Reconstruction of the appearance of a representative of the Ananyino culture and some archaeological finds

iron age

Iron Age - a period of development humanity which occurred in connection with the manufacture and use of iron tools labor and weapons. Changed bronze age in AD I millennium BC In contrast to the relatively rare deposits of copper and especially tin, low-quality iron ores (brown iron ore) are found almost everywhere. But getting iron from ores is much more difficult than copper. The smelting of iron was beyond the reach of ancient metallurgists. Iron was obtained in a doughy state using a cheese-blowing process, which consisted in the reduction of iron ore at a temperature of approx.

Carthage. Spanish weapons IV-II centuries. BC1 - saunion - a heavy iron dart with a serrated edge. From Almedinilla. 2 - tip of a pilum-type dart from Arkobriga. 3 - spearhead from Almedinilla (Cordoba). 4 - falcata (falcata) from Almedinilla. 5 - straight piercing-chopping sword (gladius hispaniensis) from Aguila de Angwita. 6 - dagger from Almedinilla. 7 - Spanish dagger from Numantsia. 8 and 9 - spears. 10 - a knife of this type was attached to the falcata scabbard. All weapons are shown on a scale of 1: 8.11 - a tombstone of a Spanish mercenary discovered in Tunisia, which depicts his shield, helmet, sword and two spears. 12-15 - reliefs from Osuna in southern Spain. 12 - a swordsman with a Celtic-type shield and a headdress made of veins. 13 - a headdress of the same type. 14 - a warrior with a Spanish shield, a falcata and a cap made of veins .15 - a cap of the same type. 16 - a warrior depicted on a vase from Liria. 17 - a bronze figurine of a Spanish horseman of the 3rd century. BC. in a headdress made of veins. He is armed with a round shield and falcata. Museum of Valencia de don Juan. Madrid. 18 - front view of the figurine, allowing you to see how such a shield was held, as well as a wide belt of a warrior. 19 - a sculptural image of a horse, on which a bit and sweatshirt are visible. From El Cigarrelejo. 4th century BC. Meeting Wed. E. Cuadrado, Madrid.20 - reconstruction of the appearance of the Spanish horseman of the time of Hannibal. He wears a veined headdress and a white tunic trimmed with a crimson stripe. He is armed with a round shield with a handle located in the center, a spear and a falcata.21 - a reconstruction of the appearance of a Spanish infantryman from the time of Hannibal. At the beginning of his campaign, the Carthaginian commander collected more than 70,000 of them, they served as the main "expendable material". The infantryman wears a vein cap adorned with a horsehair crest and a white tunic trimmed with dark red. He has a Celtiberian oval shield with a vertical rib, a spear, a saunion, and a falcata. Instead of the latter, he could be armed with a double-edged straight Spanish sword. 22 and 23 are two types of Spanish bits found in Agvila de Anguita in southern Spain

At the bottom of the furnace, a cry was formed - a lump of porous iron weighing 1-5 kg, which had to be forged for compaction, as well as removal of slag from it. Raw iron is a very soft metal; tools and weapons made of pure iron had low mechanical qualities. Only with the discovery in the IX-VII centuries. BC. methods of manufacturing steel from iron and its heat treatment, the wide distribution of the new material begins. The higher mechanical qualities of iron and steel, as well as the general availability of iron ores and the cheapness of the new metal, ensured the displacement of bronze, as well as stone, which remained an important material for the production of tools in the Bronze Age. In Europe, in the second half of the 1st millennium BC. iron and steel began to play really significant role as a material for the manufacture of tools and weapons.

Artifacts of the Ananyino culture. 1 - stone pseudoanthropomorphic tombstone depicting a battle ax and a dagger; 2 - bronze belt with pendant plaques and a stone whetstone (reconstruction); 3, 4 - iron and bronze spearheads; 5, 6, 8 - bronze arrowheads; 7 - iron arrowhead; 9 - bone arrowhead; 10 - bronze ax - "Celt"; 11 - bimetallic dagger; 12 - bronze pick with a zoomorphic rim; 13 - iron dagger; 14 - ceramic vessel; 15 - bronze bracelet; 16 - a bronze ax with a zoomorphic bushing and butt; 17 - bronze bridle plaque in the form of a coiled predator

The technological revolution caused by the spread of iron and steel greatly expanded power man over nature: it became possible to clear large forest areas for crops, expand and improve irrigation and reclamation facilities and improve land cultivation in general. Development accelerates crafts, especially blacksmith and weapons. The processing of wood for the purposes of housebuilding, the production of vehicles, and the manufacture of various utensils is being improved. Artisans, from shoemakers and masons to miners, also received better tools. K n. our era all the main types of handicraft and agricultural hand tools (except screws and hinged scissors) used in the Middle Ages, and partly in modern times, were already in use. The construction of roads was facilitated, improved military technology, exchange expanded, metal coins spread as a means of circulation. Development productive forces associated with the spread of iron, over time led to the transformation of the entire public life.

