Patterns of action of environmental factors odum general ecology. General patterns of influence of environmental factors on the body

Environmental factors are quantified (Figure 6). For each factor, one can optimum zone (zone of normal life), pessimism zone(zone of oppression) and endurance limits organism. The optimum is the amount of the environmental factor at which the intensity of the vital activity of organisms is maximum. In the pessimum zone, the vital activity of organisms is depressed. Beyond the limits of endurance, the existence of an organism is impossible. Distinguish lower and upper limits of endurance.

Figure 6: Dependence of the action of the environmental factor on its action

The ability of living organisms to endure quantitative fluctuations in the action of the environmental factor in to some extent called ecological valence (tolerance, stability, plasticity). Species with a wide zone of tolerance are called eurybiont, with a narrow stenobiont (Figure 7 and Figure 8).

Figure 7: Ecological valency (plasticity) of species:
1- eurybiont; 2 - stenobiont

Figure 8: Ecological valency (plasticity) of species
(according to Y. Odum)

Organisms that tolerate significant temperature fluctuations are called eurythermal, and those adapted to a narrow temperature range are called stenothermic. In the same way, in relation to pressure, evry- and stenobatnye organisms are distinguished, in relation to the degree of salinity of the environment - evry - and stenohaline, etc.

The ecological valences of individual individuals do not match. Therefore, the ecological valence of a species is wider than the ecological valence of each individual.

The ecological valencies of a species to different ecological factors can differ significantly. The set of ecological valences in relation to various environmental factors is ecological spectrum kind.

The ecological factor, the quantitative value of which goes beyond the limits of the endurance of the species, is called limiting (limiting) factor. Such a factor will limit the distribution of the species even if all other factors are favorable. Limiting factors determine the geographic range of a species. A person's knowledge of the limiting factors for a particular type of organism makes it possible, by changing the conditions of the habitat, to either suppress or stimulate its development.

It is possible to single out the main regularities of the action of environmental factors:

The surrounding organic and inorganic nature is the habitat of the species, it is a part of nature with which it directly interacts.

Organisms are able to adapt to all environmental conditions, these adaptations are commonly called adaptations. They can be anatomical, morphological, physiological, behavioral. Elements of the environment that cause adaptations are called environmental factors or forcing factors. The real significance of the factors is not the same. Some factors are especially important and irreplaceable; they are usually called the conditions of existence.

Environmental factors are divided into 3 main groups: abiotic, biotic and anthropogenic, which, as it were, correspond to the stages of the evolutionary development of our planet.

Abiotic or physico-chemical - factors of inanimate nature, these are climatic, which include: light and radiant energy, temperature, humidity, precipitation, snow cover, atmospheric pressure, gas composition, air movement, atmospheric electricity; soil-ground, geomorphological, hydrological.

Biotic - factors of wildlife that act directly or indirectly on the body - these are microorganisms, plants and plant groups, animals.

Under anthropogenic factors understand the impact of man on living organisms - direct or indirect, through changes in the environment.

According to M. Bigon, J. Harper, K. Townsend (1989), environmental factors are divided into 2 groups: conditions and resources.

Conditions - environmental factors that change in time and space, to which organisms react differently depending on its strength (for example, temperature, soil moisture, etc.). In the presence of certain organisms, conditions can change, for example, plants can change the pH of the soil, shade the space, but the conditions are not consumed or exhausted by organisms, and no organism can make them inaccessible or less accessible to other organisms.

Resources are everything that organisms use and consume, and depending on conditions, organisms can change their quantity or can make them unavailable to others. There is competition between organisms for a particular resource. In different periods of life, different substances can be resources. One and the same factor, depending on the environment, can either be a resource or a condition, for example, oxygen in the air environment is a condition, and in a water environment it is a resource.

Some environmental factors remain constant almost always, a number of other factors vary greatly (competition, climatic factors). The degree of variability of the factor depends on the habitat. Changing factors have a particularly profound effect on organisms. AS Monchadsky (1958) proposed a classification that takes into account the variability of factors. According to his classification:

Group 1 - these are stable factors. Not changing for a long time (gravitational force, solar constant, composition of the atmosphere, topography, etc.)

Group 2 - changing factors, which, in turn, are divided into:

Factors that change regularly, periodically, due to the movement of the solar system (solar radiation, photoperiodism, temperature, ebbs and flows, etc.)

Factors that change without strict periodicity (wind, precipitation, biotic and anthropogenic).

