous-material perception of the world outlined by Villon (1432-1463) find their final expression in Maro's work. His poetic technique is also new - the great musicality of the verse, the rhythm of the phrase, the flexibility and ease of expression.

In the first half of the 15th century, at the penultimate stage

The Hundred Years' War, France experienced a severe crisis.

Then popular performance with Joan of Arc, release

denie of the country, the rapid rebirth of the artistic

life, political power and culture. Victory

Louis XI contributed to the political unification

country.

Occurrence social group"The nobility of the lean-

tii”, whose role will continue to grow.

Infection of a new relationship to the real world.

Architecture, sculptures a. Painting.

Architecture.

In the 15th century Gothic enters the last phase of development

- Flame Gothic.

The construction of new cathedrals stops, the main

special attention to the decoration and expansion of old buildings

(an extension of the bell tower, tower, magnificent partals,

porch). Civil architecture (town halls) is developing.

Arising new type urban asabnyak (hotel) on

replacement of the fortified dwelling of the feudal lord.

Home of the wealthy financier King Charles VII

Jacques Coeur at Bourges.

Differs in richness of decoration with typical

gothic forms (lancet arches, pinnacles, crabs)

are read with characteristic French

Sculpture.

Conservatism dominates, gothic traditions, leash

slowly gives way to a new large distribution

statuary plastics (statues

Madonna and other saints) which has now lost its close

connection with architecture. It is especially characteristic of this

rioda of the group "the entombment", "Pieta (mourning

Christ), saturated with potency and dramatism.

Painting

Strong long-term effect on French

painting of the 15th century - the Netherlands. Although one can speak of

established national school of painting associated

with the age-old tradition of Gothic and characterized by rigor

and style.

School of Provence

Belonged to great importance in the 15th century.

"Annunciation" by an anonymous artist.

Depiction of purely French architecture, but also

close connection of figures with monumental architecture

"Heart filled with love"

Book miniature of the manuscript of the aligoric

mana. The miniatures are imbued with a poetic feeling,

lighting transmission: sunrises and rooms, illuminated

by the flames of the fireplace.

Avignon school

"Lamentation of Christ"

Imbued with severe drama, on a golden background

large silhouettes of figures stand out

in one plane, resembling a high relief. You-

the strikingness of the Gothic pattern and strict simplicity

compositions, combined with carved modeling,

giving forms a sort of faceted character.

Castle architecture of the Renaissance.

16th century architecture

In the development of architecture of the 16th century, 2 can be distinguished

stage. 1st stage - Early Renaissance period beginning 16

1540 2nd floor - middle and second half 16

Architecture early renaissance formed

influenced by the techniques of Italian architecture and

even with the direct partial participation of her master

- "corps of Francis I" in the castle of Blois

Indicators of its famous palace façade with remarkable

solid open spiral stone staircase. abundance

stone carving.

- Chambord Castle

It is a new type of country palace,

intended for temporary stay during

hunting and entertainment.

Many more characteristic elements are used in chambord.

castle cops - fortresses (inner enclosed courtyard,

moats with drawbridges, Goddesses.

At the same time, they are combined with new features - building

nie is symmetrical in general composition.

The general silhouette of the building is very picturesque:

high towers, roofs, pipes, attic windows in

several tiers.

In the decoration of the interior and exterior of the building

Elements of orders (perceived as decor).

Royal Palace Louvre in Paris

It was built on the site of the demolished gothic building of the same name.

castle - fortress.

Corps (Lesko - Gouzhon) entered the existing, expanded

renee subsequently numerous restructurings,

huge building of the Louvre.

The building was conceived with a square interior

the courtyard, around which the buildings were located

with the premises placed in them in one row.

3-storey building is dissected in the first floors of the order

ramie, upper floors interpreted by Attic. Unlike

from the buildings of the early 16th century, strict classical, prophetic

forged orders determine the compositional

facade structure.

The facade is characterized by the widespread use of decor

tive sculpture with numerous allegorical

images. They are made with architectural members

opinions; the figures are given in bold perspective perspectives

sakh, blatantly testifying to excellent knowledge

plastics of the human figure

(architect Pierre Lescaut and sculptor Jean Goujon).

Synthesis of architecture and sculpture.

Ane's Palace

Outwardly, it almost does not resemble a castle-cresto in any way.

post. Only the moats surrounding the palace (connection with the castle-

fortress).

Large complex gates led to the front door.

a palace bordered on three sides by residential buildings

The central portal was solved in 3 orders, sized

puppies in classical subordination. Lower - Doric -

sky, middle ionic, upper - Corinthian.

In the chapel of the palace, Delorme used a special

France of that time, the metric hall system with

dome cover.

Other sculptural works by J. Goujon.

Tombstone of Louis de Breze in Rouen

Cathedral

This is a complex two-tier structure adjoining

to Wall. In the upper part of it is placed on the background of the arch con-

naya statue, which is flanked by two caryatids from each

sides supporting a wide entablature.

Caryatids performed with great freedom and

confident skill (acquaintance with classical

models)

5 reliefs for pulpit c. Saint Germain

4 figures of the Evangelists and the Lamentation of Christ

The great influence of mannerism, individual figures for-

borrowed from Parmigiano and Rosso, expression of feelings

subject to a decorative effect, but at the same time

differs in skill in finishing draperies, outlining

body shapes.

Fountain of nymphs

The sculptural decorations of the fountain consisted of 6

narrow vertical reliefs with nymphs in light pro-

transparent robes, holding overturned jugs in their hands -

we, from which water flows, 3 long horizontal

reliefs depicting naiads and tritons and 3 reliefs

with cupids.

Undoubtedly the connection with the school. Fontainebleau. They are peculiar

elongated proportions of figures and refined elegance

In the work of Goujon, French Renaissance art

denia reaches full maturity. It has a pure

that style, restraint and subtle sense of rhythm and

harmony.

Germaine Pilon

He focused his attention not on the relief, but on the monument

mental sculpture.

first tomb of Henry II

Represented by a group of three graces, on whose head

rests an urn with the heart of a king. The group is made according to ri-

to Raphael's ideas, but the classical proportions of the figures and their

strict Roman draperies are redesigned in accordance with

soviet co stylistic devices Fontainebleau schools

second tomb of Henry II

The royal mausoleum was designed by Prima

ticcio. It is adorned with four bronze statues virtue-

lei (close to graces, but more free

movement)

A sharp contrast to them is the figures of kneeling

of Henry II and Catherine de Medici, made in

realistic traditions of French plastic arts. Sbol-

with sharpness, lifeless bodies are conveyed with a backwards

heads resting on a sarcophagus

Tomb of Valentina Balbian

The emaciated face with sunken cheeks,

lean body with bones showing through the skin

contrasted with the image of a young woman in

in the prime of life, dressed in a smart dress.

marble statue of Diana

Nude goddess hugging a deer, stylistic

ski is close to the figures of graces.