Artifacts of the Dyakovo culture. 1-4 - bone arrowheads; 5, 6 - iron arrowheads; 7, 8 - iron knives; 9, 10 - iron sickles; 11 - iron ax - "Celt"; 12 - iron bits; 13 - iron fishing hook; 14, 15 - bronze ornaments-threads; 16 - bronze noisy pendant; 17-20 - ceramic objects ("Dyakov type weights"); 21-25 - ceramic vessels

As a result of the growth of labor productivity, the surplus product increased, which, in turn, served economic prerequisite for the emergence exploitation man man, decay tribal primitive communal building. One of the sources of accumulation values and growth wealth inequality there was an exchange that expanded during the Iron Age. The possibility of enrichment through exploitation gave rise to wars for the purpose of robbery and enslavement. At the beginning of the Iron Age, fortifications were widespread. In the era of the Iron Age, the tribes of Europe and Asia were going through the stage of disintegration of the primitive communal system, were on the eve of the emergence class society and states. The transfer of certain means of production to private property the ruling minority, the emergence of slavery, the intensified stratification of society and the separation of the tribal aristocracy from the bulk of the population are already features typical of early class societies.

Ancient Greece. 1 is a part of a drawing from a Greek vase showing two different types of comb base. 2 is a Greek raised comb base. From Olympia.3 - Italian raised crest base. Both the first and second types were fixed with double pins. 4-7 - evolution of the Greek sword. 4,5 - two late Mycenaean (type II) bronze swords from Kallithea. OK. 1200 BC 5a - sword hilt of the same type from Italy. 6 - early Greek iron sword from Ceramics. OK. 820 BC 6a - a bronze hilt of a sword of the same type. 7 - an iron sword and a Greek-type scabbard for it, trimmed with bone, from the Campovalano di Campi necropolis. OK. 500 BC Cheti Museum.8 - Greek type iron spearhead from the Campovalano necropolis. Cheti Museum.9 - Greek bronze spearhead from the British Museum

In many tribes, the social structure of this transitional period took political the form of the so-called. military democracy. The spread of iron metallurgy in the territory Russia refers to the 1st millennium BC. AT steppes Northern Black Sea region in the 7th century BC - the first centuries. AD tribes lived Scythians who created the most developed culture early Iron Age. Iron products have been found in abundance in the settlements and mounds of the Scythian period. Signs of metallurgical production were discovered during excavations of a number of Scythian settlements. The largest number of remains of iron-working and blacksmithing was found in the Kamensky settlement (V-III centuries BC) near Nikopol on Ukraine, which was, apparently, the center of a specialized metallurgical region of ancient Scythia. Iron tools contributed to the wide development of various crafts and the spread of plowed agriculture among the local tribes of the Scythian time. The next after the Scythian period of the early Iron Age in the steppes of the Black Sea region is represented by Sarmatian culture that dominated here from the II century. BC. until the 4th century AD In the previous period from the 7th c. BC. Sarmatians (or Sauromatians) lived in the Don and the Urals.

Ancient Rome. 1 - a bronze sword with "antennas" from Fermo. 2 - an antenna-type sword with a bronze sheath from Fermo. 3 - an antenna-type bronze saber sword from Bologna. 4, 6, 7 - bronze tips of the scabbards of antenna-type swords. antenna type sword. The scabbard is wrapped with bronze wire and has a bronze tip. 8 - an iron dagger with a bone handle and a bronze scabbard with a bone mouth from Veyev. 9, 9a - a bronze dagger and scabbard from Tarquinia. 10 - a bronze spear tip and a wire that fastened it to the shaft. Veii.11, 12 - bronze tip and spearhead from Tarquinia.13 - giant bronze tip from Tarquinia.14 - bronze darthead found in Latium15 - bronze ax from Tarquinia.Scale 1:5

In the first centuries AD. one of the Sarmatian tribes - Alans- began to play a significant historical role and gradually the very name of the Sarmatians was supplanted by the name of the Alans. By the same time, when the Sarmatian tribes dominated the Northern Black Sea region, there are cultures of "burial fields" that spread in the western regions of the Northern Black Sea region, the Upper and Middle Dnieper and Transnistria Chernyakhov culture and etc.). These cultures belonged to agricultural tribes who knew the metallurgy of iron, among which, according to some scientists, were the ancestors Slavs. The tribes living in the central and northern forest regions of the European part of Russia were familiar with iron metallurgy from the 6th-5th centuries. BC. In the VIII-III centuries. BC. in the Kama region was distributed Ananyino a culture that was characterized by the coexistence of bronze and iron tools, with the undoubted superiority of the latter at the end of it. The Ananyino culture on the Kama was replaced by the Pyanobor culture (late 1st millennium BC - first half of the 1st millennium AD). In the Upper Volga region and in the regions of the Volga-Oka interfluve, the settlements of the Dyakovo culture (from the 1st millennium BC - from the 1st millennium AD) belong to the Iron Age, and in the territory south of the middle reaches of the Oka, west of the Volga, in the basin of the river. Tsna and Moksha, settlements of the Gorodets culture (VII century BC-V century AD), which belonged to the ancient Finno-Ugric tribes.