Environmental factors in the simplest case have a direct effect, for example, a lizard basking in the sun - its body temperature rises. Most often, we meet with indirect, indirect influence. One and the same factor has a direct effect on some organisms, and indirectly on others. Despite the wide variety of environmental factors, a number of patterns of their action on organisms can be distinguished.

Chief among them is the law of optimum. The strength of environmental factors is constantly changing, only in some places on the planet the values ​​of the factors are more or less constant (at great depths). The law of optimum states that any environmental factor has certain limits of positive impact on organisms. There are the most optimal dosages of factors at which organisms of this species feel most comfortable. Graphically, the law is reflected by a symmetrical curve showing how life activity changes with increasing dose of the factor. In the center under the curve is the zone of optimum, within which organisms actively grow, feed, and successfully reproduce. The higher or lower the value of the factor, the less favorable it is for living organisms. These are suboptimal or pessimal zones. The values ​​of the factors at which the death of organisms occurs are called critical or extreme points (Fig. 1). On the graph, these are the points of intersection with the x-axis. The limit of endurance between two extreme points is called the ecological valence or plasticity of the species. In some species, the distance between the critical points is large, which means that they can live within a wide range of factor values. For others, the critical points are close, which means that species can only live in a very narrow range of factor values ​​- in very stable conditions. Wide ecological valence is indicated by the prefix “evry”, in relation to individual factors, euryphages, eurytherms, in a broad sense - eurybionts are distinguished. And in contrast to them, species with a narrow valence - the prefix "steno", these are stenophagous, stenogaly and stenobionty species. Species that have developed under relatively stable conditions for a long time lose their ecological plasticity and develop stenobiont traits, while species that have existed with significant fluctuations in environmental factors acquire increased ecological plasticity and become eurybiont.

Fig.1. Law of Optimum.

Another pattern concerns the ambiguous effect of the factor on different functions of the same organism. The optimum for some processes may be suboptimal for other functions. For example, temperatures of 25-30 degrees are optimal for photosynthesis, and respiration is carried out at higher temperatures.

The degree of endurance, critical points, optimum and pessimum of individual individuals of the species do not coincide. This is determined by hereditary, physiological, age and gender characteristics. For example, salmon caviar develops at temperatures from 0 ° C to +12 ° C, and adults easily tolerate fluctuations from -2 ° C to +20 ° C. The ecological valence of a species is wider than the ecological valence of an individual.

For each factor, species adapt in an independent way. The degree of endurance to any factor does not mean the same adaptability to another. Species that tolerate low temperatures well do not have to be resistant to, for example, high humidity. The set of ecological valences of a species in relation to various factors makes up its ecological spectrum.

The results of the influence of environmental factors can be very different, depending on how - separately or in combination - they act. For example, even not very severe frost becomes noticeable to people and animals if it is accompanied by wind or high humidity, since these two factors lead to increased cooling of the body. Even in summer, during rain, small animals with wet hair can die from hypothermia.

The German agricultural chemist J. Liebig in 1840 suggested that the endurance of organisms is determined by the weakest point in its ecological needs. When studying agricultural production, he found that the grain yield is determined not by those nutrients that are sufficient in the soil, but by those that are lacking, which are present in missing quantities. Moreover, one element cannot be replaced by another. J. Liebig formulated the law of the minimum: plant growth is limited by the lack of at least one element, the amount of which is below the required minimum. Later this law was developed into the law of limiting factors. The possibility of the existence of a species is determined not by the favorable conditions of the optimum zone, but most often by extreme, critical values. The most significant is the factor that deviates the most from the optimal values ​​for the organism. The environmental factor, the intensity of which approaches the endurance limit or goes beyond it, is called limiting. Such factors in the ecology of species can be strong spring and early autumn frosts, severe winters with much snow or little snow, etc. The concept of the limiting influence of not only a minimum, but also a maximum was developed by W. Shelford in 1913: the limiting factor for the existence of a species can be both a minimum and a maximum of an ecological factor, the range between which determines the amount of tolerance, endurance of the organism to this factor. Figuratively speaking, both underfeeding and overfeeding are bad - everything is good in moderation.

Speaking about the general principles of the operation of environmental factors, it is important to note that in modern conditions, the most important role is played not by the natural environment, but by the changes made to it by man. A person, in addition to a direct effect on living organisms, most often radically changes the environment, forcing organisms to adapt to new conditions of existence for them.

Despite the wide variety of environmental factors, a number of general patterns can be identified in the nature of their impact on organisms and in the responses of living beings.