Ligier Richier

Craftsman who worked outside of Paris

tombstone René de Chalon

Fantasy and heightened emotionality from-

distinguishes the tombstone he created, representing

lying placed in a niche, against the backdrop of a magnificent mantle,

lined with ermine, a skeleton only partially covered

decayed pieces of muscles, tendons, skin, holding

in the hand raised to the sky heart

Fouquet's work

Jean Fouquet (circa 1420-circa 1490)

Head of the Tour School, major artist 15th c.

Interest in specific phenomena of reality,

accuracy and objectivity. Observations - traits of convergence -

those who share it with the Netherlands, are combined in his work with

a very developed sense of classical form, striving

towards laziness, regularity and orderliness. His

portraits are distinguished by vitality and very truthfully

convey the characteristic features of the models. He models

faces with broad plans, trying to convey the main,

leaving out the details. Clothes fit wide folds

mi, gestures are extremely stingy. Without embellishing models

the artist gives them the significance of the corresponding

high position.

Diptych "Etienne Chivalier and Saint Stephen"

(left wing) Depicts a large state-

figure and his patron Saint Stephen, silhouettes

which clearly stand out against the background of strict architecture

marble hall.

Madonna and Child (right wing)

Madonna graceful and young beauty dressed in raft

but tight blue bodice baring shoulders and

chest, and in a red cloak, the facial features of a lover are betrayed

King Agnes Surel.

Clean, light, non-transparent paints applied

thin and even layer, reminiscent of the coloring of polychrystals

roman architecture.

Fouquet's most precious heritage includes

"Jewish Antiquities" (miniatures for a number of manuscripts

Josephus Flavius). The battle scenes are full of epic

lychia, large masses of people are transferred with skill

Battling armies, moving columns of troops.

"Book of Hours by Etienne Chevalier"

Biblical and Gospel stories, depicting

river valleys, villages, cities and castles of France, pro-

phenomenon of knowledge of nature and animals.

Sculpture of the 16th century.

The first place in its (artistic) significance

in french art Renaissance belongs

sculpture.

Primaticcio (according to whose drawings de-

corative figures of Fontainebleau, rendered notable influence

on the major masters French plastic.

1

The renaissance in France had basically the same prerequisites for its development as in Italy. However, there were significant differences in the socio-political conditions of both countries. Unlike Italy, where in the northern regions already in the XIII century. a political upheaval takes place and a number of completely independent city republics arise in France, where bourgeois development was relatively slow, and the nobility continued to be the ruling class.

From all this follows a certain backwardness of the French bourgeoisie in comparison with the Italian or even English, and, in particular, its weak participation in the humanist movement. On the other hand, humanistic ideas found significant support in the advanced circles of the nobility, who came into direct contact with the culture of Italy.

In general, the strong influence of Italy is one of the most important features of the French Renaissance. The rapid flowering of humanistic thought coincides with the first half of the reign of Francis I (1515-1547). The Italian campaigns, which began under his predecessors and continued by him, greatly expanded cultural relations between the two peoples. Young French nobles, once in Italy, were blinded by the wealth of its cities, the splendor of clothes, the beauty of works of art, the elegance of manners. An intensified import of Italian Renaissance culture to France immediately began. Francis I attracted to his service the best Italian artists and sculptors - Leonardo da Vinci, Andrea del Sarto, Benvenuto Cellini. Italian architects they build him castles in the new Renaissance style in Blois, Chambord, Fontainebleau. There are a large number of translations of Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio, etc. A large number of Italian words from the field of art, technology, military affairs, social entertainment, etc. penetrate into the French language: Of the Italian humanists who moved to France at that time, the most Julius Caesar Scaliger (died in 1558), physician, philologist and critic, author of the famous Poetics in Latin, in which he outlined the principles of a learned humanistic drama, was outstanding.

In parallel, there was an in-depth study of antiquity, which also reached partly through Italian mediation. In the first years of his reign, Francis I ordered the publication of translations of the works of Thucydides, Xenophon and others "for the instruction of the French nobility". He commissioned a translation of Homer's poems and persuaded Amiot to begin his famous translation of Plutarch's "Biographies".

Francis I wanted to personally lead the French Renaissance in order to direct it and keep it under his control, but in reality he only followed the mental movement of the era. Of his advisers, the true leaders of the movement, Guillaume Bude (1468-1540), who first held the position of secretary of Francis I, then his librarian, should be placed in the first place. Bude wrote a huge number of works in Latin on philosophy, history, philology, mathematics and jurisprudence. Bude's main idea was that philology is the main basis of education, since the study of ancient languages ​​and literature expands a person's mental outlook and improves his moral qualities. Much in Bude's views on religion, morality, education brings him closer to Erasmus of Rotterdam. Bude's largest undertaking was the plan to create a secular university, carried out by Francis I. According to Bude's plan, teaching in it should be based not on scholasticism and theology, as at the Sorbonne, but on philology. Thus arose in 1530 the College de France, which immediately became the citadel of free humanistic knowledge.

The second most important moment that determined the fate of the French Renaissance is its special relationship with the Reformation, at first consonant with humanism, but then sharply diverged from it.

In the history of French Protestantism, two periods must be distinguished - before the mid-1530s and after. The first Protestants of France were scattered intellectuals of a humanistic way of thinking, who were critical of all issues, including the foundations of religion, but at the same time were little inclined to preaching and fighting. The outstanding mathematician and Hellenist Lefevrede "Etaple (1455-1537), who visited Italy and imbued the ideas of Platonism there thanks to conversations with Marsilio Ficino and Pico della Mirandola, began, returning to France, to interpret Aristotle in a new way, i.e., referring exclusively to original sources and trying to penetrate their true meaning, not distorted by scholastic commentaries.After that, Lefebvre had the idea to apply the same method to the books of "Holy Scripture" - and here he found that neither about fasting, nor about the celibacy of the clergy, nor about the majority Nothing is said in the gospels about the sacraments. From this arose in him and his friends the idea to return to the original purity of the gospel teachings, to create an "evangelical" religion. Delving further into the consideration of the principles of Christianity, Lefevre in 1512, that is, in five before Luther's speech, put forward two propositions, which later became the main ones for Protestantism of all persuasions: 1) justification by faith, 2) "Holy Scripture" as the only basis of religious doctrine. To reinforce the new doctrine, Lefebvre published his own translation of the Bible, the first in French.