Celtic artifacts. 1-17 - the evolution of the Celtic helmet. It is impossible to clearly trace the evolution due to the fact that all these helmets come from very distant places from each other. However, in some cases (for example, 2-6-12) the path of development is quite obvious. 1 - bronze helmet from the Somme peat bogs, France. Museum Saint-Germain, 2 - bronze helmet from Dürnberg an der Hallen, Austria. Salzburg Museum. 3 - iron helmet from Hallstatt. Austria, Vienna Museum. 4 - bronze helmet from Montpellier. France. 5 - bronze helmet from the Senon burial. Italy. Museum of Ancona. 6 - helmet made of bronze and iron from the Senonian necropolis in Montefortino. Museum of Ancona. 7 - iron helmet from Umbria. Berlin Museum. 8 - Etruscan bronze helmet of Montefortino type. Villa Giulia Museum. 9 - bronze helmet, possibly of Italian work, from Montefortino. Museum of Ancona. 10 - bronze helmet from Waden (Marne). France, Museum Saint-Germain. 11 - Kenoman bronze "cap-shaped" helmet. Museum of Cremona. 12 - iron helmet from Castelrotto in the Italian Alps. Innsbruck Museum. 13 - iron helmet from Batina, Yugoslavia. Museum of Vienna. 14 - iron helmet from Sanzeno in the Italian Alps. Museum of Trento. 15 - bronze helmet, which was found near Siel (department of Saone and Loire). Museum of Chalon-on-Sone. 16 - iron helmet from Port-on-Nidau, Switzerland. Zurich Museum. 17 - iron helmet from Giubiasco, Ticino, Swiss Alps. Zurich Museum. 18 - bronze horned helmet, which was found in the Thames. British museum. 19 - bronze cheek-pieces from Carniola. Yugoslavia, Ljubljana Museum. 20 - iron cheek-pieces from Alesia. Museum of Saint Germain. 21 - two horned helmets depicted on an arch in Orange, southern France. 22 - in the IV century. BC. the Gallic Zante wore such finely decorated gold and bronze ceremonial helmets

The Iron Age is a period in the history of mankind which is characterized by the spread of processing and smelting of iron, the manufacture of tools and weapons from iron. The Iron Age replaced the Bronze Age at the beginning of the first millennium BC.

The idea of ​​three ages: stone, bronze and iron arose in ancient times. This is well described by Titus Lucretius Cara in his philosophical poem "On the Nature of Things", in which the progress of mankind is seen in the development of metallurgy. The term Iron Age was coined in the 19th century by the Danish archaeologist C.J. Thomsen.

Although iron is the most common metal, it was later mastered by mankind, due to the fact that in nature in its pure form iron is difficult to distinguish from other minerals, in addition, iron has a higher melting point than bronze. Before the discovery of methods for producing steel from iron and its heat treatment, iron was inferior in strength and anti-corrosion qualities to bronze.

Initially, iron was used to make jewelry and was smelted from meteorites. The first iron products were found in Egypt and northern Iraq, they were dated to the third millennium BC. According to one of the most probable hypotheses, the smelting of iron from ores was discovered by the Khalib tribe who lived in Asia Minor in the 15th century BC. However, iron remained a very valuable and rare metal for a very long time.

The rapid spread of iron and its displacement of bronze and stone as a material for the production of tools was facilitated by: firstly, the wide distribution of iron in nature and its lower cost compared to bronze; secondly, the discovery of ways to obtain steel made iron tools of better quality than bronze ones.

The Iron Age came to regions of the world at different times. Initially in the 12th-11th centuries BC, iron production spread to Asia Minor, the Middle East, Mesopotamia, Iran, Transcaucasia and India. In the 9th-7th centuries BC, the production of iron tools spread among the primitive tribes of Europe, starting from the 8th-7th centuries BC. the production of iron tools extends to the European part of Russia. In China and the Far East, the Iron Age begins in the 8th century BC. In Egypt and North Africa, the production of iron tools spreads in the 7th-6th centuries BC.

In the 2nd century BC e. The Iron Age came to the tribes inhabiting Central Africa. Some primitive tribes of Central and South Africa passed from the Stone Age to the Iron Age, bypassing the Bronze Age. America, Australia, New Zealand and Oceania saw iron (except for meteoric iron) only in the 16-17 centuries of our era, when representatives of European civilization appeared in these areas.