The law of tolerance (the law of the optimum or the law of W. Shelford) - each factor has certain limits of positive influence on organisms. Both insufficient and excessive action of the factor negatively affects the life of individuals (a lot of “good” is also “not good”).

Environmental factors are quantified. For each factor, one can optimum zone (zone of normal life), pessimism zone (zone of oppression) and endurance limits organism. The optimum is the amount of the environmental factor at which the intensity of the vital activity of organisms is maximum. In the pessimum zone, the vital activity of organisms is depressed. Beyond the limits of endurance, the existence of an organism is impossible. Distinguish lower and upper limits of endurance.

The ability of living organisms to tolerate quantitative fluctuations in the action of an environmental factor to one degree or another is called ecological valence (tolerance, stability, plasticity).

The values ​​of the environmental factor between the upper and lower limits of endurance is called zone of tolerance. Species with a wide zone of tolerance are called eurybiont, with a narrow stenobiont . Organisms that tolerate large temperature fluctuations are called eurythermal, and adapted to a narrow temperature range - stenothermal. In the same way, with respect to pressure, one distinguishes evry- and stenobat organisms, in relation to the degree of salinity of the environment - evry- and stenohaline, in relation to food evry- and stenotrophs(in relation to animals use the terms evry- and stenophages) etc.

The ecological valences of individual individuals do not match. Therefore, the ecological valence of a species is wider than the ecological valence of each individual.

The ecological valencies of a species to different ecological factors can differ significantly. The set of ecological valences in relation to various environmental factors is ecological spectrum of the species.

The ecological factor, the quantitative value of which goes beyond the limits of the endurance of the species, is called limiting (limiting) factor.

2. The ambiguity of the effect of the factor on different functions - each factor affects different functions of the body in different ways. The optimum for some processes may be the pessimum for others. Thus, for many fish, the water temperature, which is optimal for the maturation of reproductive products, is unfavorable for spawning.

3. A variety of individual reactions to environmental factors - the degree of endurance, critical points, optimal and pessimal zones of individual individuals of the same species do not coincide. This variability is determined both by the hereditary qualities of individuals and by sex, age, and physiological differences. For example, in the mill moth butterfly, one of the pests of flour and grain products, the critical minimum temperature for caterpillars is -7 ° C, for adult forms -22 ° C, and for eggs -27 ° C. Frost at -10 °C kills caterpillars, but is not dangerous for adults and eggs of this pest. Consequently, the ecological valence of a species is always wider than the ecological valence of each individual.

4. Relative independence of adaptation of organisms to different factors- the degree of tolerance to any factor does not mean the corresponding ecological valence of the species in relation to other factors. For example, species that tolerate wide temperature changes need not also be adapted to wide fluctuations in humidity or salinity. Eurythermic species can be stenohaline, stenobatic, or vice versa.

5. Non-coincidence of the ecological spectra of individual species Each species is specific in its ecological capabilities. Even among species close in terms of ways of adapting to the environment, there are differences in their attitudes to any individual factors.

6. Interaction of factors– the optimal zone and limits of endurance of organisms in relation to any environmental factor can be shifted depending on the strength and combination of other factors acting simultaneously. For example, heat is easier to bear in dry rather than moist air. The threat of freezing is much higher in frost with strong winds than in calm weather.

7. The law of the minimum (J. Liebig's law or the rule of limiting factors) - the possibilities of the existence of organisms are primarily limited by those environmental factors that are most distant from the optimum. If at least one of the environmental factors approaches or goes beyond critical values, then, despite the optimal combination of other conditions, individuals are threatened with death. Thus, the movement of a species to the north can be limited (limited) by a lack of heat, and to arid regions by a lack of moisture or too high temperatures. The identification of limiting factors is very important in the practice of agriculture.

8. Hypothesis of indispensability of fundamental factors (V. R. Williamson)- complete absence in the environment the complete absence in the environment of fundamental environmental factors (physiologically necessary; for example, light, water, carbon dioxide, nutrients) cannot be compensated (replaced) by other factors. So, according to the Guinness Book of Records, a person can live up to 10 minutes without air, 10–15 days without water, and up to 100 days without food.

Despite the wide variety of environmental factors, a number of general patterns can be identified in the nature of their impact on organisms and in the responses of living beings.