The Sorbonne condemned this translation, as well as all new heresy in general. Several of Lefebvre's followers were executed, and he himself had to flee abroad for a while. Soon, however, Francis I rehabilitated him and even appointed his son's tutor. In general, during this period, the king favored the Protestants and even thought about introducing Protestantism in France. However, in the mid-1530s, a sharp turn took place in his policy, which was caused by the general offensive in Europe of reaction and the counter-reformation associated with it - a coup conditioned by the fear of the ruling classes of peasant uprisings and too bold aspirations of humanistic thought, which threatened to overturn "all the foundations of ". Francis' tolerance for any kind of freethinking - religious or scientific-philosophical - came to an end. Executions of Protestants and free-thinking humanists became commonplace. One of the cases of flagrant arbitrariness was the burning at the stake in 1546 of the outstanding scientist and printer Etienne Dolet.

At this very time, French Protestantism enters its second phase. Jacques Calvin (1509-1564), who moved in 1536 from France to Geneva, becomes its head, and henceforth becomes the main center of Calvinism, leading the entire Protestant movement in France. In the same year, 1536, Calvin finally formulates his teaching in the "Instruction in Christian faith", originally appeared in Latin and reprinted five years later in French. From that moment on, contemplative, utopian evangelism is replaced by severe, militant Calvinism.

The bourgeois essence of the Reformation appears clearly in the teachings of Calvin, who recommends frugality and the accumulation of wealth, justifies usury and even allows slavery. The basis of Calvin's doctrine are two provisions - about "predestination" and about the non-interference of God in the life of the world, subject to immutable laws. According to the first of them, every person from birth is destined either to eternal bliss or to eternal torment, regardless of how he will behave in life. He does not know what he is destined for, but he must think that salvation awaits him and must show this with his whole life. Thus, this doctrine of "predestination" does not lead to fatalism and passivity, but, on the contrary, is a stimulus to action.

Engels says of Calvin: “His doctrine of predestination was a religious expression of the fact that in the world of commerce and competition, success or failure does not depend on the activity or skill of individuals, but on circumstances beyond their control. It is not the will or action of any one who determines or an individual, but the mercy of powerful but unknown economic forces.And this was especially true during the economic upheaval, when all the old trade routes and shopping centers replaced by new ones when America and India were discovered, when even the most sacred economic creed, the value of gold and silver, tottered and collapsed.

* (Marx K., Engels F. Op. 2nd ed. T. 22. S. 308.)

The followers of Calvin and his main provisions on predestination and non-intervention of God develop the doctrine of "worldly vocation", according to which everyone should strive to extract as much profit and benefit from their profession, and of "worldly asceticism", prescribing thrift and moderation in satisfying their needs in order to increase their property. Hence the view of work as a "duty" and the transformation of the thirst for accumulation into the "virtue of accumulation."

Despite the clearly expressed bourgeois nature of Calvinism, he found numerous supporters in those layers of the nobility who did not want to come to terms with absolutism, mainly in the south, which was annexed relatively late (in the 13th century), as a result of which the local nobility had not yet had time to forget about their liberties and tried to be on her own. Thus, if in the second quarter of the XVI century. Protestantism spread almost exclusively among the bourgeoisie, and more or less evenly throughout France, but since the middle of the century it has been intensively spreading among the southern French nobility, the stronghold of feudal reaction. When in the second half of the XVI century. religious wars broke out, it was the Calvinist nobles who fought against absolutism who acted as organizers and leaders of the uprising; moreover, after the end of the war, many of them willingly joined Catholicism.

At the same time, the character of Protestantism is changing, renouncing the principle of freedom of research and imbued with the spirit of intolerance and fanaticism. A vivid example is Calvin's burning in 1553 of Miguel Serveta, accused by him of belonging to the revolutionary Anabaptist sect.

In France, divided into two camps - Catholics and Protestants, there was no complete national party, since both warring parties, to the detriment of their homeland, often acted in alliance with foreign rulers. The Huguenots (as the Protestants were called in France), who had no support among the people, constantly called for help from their co-religionists from Germany, Holland and England. As for the Catholics, at first they were a party of national and religious unity, but over time, especially after the Catholic League was created in 1576, the leaders of the party began to seek support from Spain and even thought about transferring the French crown to the Spanish king Philip II . True patriotism could be found in those days only among the masses of the people: among the peasants or among the urban plebeian masses, who, completely ruined by civil wars and driven to despair, suddenly rose, like their great-grandfathers in the Hundred Years War, to beat both the Spanish soldiers and the German soldiers at the same time. Reiters, and most importantly - their own noble landlords of any political grouping and any religion. But these peasant uprisings, of which the largest took place around 1580 and around 1590, could not succeed and were ruthlessly suppressed, often with the help of betrayal and treason.

Title page of the "Chronicles of France" - the first printed French book

Humanism had some points of contact with both parties, but even more differences. Many humanists were attracted to the Catholic party by the idea of ​​national unity (Ronsard and other members of the Pleiades), but most of them could not put up with the narrowness of thought and the superstitions of Catholicism. And the humanists were repelled from Calvinism by its bourgeois narrow-mindedness, ever-increasing fanaticism. But still, the rationalistic leaven of Calvinism, its heroic spirit, high moral exactingness and the dream of some ideal structure of human society attracted many humanists to it (Agrippa d "Aubigne, and from an earlier time - Maro). However, the most profound humanists, such greatest writers French Renaissance, like Rabelais, Deperier, Montaigne, eschewed religious strife, equally alien to the fanaticism of both faiths, and most likely tended to religious freethinking.

2

The writers of the French Renaissance, in comparison with the early medieval authors, are characterized by an extraordinary expansion of the horizon, a large coverage of intellectual interests. The greatest of them acquire the features of a "universal man" typical of the Renaissance, receptive to everything and involved. The most striking example of this is the work and activities of Rabelais, a doctor, naturalist, archaeologist, lawyer, poet, philologist and brilliant satirical writer. Great versatility can also be observed in the work of Maro, Margaret of Navarre, Ronsard, d'Aubigne and others.