The spread of iron tools led to a technical revolution in human society. The power of man in his struggle with the elements increased, the impact of people on nature increased, the introduction of iron tools facilitated the work of farmers, it became possible to clear large forest areas for fields, contributed to the improvement of irrigation facilities and, in general, improved the technology of tillage. The technology of processing wood and stone for the purpose of building houses, defensive structures and vehicles (ships, chariots, carts, etc.) is being improved. The military has improved. Craftsmen received more advanced tools, which contributed to the improvement and acceleration of the development of crafts. Trade relations expanded, the decomposition of the primitive communal system accelerated, which contributed to the acceleration of the transition to a class - slave-owning society.

Due to the fact that iron is still an important material in the production of tools, the modern period of history enters the Iron Age.

Natalya Adnoral

Why is our age called the Iron Age? Is it related to the physical properties of the metal? Perhaps acquaintance with the history of the development of iron, with its nature and symbolism, will facilitate the understanding of our time and our place in it.

iron age
(started around II I millennium BC)

In archeology: the historical period of the widespread distribution of iron as a material for the manufacture of weapons and tools. Follows stone and bronze.

In Indian philosophy - Kali Yuga: the age of darkness, the fourth and last period in the cycle of the manifested world. Follows Gold, Silver and Bronze.

Plato in The Republic also talks about the four ages of mankind.

Iron age. This is an era of change, action and duality. Where there is war, there is both cruelty and heroism. Where there is a personality, it is both a cult of the ego and a bright individuality. Where freedom is both a complete rejection of the law and absolute responsibility. Where power is both the desire to capture and subjugate others, and the ability to "rule oneself." Where the search is both a thirst for new pleasures and a love of wisdom. Where life is both survival and the Way. The Iron Age is a stage of movement from the past to the future, from the old to the new. This is the age in which each of us lives.

Part one,
archaeological and etymological

Iron is called the metal of the power of civilizations. Historically, the onset of the Iron Age is directly associated with the discovery of a method for obtaining iron from ores found in the bowels of the Earth. But along with “earthly” iron, there is also its “heavenly” counterpart - iron of meteoric origin. Meteoritic iron is chemically pure (does not contain impurities), and therefore does not require labor-intensive technologies for their removal. Iron in the composition of ores, on the contrary, needs several stages of purification. Archeology, etymology, and myths common among some peoples about gods or demons who dropped iron objects and tools from the sky speak of the fact that it was the “heavenly” iron that was the first to be known to man.

In ancient Egypt, iron was called bi-ni-pet, which literally means "heavenly ore" or "heavenly metal". The oldest samples of processed iron found in Egypt are made of meteoric iron (they date back to the 4th millennium BC). In Mesopotamia, iron was called an-bar - "heavenly iron", in ancient Armenia - yerkat, "dropped (fell) from the sky." The ancient Greek and North Caucasian names for iron come from the word sidereus, "starry".

The first iron - a gift of the gods, clean, easy to process - was used exclusively for the manufacture of "pure" ritual objects: amulets, talismans, sacred images (beads, bracelets, rings, hearths). Iron meteorites were worshiped, religious buildings were created at the place of their fall, they were ground into powder and drunk as a cure for many ailments, carried with them as amulets. The first meteoritic iron weapons were decorated with gold and precious stones and used in burials.

Some peoples were not familiar with meteoric iron. For them, the development of metal began with ore deposits of "terrestrial" iron, from which they made objects for applied purposes. Among such peoples (for example, among the Slavs), iron was called according to a “functional” attribute. So Russian iron (South Slavic zalizo) has the root "lez" (from "lezo" - "blade"). Some philologists derive the German name for the metal Eisen from the Celtic isara, meaning "strong, strong." The now international Latin name Ferrum, adopted among the Romance peoples, is probably related to the Greek-Latin fars ("to be hard"), which is derived from the Sanskrit bhars ("to harden").

Part two,
practical-mystical

The "applied" duality of objects made of iron is obvious: it is both a tool of creation and a weapon of destruction. Even the same iron object can be used for diametrically opposed purposes. According to legends, the blacksmiths of antiquity were able to endow iron objects with the power of one direction or another. That is why they treated blacksmiths with reverence and fear.

Mythological and mystical interpretations of the properties of iron in different cultures are also sometimes opposite. In some cases, iron was associated with a destructive, enslaving force, in others - with protection from such forces. So, in Islam, iron is a symbol of evil, among the Teutons - a symbol of slavery. Bans on the use of iron were widespread in Ireland, Scotland, Finland, China, Korea, and India. Altars were built without iron, it was forbidden to collect medicinal herbs with the help of iron tools. The Hindus believed that iron in houses contributed to the spread of epidemics.