1. The law of optimum.

Each factor has certain limits of positive influence on organisms (Fig. 1). The result of the action of a variable factor depends primarily on the strength of its manifestation. Both insufficient and excessive action of the factor negatively affects the life of individuals. The beneficial effect is called zone of optimum ecological factor or simply optimum for organisms of this species. The stronger the deviation from the optimum, the more pronounced the inhibitory effect of this factor on organisms. (pessimum zone). The maximum and minimum portable factor values ​​are critical points per beyond which existence is no longer possible, death occurs. The endurance limits between critical points are called environmental valence living beings in relation to a specific environmental factor.

Rice. one. Scheme of the action of environmental factors on living organisms

Representatives of different species differ greatly from each other both in the position of the optimum and in ecological valency. For example, Arctic foxes in the tundra can tolerate fluctuations in air temperature in the range of more than 80 °C (from +30 to -55 °C), while warm-water crustaceans Copilia mirabilis withstand water temperature changes in the range of no more than 6 °C (from +23 up to +29 °C). One and the same force of manifestation of a factor can be optimal for one species, pessimal for another, and go beyond the limits of endurance for the third (Fig. 2).

The wide ecological valency of a species in relation to abiotic environmental factors is indicated by adding the prefix "evry" to the name of the factor. eurythermal species - enduring significant temperature fluctuations, eurybatic- wide pressure range, euryhaline- different degree of salinization of the environment.

Rice. 2. The position of the optimum curves on the temperature scale for different species:

1, 2 - stenothermic species, cryophiles;

3-7 - eurythermal species;

8, 9 - stenothermic species, thermophiles

The inability to tolerate significant fluctuations in the factor, or narrow ecological valence, is characterized by the prefix "steno" - stenothermal, stenobate, stenohaline species, etc. In a broader sense, species whose existence requires strictly defined environmental conditions are called stenobiont, and those that are able to adapt to different environmental conditions - eurybiontic.

Conditions approaching critical points in one or several factors at once are called extreme.

The position of the optimum and critical points on the factor gradient can be shifted within certain limits by the action of environmental conditions. This occurs regularly in many species as the seasons change. In winter, for example, sparrows withstand severe frosts, and in summer they die from cooling at temperatures just below zero. The phenomenon of shifting the optimum in relation to any factor is called acclimation. With regard to temperature, this is a well-known process of thermal hardening of the body. Temperature acclimation requires a significant period of time. The mechanism is the change in cells of enzymes that catalyze the same reactions, but at different temperatures (the so-called isoenzymes). Each enzyme is encoded by its own gene, therefore, it is necessary to turn off some genes and activate others, transcription, translation, assembly of a sufficient amount of a new protein, etc. The overall process takes an average of about two weeks and is stimulated by changes in the environment. Acclimation, or hardening, is an important adaptation of organisms that occurs under gradually impending adverse conditions or when they enter territories with a different climate. In these cases, it is an integral part of the general process of acclimatization.

2. Ambiguity of the action of the factor on different functions.

Each factor affects different body functions differently (Fig. 3). The optimum for some processes may be the pessimum for others. Thus, the air temperature from +40 to +45 ° C in cold-blooded animals greatly increases the rate of metabolic processes in the body, but inhibits motor activity, and the animals fall into thermal stupor. For many fish, the water temperature that is optimal for the maturation of reproductive products is unfavorable for spawning, which occurs at a different temperature range.

Rice. 3. Scheme of the dependence of photosynthesis and respiration of a plant on temperature (according to V. Larcher, 1978): t min, t opt, t max- temperature minimum, optimum and maximum for plant growth (shaded area)

The life cycle, in which at certain periods the organism performs predominantly certain functions (nutrition, growth, reproduction, resettlement, etc.), is always consistent with seasonal changes in the complex of environmental factors. Mobile organisms can also change habitats for the successful implementation of all their life functions.

3. Variety of individual reactions to environmental factors. The degree of endurance, critical points, optimal and pessimal zones of individual individuals do not coincide. This variability is determined both by the hereditary qualities of individuals and by sex, age, and physiological differences. For example, in the mill moth butterfly, one of the pests of flour and grain products, the critical minimum temperature for caterpillars is -7 °C, for adult forms -22 °C, and for eggs -27 °C. Frost at -10 °C kills caterpillars, but is not dangerous for adults and eggs of this pest. Consequently, the ecological valence of a species is always wider than the ecological valence of each individual.

4. Relative independence of adaptation of organisms to different factors. The degree of tolerance to any factor does not mean the corresponding ecological valence of the species in relation to other factors. For example, species that tolerate wide temperature changes need not also be adapted to wide fluctuations in humidity or salinity. Eurythermic species can be stenohaline, stenobatic, or vice versa. The ecological valencies of a species in relation to different factors can be very diverse. This creates an extraordinary variety of adaptations in nature. The set of ecological valences in relation to various environmental factors is ecological spectrum of the species.