Typical features, more or less common to all writers of the century, are, on the one hand, spontaneous materialism, susceptibility to everything material and sensual, on the other hand, the cult of beauty, concern for the elegance of form. In accordance with this, new genres are born or old ones are radically transformed. A colorful and realistically developed short story appears (Marguerite of Navarre, Deperier), a peculiar form of a satirical novel (Rabelais), a new style in lyrics (Marot, then especially Ronsard and Pleiades), the beginnings of a secular Renaissance drama (Jodele), an anecdotal-moral-descriptive type of memoir (Brant), civic accusatory poetry (d "Aubigne"), philosophical "experiments" (Montaigne), etc.

Both poetry and prose of the French Renaissance are characterized by a broader, more realistic approach to reality. Images are more specific and individual. Abstraction and naive edification are gradually disappearing. Artistic truthfulness becomes a measure and a means of expressing the ideological content.

In the French Renaissance, several stages should be distinguished. In the first half of the century, humanistic ideas flourished, optimism prevailed, faith in the possibility of building a better, more perfect way of life. Although since the mid-1530s this mood has been overshadowed by impending reaction, the religious and political split has not yet had time to fully manifest its destructive effect.

In the second half of the century, in the midst of religious wars beginning or being prepared, the first signs of doubt and disappointment are observed among humanists. Nevertheless, in the third quarter of the century, powerful efforts are being made to create a new, completely national poetry and a rich national language. Beginning in the 1560s, the crisis of humanism reaches its full strength, and literature reflects, on the one hand, the battles and fermentation of minds caused by civil wars, on the other hand, profound quests that prepare the later forms of social and artistic consciousness.

The history of the Renaissance begins in Still this period is called the Renaissance. The Renaissance changed into culture and became the forerunner of the culture of the New Age. And the Renaissance ended in the XVI-XVII centuries, since in each state it has its own start and end date.

Some general information

Representatives of the Renaissance are Francesco Petrarca and Giovanni Boccaccio. They became the first poets who began to express lofty images and thoughts in a frank, common language. This innovation was received with a bang and spread to other countries.

Renaissance and art

The features of the Renaissance is that the human body has become the main source of inspiration and the subject of research for the artists of this time. Thus, emphasis was placed on the similarity of sculpture and painting with reality. The main features of the art of the Renaissance period include radiance, refined brushwork, the play of shadow and light, thoroughness in the process of work and complex compositions. For Renaissance artists, images from the Bible and myths were the main ones.

The resemblance of a real person to his image on a particular canvas was so close that the fictional character seemed alive. This cannot be said about the art of the 20th century.

The Renaissance (its main trends are briefly outlined above) perceived the human body as an endless beginning. Scientists and artists regularly improved their skills and knowledge by studying the bodies of individuals. At that time, the prevailing opinion was that man was created in the likeness and image of God. This statement reflected physical perfection. The main and important objects of Renaissance art were the gods.

Nature and beauty of the human body

Renaissance art paid great attention to nature. A characteristic element of the landscapes was a varied and lush vegetation. Skies of a blue-blue hue that pierced the sun's rays that penetrated through the clouds white color, were a great backdrop for the hovering creatures. Renaissance art worshiped beauty human body. This feature was manifested in the refined elements of the muscles and body. Difficult poses, facial expressions and gestures, a well-coordinated and clear color palette are characteristic of the work of sculptors and sculptors of the Renaissance period. These include Titian, Leonardo da Vinci, Rembrandt and others.

Features of the Renaissance in France.

The renaissance in France had basically the same prerequisites for its development as in Italy. However, there were significant differences in the socio-political conditions of both countries. Unlike Italy, where in the northern regions already in the XIII century. a political upheaval takes place and a number of completely independent city republics arise in France, where bourgeois development was relatively slow, and the nobility continued to be the ruling class.

In the XV century. the stratum of the hereditary bureaucracy from the bourgeoisie, formed in the previous century, in the courts and in the administration, greatly expanded. At the same time, part of the bourgeoisie became noble, buying up the lands of the ruined nobles. However, the French bourgeoisie did not indulge in bold enterprises and, due to the lack of convenient markets, did not develop large foreign trade, they preferred a calm and sure income: they were mainly engaged in usurious activities, realizing state loans and investing money in agriculture. From this follows a certain backwardness of the French bourgeoisie in comparison with the Italian or even English and, in particular, its weak participation in the humanist movement.

In general, the strong influence of Italy is one of the most important features of the French Renaissance. The rapid flowering of humanistic thought coincides with the first half of the reign of Francis I (1515 - 1547). The Italian campaigns, which began under his predecessors and continued by him, greatly expanded cultural relations between the two peoples. Young French nobles, once in Italy, were blinded by the wealth of its cities, the splendor of clothes, the beauty of works of art, the elegance of manners. An intensified import of Italian Renaissance culture to France immediately began. Francis I attracted to his service the best Italian artists and sculptors - Leonardo da Vinci, Andrea del Sarto, Benvenuto Cellini. Italian architects build him castles in the new Renaissance style in Blois, Chambord, Fontainebleau. There are a large number of translations of Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio, and others. A large number of Italian words from the field of art, technology, military affairs, secular amusements, etc. penetrate into the French language. Among the Italian humanists who moved to France at that time, the most prominent was Julius Caesar Scaliger (died 1558), physician, philologist and critic, author of the famous "Poetics" in Latin, in which he outlined the principles of a learned humanistic drama.

In parallel, there was an in-depth study of antiquity, which also reached partly through Italian mediation.

Francis I personally wanted to lead the French Renaissance in order to direct it and keep it under his control, but in fact he only followed the mental movement of the era. Their advisers, the true leaders of the movement, should be put in the first place by Guillaume Bude (1468 - 1540). Bude owns a huge number of works in Latin on philology, history, philosophy, mathematics and jurisprudence. Bude's main idea was that philology is the main basis of education, since the study of ancient languages ​​and literature expands a person's mental outlook and improves his moral qualities. Much in Bude's views was on religion, morality, education brings him closer to Erasmus of Rotterdam. Bude's largest undertaking was the plan to create a secular university, carried out by Francis I. According to Bude, teaching in it should be based on philology. Thus arose in 1530 the "College of Three Languages" (Hebrew, Greek and Latin), which later received the name "College de France", which immediately became the citadel of free humanistic knowledge.

The second most important moment that determined the fate of the French Renaissance is its special relationship with the Reformation, at first consonant with humanism, but then sharply diverged from it.