On the other hand, iron is an essential attribute of protective rituals: during plague epidemics, nails were hammered into the walls of houses; a pin was pinned to clothes as a talisman from the evil eye; iron horseshoes were nailed to the doors of houses and churches, attached to the masts of ships. In antiquity, iron rings and other amulets were common to scare away demons and evil spirits. In ancient China, iron served as a symbol of justice, strength and chastity; figurines made from it were buried in the ground to protect against dragons. Iron as a warrior metal was sung in Scandinavia, where the military cult reached unprecedented development. In addition, some peoples revered iron for its ability to awaken mental strength and cause dramatic changes in life.

part three,
natural science

Iron is a metal, one of the most common elements in the universe, an active participant in the processes taking place in the depths of stars. The core of the Sun - the main source of energy for our planet (according to the modern hypothesis) - consists of iron. On Earth, iron is ubiquitous: both in the core (the main element), and in the earth's crust (in second place after aluminum), and in all living organisms without exception - from bacteria to humans.

The main properties of iron-metal, strength and conductivity, are due to its crystal structure. Positively charged ions “rest” at the nodes of the metal lattice, and negatively charged “free” electrons continuously “scurry” between them. The strength of the metallic bond is due to the force of attraction between the "nodal pluses" and "moving minuses", the conduction potential is due to the chaotic movement of electrons. A metal becomes a "real" conductor when, under the action of the poles applied to the metal, this electronic chaos turns into a directed ordered flow (actually, an electric current).

Man, like metal, with a sufficiently rigid external organization, is internally movement itself. At the physical level, this is expressed in the continuous movements and interconversions of billions of atoms and molecules, in the exchange of matter and energy in cells, in the blood flow, etc. At the psychic level, in the constant change of emotions and thoughts. Stopping movement on all planes means death. It is noteworthy that it is iron that is an invariable participant in the processes that provide energy to our bodies. The failure of at least one iron-containing system threatens the body with irreparable disaster. Even a decrease in iron content significantly impairs energy metabolism. In humans, this is expressed in chronic fatigue, loss of appetite, sensitivity to cold, apathy, weakening of attention, decreased mental and cognitive abilities, increased susceptibility to stress and infections. In fairness, it should be said that an excess of iron does not lead to anything good: iron poisoning is expressed in fatigue, damage to the liver, spleen, increased inflammatory processes in the body, deficiency of other vital trace elements (copper, zinc, chromium and calcium).

Any movement requires energy. Our body receives it in the process of chemical transformation of substances received with food. The driving force behind this process is atmospheric oxygen. This way of obtaining energy is called breathing. Iron is its most important component. Firstly, as part of a complex molecule - blood hemoglobin - it directly binds oxygen (structures in which iron is replaced by manganese, nickel or copper are not capable of binding oxygen). Secondly, as part of myoglobin, muscles store this oxygen in reserve. Thirdly, it serves as a conductor of energy in complex systems, which, in fact, carry out the chemical transformation of substances.

In bacteria and plants, iron is also involved in the transformation of matter and energy (photosynthesis and nitrogen fixation). With a lack of iron in the soil, plants no longer capture sunlight and lose their green color.

Iron not only helps the transformation of matter and energy in living organisms, it also serves as an indicator of the changes that took place on Earth in the distant past. According to the depth of iron oxide deposition at the bottom of the oceans, scientists are making assumptions about the timing of the emergence of the first photosynthetic organisms and the appearance of oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere. According to the orientation of iron-bearing inclusions in the composition of lavas that erupted during ancient cataclysms - about the position of the planet's magnetic poles at that ancient time.

Part four
symbolic (astrological-alchemical)

So what kind of energy that feeds the activity of our bodies does iron conduct? In the old days, it was assumed that the energies of celestial bodies are transmitted to the inhabitants of the Earth with the help of the conductive force of metals. Each specific metal (of the seven mentioned in alchemy and astrology) contributes to the distribution of a very specific type of energy in the body. Iron was considered a piece of celestial power, which is given to the Earth by its nearest neighbor - the planet Mars. Other names for this planet are Ares, Yar, Yarius. The Russian word "rage" is of the same root with them. In ancient times, the energy of Mars was said to "hot the blood and the mind" and favorable for "work, war and love." Mars and iron were often mentioned in connection with the astral, the plane of emotions. It was said that the power of Mars not only “kindles” our physical activity, but also provokes the “exit” of our instincts, passions and emotions - active, mobile, changeable and, of course, sometimes diametrically opposed. After all, it is not for nothing that they say that there is only one step from love to hate.

Philosophers of the past considered these manifestations of "energetic and restless elements" as a necessary stage of growth, development, and improvement. It is no coincidence that in alchemy the path of evolution, the transformation of metals, culminating in inert, integral, perfect gold, begins precisely with iron - the symbol of action.

The Iron Age is a historical era of iron mining and processing, an era of destructive wars and creative discoveries.

Iron in itself can be neither good nor bad, "neither great nor insignificant." Its internal properties are manifested as envisaged by Nature. In human hands, iron is transformed into a product. Is it good or evil? Obviously not. Only the result of the action taken can be constructive or destructive. Only a person chooses the goal, method and direction of action and is responsible for its result.