5. Non-coincidence of the ecological spectra of individual species. Each species is specific in its ecological capabilities. Even among species close in terms of adaptation to the environment, there are differences in relation to any individual factors.

Rice. four. Changes in the participation of certain plant species in meadow grass stands depending on moisture (according to L. G. Ramensky et al., 1956): 1 - meadow clover; 2 - common yarrow; 3 - Delyavina's cellar; 4 - bluegrass meadow; 5 - tipchak; 6 - real bedstraw; 7 - early sedge; 8 - meadowsweet ordinary; 9 - hill geranium; 10 - field barnacle; 11 - short-nosed goat-beard

The rule of ecological individuality of species formulated by the Russian botanist L. G. Ramensky (1924) in relation to plants (Fig. 4), then it was widely confirmed by zoological studies.

6. Interaction of factors. The optimal zone and limits of endurance of organisms in relation to any environmental factor can shift depending on the strength and combination of other factors acting simultaneously (Fig. 5). This pattern has been named interactions of factors. For example, heat is easier to bear in dry rather than moist air. The threat of freezing is much higher in frost with strong winds than in calm weather. Thus, the same factor in combination with others has an unequal environmental impact. On the contrary, the same ecological result can be obtained in different ways. For example, wilting of plants can be stopped by both increasing the amount of moisture in the soil and lowering the air temperature, which reduces evaporation. The effect of partial mutual substitution of factors is created.

Rice. 5. Mortality of eggs of the pine silkworm Dendrolimus pini at different combinations of temperature and humidity

At the same time, the mutual compensation of the action of environmental factors has certain limits, and it is impossible to completely replace one of them with another. The complete absence of water, or even one of the main elements of mineral nutrition, makes the life of the plant impossible, despite the most favorable combination of other conditions. The extreme lack of heat in the polar deserts cannot be made up for either by an abundance of moisture or round-the-clock illumination.

Taking into account the patterns of interaction of environmental factors in agricultural practice, it is possible to skillfully maintain optimal conditions for the vital activity of cultivated plants and domestic animals.

7. The rule of limiting factors. The possibilities of the existence of organisms are primarily limited by those environmental factors that are most distant from the optimum. If at least one of the environmental factors approaches or goes beyond critical values, then, despite the optimal combination of other conditions, individuals are threatened with death. Any factors that strongly deviate from the optimum acquire paramount importance in the life of a species or its individual representatives in specific periods of time.

Environmental limiting factors determine the geographic range of a species. The nature of these factors may be different (Fig. 6). Thus, the movement of a species to the north can be limited by a lack of heat, and to arid regions by a lack of moisture or too high temperatures. Biotic relations, for example, the occupation of a territory by a stronger competitor or the lack of pollinators for plants, can also serve as a factor limiting the distribution. So, pollination of figs depends entirely on a single insect species - the wasp Blastophaga psenes. This tree is native to the Mediterranean. Introduced figs to California did not bear fruit until pollinators were introduced there. The distribution of legumes in the Arctic is limited by the distribution of bumblebees that pollinate them. On the island of Dixon, where there are no bumblebees, legumes are not found either, although the existence of these plants there is still permissible due to temperature conditions.

Rice. 6. Deep snow cover is a limiting factor in the distribution of deer (according to G. A. Novikov, 1981)

To determine whether a species can exist in a given geographical area, one must first find out whether any environmental factors go beyond its ecological valence, especially in the most vulnerable period of development.

The identification of limiting factors is very important in agricultural practice, since, by directing the main efforts to eliminate them, one can quickly and effectively increase plant yields or animal productivity. So, on highly acidic soils, the wheat yield can be somewhat increased by applying various agronomic influences, but the best effect will be obtained only as a result of liming, which will remove the limiting effects of acidity. Knowing the limiting factors is thus the key to controlling the life of organisms. At different periods of life of individuals, various environmental factors act as limiting factors, therefore, skillful and constant regulation of the living conditions of grown plants and animals is required.

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2.2. Organism adaptations2.4. Principles of ecological classification of organisms

The inanimate and living nature surrounding plants, animals and humans is called the habitat. The set of individual components of the environment that affect organisms are called environmental factors.

According to the nature of origin, abiotic, biotic and anthropogenic factors are distinguished.