In the history of French Protestantism, two periods must be distinguished - until the mid-1530s. and after. The first Protestants of France were scattered intellectuals of a humanistic way of thinking, who approached critically all issues, including the foundations of religion, but at the same time were little inclined to preaching and fighting. The outstanding mathematician and Hellenist Lefebvre d'Etaple (1455 - 1537), interpreter of Aristotle in a new way, i.e. referring exclusively to the primary sources and trying to penetrate their true meaning, not distorted by scholastic commentaries. Following this, Lefebvre had the idea to apply the same method to books. Holy Scripture, - and here he found that neither fasting, nor the celibacy of the clergy, nor most of the "sacraments" are mentioned in the Gospel. From this arose in him and his friends the idea to return to the original purity of the gospel teaching, to create an "evangelical" religion. Delving further into the consideration of the principles of Christianity, Lefebvre in 1512 put forward two provisions, which then became the main ones for Protestantism of all persuasions: 1). Justification by faith, 2). Holy Scripture as the sole basis of religious teaching. To reinforce the new doctrine, Lefebvre published his own translation of the Bible, the first into French.

At this time, French Protestantism enters its second phase. John Calvin (1509 - 1464) becomes its head. Calvin finally formulated his doctrine in "Teaching the Christian Faith", which originally appeared in Latin and was reprinted five years later in French. From this point on, contemplative, utopian evangelism is replaced by harsh, militant Calvinism.

The bourgeois essence of the Reformation appears clearly in the teachings of Calvin, who recommends frugality and the accumulation of wealth, justifies usury and even allows slavery. The basis of Calvin's doctrine are two provisions - about "predestination" and about the non-intervention of God in the life of the world, subject to immutable laws. According to the first of them, every person from birth is destined either for eternal bliss or eternal torment, regardless of how he will behave in life. He does not know what he is destined for, but he must think that salvation awaits him, and with his whole life he must show this. So this doctrine "predestination” does not lead to fatalism and passivity, but, on the contrary, is an incentive to action.

Thus, if in the second quarter of the XVI century. Protestantism spread almost exclusively among the bourgeoisie, and more or less evenly throughout France, then, starting from the middle of the century, it spreads intensively among the southern French nobility. When in the second half of the XVI century. religious wars broke out, it was the Calvinist nobles who fought against absolutism who acted as organizers and leaders of the uprising; moreover, at the end of the war, many of them joined Catholicism.

In France, divided into two camps - Catholics and Protestants, there was no completely national party, since both belligerents, to the detriment of their homeland, often acted in alliance with foreign rulers. The Huguenots (as the Protestants were called in France), who had no support among the people, constantly called for help from their co-religionists from Germany, Holland, and England. As for the Catholics, at the beginning they were a party of national and religious unity, but over time, especially after the Catholic League was created in 1576, the leaders of the party began to seek support from Spain and even thought about transferring the French crown to the Spanish King Philip II.

Humanism had some points of contact with both parties, but even more differences. Many humanists were attracted to the Catholic party by the idea of ​​national unity, but most of them could not put up with the narrowness and superstitions of Catholicism. And the Calvinism of the humanists was repelled by its bourgeois narrow-mindedness, which intensified fanaticism. But less and less often, the rationalistic leaven of Calvinism, its heroic spirit, high moral exactingness and the dream of some kind of ideological structure of human society attracted many humanists to it. However, the most profound humanists, such great writers of the French Renaissance as Rabelais, Deperier, Montaigne, eschewed religious strife, equally alien to the fanaticism of both faiths, and most likely tended to religious freethinking.

Literature. Typical features, more or less common to all writers of the century, are, on the one hand, spontaneous materialism, susceptibility to everything material and sensual, on the other hand, the cult of beauty, concern for the elegance of form. In accordance with this, new genres are born or old ones are radically transformed. A colorfully and realistically developed short story appeared (Marguerite of Navarre, Deperier), a peculiar form of a satirical novel (Rabelais), a new style in lyrics (Marot, then especially Ronsard and Pleiades), the beginnings of secular Renaissance drama (Jodele), the anecdotal-moral type of memoirs (Brantome), civic accusatory poetry (d'Aubigné), philosophical "experiments" (Montaigne), etc.

Both poetry and prose are characterized by a broader, more realistic approach to reality. Images are more specific and individual. Abstraction and naive edification are gradually disappearing.

In the French Renaissance, several stages should be distinguished:

1. First half of the 16th century The flourishing of humanistic ideas, optimism prevails, faith in the possibility of building a better, more perfect way of life.

2. Mid-1530s The mood is overshadowed by the impending reaction, the religious and political split has not yet had time to fully manifest its destructive effect.

3. Second half of the 16th century In the context of religious wars beginning or being prepared, the first signs of doubt and disappointment are observed among humanists.

4. Third quarter of the 16th century Powerful efforts are being made to create a new, completely national poetry and a rich national language.

5. 1560s Starting from this period, the crisis of humanism reaches its full strength, and literature reflects, on the one hand, the fighting and fermentation of minds caused by civil wars, on the other hand, profound quests that prepare the later forms of social and artistic consciousness.

Circle of Margaret of Navarre

One of the major humanistic and cultural centers of France in the first half of the XVI century. was the court of Margaret of Navarre (1492 - 1549). Marguerite sympathized with Protestantism and may have been a secret Huguenot herself. At her court, humanists who were persecuted for freethinking found shelter; many "heretics" owed their salvation from the fire to her direct intervention.

Being a highly educated woman, Margarita was a prolific writer. It seeks to liberate human thought and feelings from the yoke of medieval asceticism and scholasticism, but at the same time it cannot renounce the religious worldview and well-known moralism. Margarita owns a huge number of poems and poems, in which religious and moral themes prevail. Most often they are devoted to the Neoplatonic ideals of sublime love and endless moral self-improvement.

Her most significant work is a collection of short stories. "Heptameron" written by her in imitation of Boccaccio. Like the latter, she intended to compose 100 short stories, but managed only 72. Five gentlemen and five ladies from good society were delayed along the way by downpours that washed out the road. To pass the time, they decided to tell each other entertaining stories, then subjecting them to a lengthy discussion. Under the conditional names of travelers, Margarita herself, King Francis, their mother, and others act as narrators.

Unlike Boccaccio's short stories, stories "Heptameron" rarely have a ready-made itinerant story as their source; usually they convey actual incidents from court life that Margarita observed directly or knew by hearsay. A prominent place among them is occupied by love affairs, the hero of which is sometimes, under some pretext, Francis I, famous for his red tape. Much less often come across short stories from the life of the middle or lower strata of society. In some of them, the greed and debauchery of the monks is exposed.

"Heptameron" is a valuable document for studying the morals, feelings, ideological contradictions of the French Renaissance. However, Margarita's horizons are limited, and she lacks genuine courage of thought. This is especially evident in the longest pedantic afterwords to the short stories, which stray into a church sermon and have nothing in common with the cheerful and sharp remarks of the listeners of the short stories in "Decamerone".