The original article is on the website of the magazine "New Acropolis": www.newacropolis.ru

to the magazine "Man Without Borders"

Many secrets exist in world history. But each study by archaeologists leaves no hope of learning something new in the facts that have been discovered. Exciting and extraordinary are those moments when you realize that a long time ago on the lands that we walk today, huge dinosaurs lived, crusaders fought, ancient people set up a parking lot.

Introduction

World history laid down in its periodization two approaches that are in demand for determining the human race: 1) materials for the manufacture of tools and 2) technologies. Thanks to these approaches, the concepts of "stone", "iron", "bronze" ages arose. Each of these eras has become a separate step in the development of human history, the next cycle of evolution and the knowledge of human capabilities. It is noteworthy that in this process there was no stagnation, the so-called stagnation. From ancient times to the present day, there has been a regular acquisition of knowledge and the latest methods of extracting useful materials. In our article you will learn about the Iron Age and its general characteristics.

Methods for dating time periods in world history

Natural sciences have become an excellent tool in the hands of archaeologists to determine the date in time periods. Today, historians and researchers can make geological dating, they have the right to use the radiocarbon method, as well as dendrochronology. The active development of the most ancient man makes it possible to improve existing technologies.

Five thousand years ago, the so-called written period began in the history of mankind. Therefore, there were other prerequisites for determining the time frame. Historians suggest that the era of the isolation of ancient man from the world of fauna began two million years ago and lasted until the fall of the Western part of the Roman Empire, which happened in 476 AD.

This was the period of antiquity, then the Middle Ages lasted until the Renaissance. The period of modern history lasted until the end of the First World War. And we live in the era of modern times. Outstanding figures of the time set their reference points. For example, Herodotus was actively interested in the struggle of Asia with Europe. Thinkers of a later time considered the formation of the Roman Republic to be the most important event in the development of civilization. However, a huge number of historians agreed on a single assumption - in the Iron Age, art and culture were not of great importance. After all, tools of labor and war came to the fore at that time.

Prerequisites for the emergence of the era of metal

Primitive history is divided into several important eras. For example, the Stone Age includes the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic. The time span from these periods is characterized by the development of man and the latest methods of stone processing.

At first, the hand ax was widely spread from the tools of labor. At the same time, man mastered fire. He made the first clothes from the skin of an animal. Ideas about religion appeared, and also at this time, ancient people began to equip their homes. During the time when man led a semi-nomadic lifestyle, he hunted large and strong animals, so he needed a weapon better than what he had.

The next most important stage in the development of stone processing methods falls at the turn of the millennium and the end of the Stone Age. Then there is agriculture and animal husbandry. And then there is also ceramic production. So in the early Iron Age, ancient man mastered copper and the methods of its processing. The beginning of the era of manufacturing metal products formed the front of activity in advance. The study of the characteristics and properties of metals gradually led to the fact that man discovered bronze and also spread it. The Stone Age, the Iron Age, including the Bronze Age, is all a single and harmonious process of a person's striving for civilization, which is based on mass movements of ethnic groups.

Researchers who studied the era of iron and its duration

Since the spread of metal is usually attributed to the primitive, as well as the early class history of mankind, therefore, the characteristic features of this period are interests in metallurgy and the manufacture of tools.

Even in antiquity, the idea of ​​the division of centuries on the basis of materials was formed, but it has been described more fully in our days. So the early Iron Age was studied, and scientists in various fields continue to study. For example, in Western Europe, the fundamental works about this era were written by Gernes, Tischler, Kostszewski and other scientists.

However, in Eastern Europe similar works and monographs, maps and textbooks were written by Gauthier, Spitsyn, Krakov, Smirnov, Artamonov and Tretyakov. All of them believe that a characteristic feature of the culture of primitive times is the spread of iron. However, each state survived the Bronze and Iron Ages in its own way.

The first of them is considered a prerequisite for the emergence of the second. The Bronze Age was not so extensive within the framework of the development of mankind. As for the chronological framework of the Iron Age, this period took only two centuries from the ninth to the seventh century BC. During this period of time, many tribes of Asia and Europe received a powerful impetus in the promotion of metallurgy. Indeed, at that time, metal remained one of the most important materials for the manufacture of tools and household items, therefore, it influenced the development of modernity and is part of that time.

Cultural background of this era

Despite the fact that the period of the Iron Age did not imply the active development of culture, modernization nevertheless slightly affected this sphere of life of an ancient person. It should be noted:

• First, there were the first economic preconditions for the establishment of working relations and discord in the tribal way of life.
• Secondly, ancient history is marked by the accumulation of certain values, the increase in property inequality, as well as the mutually beneficial exchange of parties.
• Thirdly, the formation of classes in society and the state became widespread and strengthened.
• Fourthly, a huge part of the funds has passed into the private ownership of selected minorities, as well as slavery and progressive stratification of society.

Iron age. Russia

On the lands of modern Russia, iron was first found in the Transcaucasus. Items made of this metal began to actively replace bronze ones. This is evidenced by the fact that iron was found everywhere, unlike tin or copper. Iron ore was located not only deep in the bowels of the earth, but also on its surface too.