Abiotic factors - These are properties of inanimate nature that directly or indirectly affect living organisms.

Biotic factors - these are all forms of influence of living organisms on each other. Previously, human impact on living organisms was also attributed to biotic factors, but now a special category of factors generated by humans is distinguished.

Anthropogenic factors - these are all forms of activity of human society that lead to a change in nature as a habitat and other species and directly affect their lives.

Thus, every living organism is influenced by inanimate nature, organisms of other species, including humans, and, in turn, affects each of these components.

Laws of the impact of environmental factors on living organisms

Despite the variety of environmental factors and the different nature of their origin, there are some general rules and patterns of their impact on living organisms.

For the life of organisms, a certain combination of conditions is necessary. If all environmental conditions are favorable, with the exception of one, then it is this condition that becomes decisive for the life of the organism in question. It limits (limits) the development of the organism, therefore it is called limiting factor . Initially, it was found that the development of living organisms is limited by the lack of any component, for example, mineral salts, moisture, light, etc. In the middle of the 19th century, the German organic chemist J. Liebig was the first to experimentally prove that plant growth depends on the nutrient element that is present in a relatively minimal amount. He called this phenomenon the law of the minimum (Liebig's law).

In the modern formulation, the law of the minimum sounds like this: the endurance of an organism is determined by the weakest link in the chain of its ecological needs. However, as it turned out later, not only a deficiency, but also an excess of a factor can be limiting, for example, the death of a crop due to rains, oversaturation of the soil with fertilizers, etc. The concept that, along with a minimum, a maximum can also be a limiting factor was introduced 70 years after Liebig by the American zoologist W. Shelford, who formulated law of tolerance . According to the law of tolerance, the limiting factor for the prosperity of a population (organism) can be both a minimum and a maximum of environmental impact, and the range between them determines the amount of endurance (tolerance limit) or the ecological valency of the organism to this factor.

The favorable range of the environmental factor is called the zone of optimum (normal life). The greater the deviation of the factor from the optimum, the more this factor inhibits the vital activity of the population. This range is called the zone of oppression. The maximum and minimum tolerated values ​​of the factor are critical points beyond which the existence of an organism or population is no longer possible.

The principle of limiting factors is valid for all types of living organisms - plants, animals, microorganisms and applies to both abiotic and biotic factors.

In accordance with the law of tolerance, any excess of matter or energy turns out to be a source of pollution.

The limit of tolerance of an organism changes during the transition from one stage of development to another. Often, young organisms are more vulnerable and more demanding on environmental conditions than adults. The most critical from the point of view of the impact of various factors is the breeding season: during this period, many factors become limiting. The ecological valence for breeding individuals, seeds, embryos, larvae, eggs is usually narrower than for adult non-breeding plants or animals of the same species.

Until now, we have been talking about the limit of tolerance of a living organism in relation to one factor, but in nature all environmental factors act together.

The optimal zone and limits of the body's endurance in relation to any environmental factor may shift depending on the combination of other factors acting simultaneously. This pattern has been named interactions of environmental factors .

However, mutual compensation has certain limits and it is impossible to completely replace one of the factors with another. This implies the conclusion that all environmental conditions necessary to maintain life play an equal role and any factor can limit the possibility of the existence of organisms - this is law of equivalence of all conditions of life .

It is known that each factor differently affects different functions of the body. Conditions that are optimal for some processes, for example, for the growth of an organism, may turn out to be a zone of oppression for others, for example, for reproduction, and go beyond tolerance, that is, lead to death, for others. Therefore, the life cycle, in accordance with which the body during certain periods mainly performs certain functions - nutrition, growth, reproduction, resettlement - is always consistent with seasonal changes in environmental factors.

Among the laws that determine the interaction of an individual or an individual with its environment, we single out the rule of correspondence between environmental conditions and the organism's genetic predetermination. It argues that a species of organisms can exist as long as and insofar as the natural environment surrounding it corresponds to the genetic possibilities of adapting this species to its fluctuations and changes. Each species of living arose in a certain environment, to one degree or another adapted to it, and the further existence of the species is possible only in this or a environment close to it. A sharp and rapid change in the environment of life can lead to the fact that the genetic capabilities of the species will be insufficient to adapt to new conditions. This, in particular, is the basis of one of the hypotheses of the extinction of large reptiles with a sharp change in abiotic conditions on the planet: large organisms are less variable than small ones, so they need much more time to adapt. In this regard, the fundamental transformations of nature are dangerous for the currently existing species, including for man himself.