Margarita of Navarre maintained friendly relations with many humanists and writers. The poet Clement Marot (1496 - 1544) is primarily among the persons who were directly in the service of Marguerite. Maro is primarily a court poet, reflecting in his light, elegant verses the morals and feelings of the advanced circles of the nobility. He is a wonderful master of small forms. Except for two poems - a rhetorical work "Temple of Cupid"» and a satirical poem "Hell"- he owns several hundred epigrams, rondos, messages, elegies, etc. These are live, direct responses to everything that happens in the court circle and in the personal life of the poet: petty incidents, love interests, intrigues, festivities, petitions for some kind of mercy, intimate confessions and satirical pictures.

Another major writer of the circle was Jean Bonaventure Deperier. His main work is "Cymbal of Peace" written in the manner "Talk of the Gods" Lucian, consists of four dialogues. The first two dialogues depict the adventures of Mercury. On the orders of Jupiter, he descended to earth to give the frayed "Book of Fates" into binding; but two rogues who met him in a tavern steal this book from him and replace it with another, which tells about the love affairs of Jupiter. Further, Mercury, wanting to laugh at the people who begged him for "philosopher's Stone", crushed this stone into powder and scattered its grains; since then, people, rummaging in the dust, are looking for particles of the “philosopher's stone”, dispute them with each other, quarrel, and everyone claims that it was he who got the wonderful stone. Talking animals appear in the third and fourth dialogues - first a horse miraculously received the gift of speech and denouncing his groom, who treats her cruelly and steals the money allocated for her food, then two who own human language dogs. They decide to hide their ability from the humans so they won't use it somehow. Their other conclusion is that it is better to live like a dog than to drag out the existence of an unfortunate human race.

Deperier also owns a collection of short stories entitled "New fun and funny talk". In their construction and plots, these very short, simple stories are extremely similar to medieval anecdotes. In these stories, the folk principle manifested itself with great force: it is reflected not only in the general assessments of the depicted and in the nature of humor, but even in the very manner of narration, close to folk speech and interspersed with proverbs and expressions from folk songs.

Francois Rabelais. Gargantua and Pantagruel.

The impetus for the creation of this Romano was the publication in 1532 in Lyon of an anonymous folk book "Great and invaluable chronicles about the great and huge giant Gargantua". The success of the book, which wittily parodied medieval chivalric romances, led Rabelais to use this form to convey deeper content; in the same 1532, he published as its continuation the book “ Terrible and terrifying deeds and deeds of the glorious Pantagruel, king of the dipsodes, son of the great giant Gargantua.. In this book, Rabelais still closely adheres to what was suggested to him. folk book schemes of medieval novels (the hero's childhood, youthful wanderings and exploits, etc.), from which he drew many images and plot motifs. Along with Pantagruel himself, another central hero of the epic comes forward - Pantagruel's inseparable companion - Panurge.

Encouraged by the success of his plan, in 1534 Rabelais published under the same pseudonym (Alcofribas Nazier) the beginning of history, which was supposed to replace the folk book, under the title "The Tale of the Terrible Life of the Great Gargantua, Father of Pantagruel", which constituted the first book of the entire novel. Fantasy gave way to grotesque and often hyperbolic, but essentially real images, and the comic form of presentation covered up very deep thoughts. The most important moments of Romano Rabelais are concentrated here. The history of Gargantua's upbringing reveals the differences between the old scholastic and the new humanistic methods in pedagogy. The speech of Magister Ianotus de Bragmardo, who begs Gargantua to return the bells he has stolen, is a magnificent parody of the empty rhetoric of the Sorbonnists. What follows is a description of Picrochole's invasion and plans of conquest, a brilliant satire on feudal wars and feudal-type kings. Against the background of the war, a figure appears "lay monk", brother Jean, is the personification of physical and moral health, rude cheerfulness, freed from the medieval fetters of human nature. The book ends with a description of the Abbey of Theleme, founded according to the plan of Brother Jean, this center of reasonable, cultural pleasures and absolute freedom of the individual.

"The Third Book of the Heroic Deeds and Sayings of the Good Pantagruel" was published after a long break, in 1546, with the designation of the true name of the author. It differs significantly from the previous two books. Rabelais's satire "Third Book" became of necessity more restrained and covered. The book opens with a picture of the peaceful and humane colonization of the country of Dipsodes conquered by Pantagruel - a picture clearly conceived as an antithesis to the predatory colonial policy of the era. The book is filled with conversations and reasonings in which Rabelais shows his scholarship in the field of botany, medicine, jurisprudence, etc. The reason for this is that Panurge cannot decide whether to marry him or not (because he is terribly afraid of "horns"), and asks everyone for advice. Hence the whole series grotesque characters to which he refers: "philosophers" different interpretations, unable to utter a word, Judge Bridois, who decides all litigations by throwing dice, etc. This book outlines the philosophy "pantagruelism", which for Rabelais is equivalent to inner peace and some indifference to everything that happens around him.

First short edition "The fourth book of the heroic deeds and speeches of Pantagruel", published in 1548 (again under the name of Rabelais), is also ideologically restrained for the reasons indicated. But four years later, Rabelais published an expanded edition of this book in Paris, where he gave vent to his indignation against the new royal policy that encouraged religious fanaticism, and gave his satire an exceptionally sharp character.

The main source of Rabelais was folk art, a living folklore tradition that permeates his entire novel, as well as those works of French medieval literature of the previous two or three centuries in which the folk principle manifested itself with the greatest force. Rabelais learned a lot from ritual and song imagery, from folk tales, anecdotes, proverbs and jokes of his time.

The language of Rabelais - whimsical, full of synonymous repetitions, heaps, idioms, folk proverbs and sayings - has as its task to convey all the richness of shades inherent in the Renaissance material and sensory perception of the world, freed from all the fetters and restrictions of the medieval worldview. However, along with this turbulent flow of tones and colors, one can observe in the style of Rabelais a huge language structure, the use of all grammatical means, the inclusion of a large stock of scientific and technical terms, Latin or Greek words and expressions.

The grotesque-comic jet in Rabelais's novel fulfills several purposes. On the one hand, it serves the purpose of "luring" the reader, should interest him and make it easier for him to perceive the complex and deep thoughts underlying the novel. On the other hand, it also masks these thoughts, softening their expression, and serves as a shield for the book against the attacks of censorship. In the Middle Ages, the guise of buffoonery made possible very bold statements and professional jesters were allowed to say, clowning, what was considered unacceptable in the mouth of someone else. A special case of Rabelais's grotesque is the gigantic size of Gargantua and his entire family in the first two books (starting from the third, Pantagruel takes on an ordinary human appearance). Rabelais adopted this feature from the popular book, but again it received from him a new and, moreover, complex understanding.