Today, the ore found in the swamp is of no interest to the modern metal industry. However, in the ancient era, it meant a lot. Thus, the state, which had an income in the production of bronze, lost it in the production of metal. It is noteworthy that the countries that needed copper ore, with the advent of iron, rapidly overtook those kingdoms that were advanced in the Bronze Age.

It should be noted that during the excavations of the Scythian settlements, priceless relics of the beginning of the Iron Age were found.

Who are the Scythians? Simply put, these are Iranian-speaking nomads who moved through the territories of modern Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Siberia and southern Russia. Once upon a time Herodotus wrote about them.

Scythian relics in Russia

It is worth noting that these nomads grew grain. They brought it for export to Greek cities. Grain production was based on slave labor. Very often the bones of the dead slaves accompanied the burial of the Scythians. The tradition of killing slaves at the burial of the master is known in many countries. The Scythians did not ignore these customs. On the sites of their former settlements, archaeologists still find agricultural tools, including sickles. It should be noted that few arable implements were found. Perhaps they were wooden and did not have iron elements.

It is known that the Scythians knew how to process ferrous metal. They produced flat arrows, which consisted of spikes, bushings and other elements. The Scythians began to make tools and other household items of better quality than before. This indicates global changes not only in the life of these nomads, but also in other steppe ethnic groups.

Iron age. Kazakhstan

This period in the Kazakh steppes fell on the eighth-seventh centuries BC. This era coincided with the movement of agricultural and pastoral tribes from Mongolia to mobile forms of economy. They were based on the system of seasonal regulation of pastures, as well as water sources. These forms of pastoral farming in the steppe are called "nomadic" and "semi-nomadic farms" in science. New forms of cattle breeding laid the foundation for the development of the economy of the tribes that lived in the special conditions of the steppe ecosystem. The basis of this form of economy was formed in the Begazy-Dandybaev era.

Tasmalan culture

Nomads lived on the endless steppes of Kazakhstan. On these lands, history is presented in the form of mounds and burial grounds, which are considered priceless monuments of the Iron Age. In this region, burials with paintings are often found, which, according to archaeologists, served as lighthouses or compasses in the steppe.

Historians are interested in the Tasmolin culture, which was named after the area of ​​Pavlodar. The very first excavations were carried out in this area, where the skeletons of a man and a horse were found in large and small barrows. Kazakh scholars consider these mounds the most common relics of the Stone Age, Iron Age.

Cultural features of Northern Kazakhstan

This region differs from other regions of Kazakhstan in that farmers, that is, local residents, have switched to either a settled or nomadic way of life. The culture described above is also valued in these regions. Archaeological researchers are still attracted by the monuments of the Iron Age. A lot of research was carried out on the burial mounds of Birlik, Bekteniz, etc. The right bank of the Yesil River preserved the fortifications of this era.

Another "iron" turn in the history of mankind

Historians say that the 19th century is the Iron Age. The thing is that it went down in history as an era of revolutions and changes. The architecture is changing radically. At this time, concrete is being intensively introduced into the construction business. Railway tracks are laid everywhere. In other words, the age of the railroad began. Rails are laid en masse, connecting cities and countries. So there were ways in France, Germany, Belgium and Russia.

In 1837, railway workers connected St. Petersburg and Tsarskoye Selo. The length of these routes was 26.7 km. The railway began to actively expand in Russia in the 19th century. It was then that the domestic government thought about laying the tracks. Oddly enough, but the starting point for the development of this direction was the Department of Water Communications, which was created at the end of the 18th century by Paul the First.

The organization under the leadership of N. P. Rumyantsev acted more than successfully. The new institution was actively developed and expanded. On its base, created by Rumyantsev in 1809, the Military Institute of Communications was opened. After the victory in 1812, domestic engineers improved the communications system. It was this institute that produced modern and competent specialists for the construction and operation of domestic railways. Historians recorded the maximum point towards the end of the 19th century. This is the highest level of growth of the railway network. In just 10 years, the world length of the railway has increased by 245 thousand kilometers. Thus, the total length of the global network has become 617 thousand kilometers.

The first Russian train

As mentioned above, the flight "St. Petersburg - Tsarskoe Selo", which departed in 1837 on October 30 at 12:30, became the debut in the domestic railway. A lot of artificial structures were built along this route, including bridges. The largest of them ran through the Obvodny Canal, the length of which was more than 25 meters.

In general, a huge number of bridges built from metal structures were built in the New Iron Age. 7 locomotives and various crews were purchased abroad. And a year later, namely in 1838, a domestic steam locomotive called "Agile" was designed at the Tsarskoye Selo Institute of Communications.

For 5 years, more than 2 million passengers have been transported on this route. At the same time, this road brought a profit to the treasury of about 360 thousand rubles. The significance of this railway lay in the fact that this experience of construction and operation proved the idea of ​​uninterrupted operation of this kind of transport in the climatic conditions of our homeland all year round.