During the 20 years during which Rabelais wrote his novel, his views and assessments changed depending on the changes that took place around him in the political and intellectual life of France. Hence the lack of complete unity in the novel, which is especially noticeable in the transition from the second book to the next. More and more, notes of disappointment and a feeling of bitterness, caused by the picture of the collapse of former hopes, are mixed with the former bold optimism. However, despite the evolution in views and moods, Rabelais remains true to his basic ideas throughout the entire novel. Rabelais gives them the most militant expression in his work. He is an active, militant nature. His pen is his weapon. He says: “There is little honor for those who use only their eyes and, like loafers, save their strength by scratching their heads and yawning around”.

Rabelais maliciously ridicules the medieval court, feudal wars, the old system of education, all scholasticism, theological metaphysics and religious fanaticism. His pedagogical ideas, close to the views of Leonardo Bruni, Bude, Erasmus of Rotterdam, are most clearly expressed in the picture of the education of Gargantua, who had two teachers. The first, the pedant Tubal Olfern, knew only one method of learning - cramming. Gargantua learned the alphabet so well in 5 years and 3 months that he "could say it by heart in reverse order." In the same way, he learned other books. But his father, noticing that from such activities the boy “does not derive any benefit for himself and, worst of all, only becomes stupid,” invited another teacher to him, named Ponocrates. This latter took care that the boy did not so much memorize as meaningfully assimilate knowledge, so that learning was not a burden for him, but interesting and pleasant mental entertainment, so that knowledge was closely connected with practical life. During morning and evening walks, Ponocrates explained to the boy the structure of the sky, sunrise, showed him the stars. At dinner, he gave him information about those cereals and animals that are eaten. He taught him arithmetic during card game. Alternating classes with rest, Ponocrates introduced Gargantua to crafts, taught him to play various instruments, paying due attention to physical exercises - horseback riding, swimming, fencing. Raised in this way, Gargantua becomes a kind and reasonable ruler. He cares about the welfare of his subjects, encourages printing, welcomes the study of antiquity. Gargantua himself states: "States will be happy when kings are philosophers or philosophers are kings".

No less expressive is Rabelais' portrayal of the feudal wars. King Picrochole, a neighbor of Grangousier, Gargantua's father, who had lived in peace with him for many years, suddenly went to war with him because the subjects of Grangousier, who lived near the border, took away by force a few cakes from the subjects of Picrochole, who, out of stubbornness, did not want to sell them. And although the money for the cakes was still paid and Grangousier was ready to return the cakes, Picrochole, instigated by his commanders, started the war. But the possessions of Grangousier are already not enough for them: at the military council they are making plans to conquer almost the whole world.

Exposing all the baseness and stupidity of medieval institutions and concepts, Rabelais opposes them with a new, humanistic worldview, for which, in his understanding, the demand for the freedom of the human person from all bonds, spontaneous materialism and anti-feudal tendencies are most characteristic.

A red thread through the whole novel is faith in the goodness of nature, in the natural "kindness" person. All natural inclinations, according to Rabelais, are legitimate, and if they are not forced, they will only lead to reasonable and moral actions.

Everything connected with the practice of Catholicism is subjected to cruel ridicule by Rabelais. He hates theologians, mocks the Roman Church and the Pope, over all mysticism. For Rabelais there is nothing more hated than the monks. Rabelais compares monks to monkeys who " they crap everywhere and spoil everything, for which they receive ridicule and beaters from everyone ”. When Gargantua is tormented by insomnia, Brother Jean gives him wise advice: “I never sleep as well as during a sermon or in prayer. I beg you: let's begin the Seven Psalms together, and you will immediately fall asleep, I assure you!

In the novel by Rabelais, three images stand out in particular. The first of them is the image of the good king in its three versions, essentially differing little from each other: Grangousier, Gargantua, Pantagruel.

Gargantua- the son of the giant Grangousier and Queen Gargamell. His image is generally grotesque. In childhood, for example, Gargantua “combed his hair with a glass”, “sat between two chairs”, “scooped water with a sieve”, “forged when it cooled down”. The ridiculous antics of the heroes of Rabelais and their fantastic exaggerated features of appearance and character symbolize the impossibility of forging the free and natural manifestations of life into perfectly correct and strictly logical forms. In the images of the good-natured giants Gargantua and his son Pantagruel, who surpass those around them not only in physical strength, excessive appetite, size, but also in their spiritual qualities, Rabelais's humanism and his faith in the colossal possibilities of man are manifested.

Pantagruel He is the son of King Gargantua and Princess Badback. The mother of the newborn died in childbirth because he was very large. His appetite was directly proportional to his size: he bit off the udder and half of the belly from the cow that gave him milk, tore it apart and swallowed a huge bear. However, Pantagruel demonstrates no less appetite in relation to the sciences: by fulfilling the will of his father, he acquired extensive knowledge, "affecting all sectors", and all pundits compared to him "No more than calves in robes". The nobility and mercy of Pantagruel are manifested in the wise policy that he adheres to in the country of the dipsodes, whose lands he conquered. He is opposed to the need to plunder and ruin the conquered countries, which they insist on "other tyrannical minds", on the contrary, he believes that they are necessary "to protect from all sorts of storms, misfortunes and damage". The essence of the character of Pantagruel, who seeks to live in harmony with the world around him, is, according to Rabelais, "deep and indestructible cheerfulness, before which everything transient is powerless". Philosophy "pantagruelism", which the heroes of the book profess, denies any asceticism, suppression and restriction of natural needs and spiritual aspirations of man.

Panurge- a friend of the giant Pantagruel, with whom he makes an inseparable and at the same time comic couple: next to Pantagruel, Panurge, who has a normal height and physique, seems to be a dwarf. The author characterizes Panurge as a mischievous, cheater, reveler, reveler and swindler, and nevertheless openly sympathizes with the optimism and love of life of his hero, calling him "In essence, the most wonderful of mortals". Panurge is an incurable player who loves the game for its own sake. Because of the passion for the game, he often commits ridiculous and reckless acts, for which he either suffers beatings, or is persecuted, but never loses his presence of mind. When Pantagruel, after defeating the dipsodes, gives his friend the estate of Ragu, the careless Panurge squanders all the income from it for three years in advance. Pantagruel persuades him to be more frugal, but he declares with a laugh: "Be cheerful, cheerful and contented - I don't need any other wealth". The paradoxical behavior of Panurge, who hates everything dogmatic, inert, settled, sober and unshakable, symbolizes the relentless search of the human spirit, which tends to doubt everything in order to gain even greater depth.

jean grinder- a former peasant, and now a monk, not like his brothers. Cheerful, resolute, not losing his presence of mind in the most dangerous situations, Jean is above all a hard worker. “He works, plows the land, intercedes for the downtrodden, comforts the mourners, helps the afflicted, guards the gardens of the abbey”. Jean is a peace-loving man, but when the troops of Picrochol attacked his homeland, he (while the other monks were praying in fear) threw off his cassock and “waving the crossbar from the cross, he suddenly rushed at the enemies ... fell to the bottom with terrible force and, in the old fashioned way, pounding them with anything, began to scatter them like kittens”. Jean dreams of the well-being of the whole people, and it is he who came up with the idea of ​​​​creating Theleme Abbey - a community of equal and happy people.

Conqueror kings. Kings Picrochole and Anarch, dreaming of world domination, are Rabelais's evil satire on European sovereigns waging wars of conquest. They are the antipodes of the wise rulers Gargantua and Pantagruel. So, Picrohole at the military council is making crazy plans to capture "... Holland, Zeeland, Bavaria, Austria, Sweden, Denmark, Italy, Scotland, England, Poland, Lithuania..." and other countries, and one of his close associates, Molokosos, already sees himself as a governor in Muscovy, promising to trample, dishevel, crush, shake, smash, smash its inhabitants. An exact description of such rulers is given by Panurge: “These damn kings here on our earth are real donkeys: they don’t know anything, they’re good for nothing, they only know how to harm unfortunate subjects and, for the sake of their lawless and vile whim, excite the whole world with wars”. At Rabelais, the feudal warriors ingloriously end their military careers: having lost power, Picrochole became "a simple day laborer in Lyon", and from Anarch it turned out "one of the slickest green sauce salesmen Utopia has ever known".

"Beat me"

At the end of the 1540s, a literary circle arose, consisting of several young educated nobles, enthusiasts who dreamed of reforming the French poetic language and creating a new, humanistic in nature and at the same time quite national poetry. At first, this circle was called the "Brigade", but then, according to the number of its members, it began to be called the name of the constellation of seven stars - the "Pleiades". The leader and common teacher of the group of young poets was Dora, a connoisseur of ancient languages ​​and literatures, but Pierre de Ronsard and Joaquin du Bellay became its true leaders. In 1549, the manifesto of this poetic school was published - "Defense and glorification of the French language", compiled by du Bellay, but inspired to a large extent by Ronsard.

"Protection and glorification of the French language"

This work consists of two parts: the first is devoted to the problem of poetic language, the second - to the theory of poetry. The first part begins with a protest against the opinion of some people that the French language is a "barbarian" language, not suitable for presenting subtle thoughts and lofty subjects in it, as it can be done in Greek or Latin. However, the French language itself is quite flexible, harmonious and strong: you just need to enrich it and ennoble it. The author recalls that once the Greek and Latin languages ​​were also rough, they reached perfection only as a result of lengthy exercises; in particular, Latin language fully developed through a long study of the Greek. The French language must follow the same path. The best remedy its enrichment and elevation - borrowing from the ancient languages ​​of a number of words and turns of speech. But borrowings must be made with analysis, reasonably, in accordance with the spirit mother tongue. In addition, the source of enrichment of the French language should be not only antiquity, but the language of artisans, sailors, artists, dialects, word formation, etc.

The second part of the treatise begins with the assertion of a lofty idea of ​​the poet and his mission. A poet must be born. But one natural talent is not enough: it must be developed by work on oneself and exercises. The best school for a poet is antiquity. And here the same idea is repeated that was expressed regarding the language: one must learn from antiquity in order to overcome it and enter the path of original, completely national creativity. One should not translate the ancient authors, as this means complete submission of oneself to them, but one must imitate them with analysis and sense. Du Bellay urges poets to abandon the old, medieval forms - ballads, rondos, virelets, etc. - and write epigrams, elegies, odes, satires after the model of Latin poets, such masters in these genres as Ovid, Horace, Catullus, Martial, as well as sonnets in imitation of Petrarch and Sannazaro, tragedies and comedies, following the famous ancient models, finally, heroic poems in the manner of Homer, Virgil and Ariosto.

Ronsard and the influence of Petrarch on his work

Ronsard is one of the greatest singers of love, for the image of which he uses more diverse and richer means than Petrarch. We find in him a huge number of shades and transitions of feelings, situations, details. For Ronsard, love is always material, but at the same time tender and spiritual, like the image of a beloved woman. At the beginning of his work, Ronsard began to cultivate love poetry (collections "Love for Cassandra", "Love for Mary"), taking advantage of the sonnet form, which he developed to perfection. Here, at the beginning, Ronsard felt the strong influence of Petrarch, from which he gradually freed himself, finding a completely independent tone, much more sensual and realistic than that of the Italian poet and his imitators.

Revival in the book of M. Montaigne "Experiments"

"Experiences" Montaigne is a collection of observations, anecdotes, thoughts, commented extracts from ancient and modern authors, Recorded by Montaigne in no apparent order, as they occurred to him. However, this book has a deep inner unity - the unity of the theme and the unity of the worldview. The subject of Montaigne's study is a person whose nature he understands differently than his predecessors, the humanists of the beginning or middle of the 16th century. (Rabelais, Ronsard, etc.). For them, a person is a stable, definite being, who, in order to ensure happiness for himself, and a better order for the world, must only do the right things. The collapse of the utopian ideals of early humanism made Montaigne doubt the impeccability of these views and approach the very concept of man critically. He argues that man is an ever-changing creature, adapting to all climates, modes, conditions of existence. No person is identical to himself at different moments. Depending on the circumstances, a person can be brave or timid, proud or modest, prudent or reckless. There is no limit to the changes of man, and history is nothing but a story about the changes that the human race has undergone. The higher science of Montaigne is the science of man, which studies not Christian writers of modern times, but ancient thinkers and scientists.

One can find deep correspondences between the ideas of Montaigne and those of Rabelais, the thinker of the dawn of the French Renaissance; much in common with him also with another freethinker of that time - Deperier. But much more important is the line of development of free human thought, which goes from him into future times. Not to mention the enormous influence that Montaigne had on many leading thinkers and writers in most other European countries.