The financial exploitation of the canvas also proved the profitability and expediency of a new method of delivering passengers and goods. It is worth noting that the first experience in the organization of railways in Russia gave a powerful impetus to the development and laying of the railway track across the country.

Conclusion

If we return to the question of the Iron Age, we can trace its influence on the development of all mankind.

So, the era of metal is a part of history that stood out on the basis of data obtained by archaeologists, and is also characterized by the predominant predominance of objects made of iron, cast iron and steel at excavation sites.

It is generally accepted that this age replaced the Bronze Age. Its beginning in different areas and regions refers to different time periods. Markers of the beginning of the Iron Age are the regular production of weapons and tools, the spread of not only blacksmithing, but also ferrous metallurgy, as well as the widespread use of iron products.

The end of this era is attributed to the advent of the technological era, which is associated with the industrial revolution. And some historians extend it to the days of modern times.

The widespread introduction of this metal causes many opportunities for the production of a series of tools. This phenomenon is reflected in the improvement and spread of agriculture in forest areas or on soils that are difficult to cultivate.

Progress is observed in the construction business, as well as in crafts. The first tools appear in the form of saws, files and even articulated tools. Metal mining made it possible to manufacture wheeled vehicles. It was the latter that became the impetus for the expansion of trade.

Then coins appear. The processing of iron had a positive effect on military affairs. These facts in many regions contributed to the decomposition of the primitive system, as well as the formation of statehood.

Remember that the Iron Age is divided into early and late. This era is used in the study of primitive societies. On Chinese lands, progress in ferrous metallurgy proceeded separately. The production of bronze and casting among the Chinese was at the highest level. However, ore iron for them was known for a long time than in other countries. They were the first to produce cast iron, having noticed its fusibility. Masters produced many items not by forging, but by casting.

Successful metal processing centers were in the territories of the former USSR Transcaucasia, the Dnieper region, the Volga-Kama region. It is noteworthy that social inequality intensified in pre-class societies. This was a general description of the Iron Age, which represents the most significant changes in the history of mankind associated with the development of iron.

The Iron Age is an era in the primitive and early class history of mankind, characterized by the spread of iron metallurgy and the manufacture of iron tools.

The idea of ​​three ages, stone, bronze and iron, arose in the ancient world (Titus Lucretius Car).

Following bronze, a person masters a new metal - iron. The discovery of this metal of legend is attributed to the Asia Minor people of the Khalibs: from their name comes the Greek. Χάλυβας - "steel", "iron". Aristotle left a description of the Khalib method of obtaining iron: the Khalibs washed the river sand of their country several times, added some kind of refractory substance to it, and melted it in furnaces of a special design; the metal thus obtained had a silvery color and was stainless. As a raw material for iron smelting, magnetite sands were used, the reserves of which are found along the entire coast of the Black Sea - these magnetite sands consist of a mixture of fine grains of magnetite, titano-magnetite, ilmenite, and fragments of other rocks, so that the steel smelted by the Khalibs was alloyed, and, appears to be of high quality. Such a peculiar method of obtaining iron not from ore suggests that the Khalibs, rather, discovered iron as a technological material, but not as a method for its widespread industrial production. Apparently, their discovery served as an impetus for the further development of iron metallurgy, including from ore mined in mines. Clement of Alexandria in his encyclopedic work Stromata (ch. 21) mentions that, according to Greek legend, iron was discovered on Mount Ida - that was the name of the mountain range near Troy, opposite the island of Lesbos

The fact that iron was actually discovered in the Hittites is confirmed both by the Greek name for the steel Χάλυβας, and by the fact that one of the first iron daggers was found in the tomb of the Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamun (c. 1350 BC), clearly presented to him by the Hittites, and that already in the Book of Judges of Israel (c. 1200 BC) the use of complete iron chariots by the Philistines and Canaanites is described. Later, iron technology gradually spread to other countries.

Bronze tools are more durable than iron tools, and their production does not require such a high temperature as iron smelting. Therefore, most experts believe that the transition from bronze to iron was not associated with the advantages of tools made of iron, but, first of all, with the fact that at the end of the Bronze Age mass production of bronze tools began, which very quickly led to the depletion of tin for the manufacture of bronze, which is much rarer in nature than copper.

Iron ores were more readily available. Bog ores are found almost everywhere. The vast expanses of the forest zone in the Bronze Age lagged behind the southern regions in socio-economic development, but after the start of iron smelting from local ores, agricultural equipment began to improve there, an iron plowshare appeared suitable for plowing heavy forest soils, and the inhabitants of the forest zone switched to agriculture. As a result, many forests in Western Europe disappeared during the Iron Age. But even in regions where agriculture arose earlier, the introduction of iron contributed to the improvement of irrigation systems and increased productivity of fields.

End of work -

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