The reign of Catherine II is short. Domestic Policy - Development of Russia
Ekaterina Alekseevna Romanova (Catherine II the Great)
Sophia Augusta Frederica, Princess, Duchess of Anhalt-Zerb.
Years of life: 04/21/1729 - 11/6/1796
Russian Empress (1762 - 1796)
Daughter of Prince Christian-August of Anhalt-Zerbst and Princess Johanna-Elisabeth.
Catherine II - biography
She was born on April 21 (May 2), 1729 in Shettin. Her father, Prince Christian-August of Anhalt-Zerbsky, served the Prussian king, but his family was considered impoverished. The mother of Sophia Augusta was the sister of King Adolf-Friedrich of Sweden. Other relatives of the mother of the future Empress Catherine ruled Prussia and England. Sophia Augusta, (family nickname - Fike) was the eldest daughter in the family. She was educated at home.
In 1739, the 10-year-old Princess Fike was introduced to her future husband, the heir to the Russian throne, Karl Peter Ulrich, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, who was the nephew of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich Romanov. The heir to the Russian throne made a negative impression on the highest Prussian society, showed himself to be uneducated and narcissistic.
In 1744, Fike secretly arrived in St. Petersburg under the name of Countess Reinbeck at the invitation of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna. The bride of the future emperor adopted the Orthodox faith and received the name - Ekaterina Alekseevna.
Marriage of Catherine the Great
On August 21, 1745, the wedding of Ekaterina Alekseevna and Pyotr Fedorovich took place. A brilliant political marriage turned out to be unsuccessful in terms of relationships. He was more formal. Husband Peter was fond of playing the violin, military maneuvers and mistresses. During this time, the couple not only did not get close, but also became completely strangers to each other. 
Ekaterina Alekseevna read works on history, jurisprudence, the writings of various enlighteners, she learned the Russian language well, the traditions and customs of her new homeland. Surrounded by enemies, not loved by either her husband or his relatives, Ekaterina Alekseevna in 1754 gave birth to a son (the future Emperor Paul I), constantly fearing that she might be expelled from Russia. "I had good teachers - the misfortune of seclusion," she would write later. Sincere interest and love for Russia did not go unnoticed, and everyone began to respect the spouse of the heir to the throne. Even at the same time, Ekaterina amazed everyone with her diligence, she could personally brew coffee for herself, kindle a fireplace and even do laundry.
Novels of Catherine the Great
Being unhappy in family life, in the early 1750s, Ekaterina Alekseevna starts an affair with a guards officer, Sergei Saltykov.
The behavior of Peter III, still in the status of Grand Duke, does not like his royal aunt, he actively expresses his Prussian sentiments against Russia. The courtiers notice that Elizabeth favors his son Pavel Petrovich and Catherine more.
The second half of the 1750s was marked for Catherine by an affair with the envoy of Poland, Stanislav Poniatowski (who later became King Stanislav August).
In 1758, Catherine gave birth to a daughter, Anna, who died before she was even two years old.
In the early 1760s, a dizzying famous affair arose with Prince Orlov, which lasted more than 10 years.
In 1761, Catherine's husband Peter III ascends the Russian throne, and relations between the spouses become hostile. Peter threatens to marry his mistress, and exile Catherine to a monastery. And Ekaterina Alekseevna decided on a coup d'état with the help of the guards, the Orlov brothers, K. Razumovsky and her other supporters on June 28, 1762. She is proclaimed empress and sworn to her. The spouse's attempts to find a compromise fail. As a result, he signs the act of abdication from the throne.
Reforms of Catherine the Great
On September 22, 1762, the coronation of Catherine II took place. And in the same year, the Empress gave birth to a son, Alexei, whose father was Grigory Orlov. For obvious reasons, the boy was given the surname Bobrinsky.
The time of her reign was marked by many significant events: in 1762 she supported the idea of I.I. Betsky to create the first Orphanage in Russia. She reorganized the Senate (1763), secularized the lands (1763-64), abolished the hetmanship in Ukraine (1764) and founded the 1st women's educational institution at the Smolny Monastery in the capital. Headed the Legislative Commission 1767-1769. During her time, the Peasants' War of 1773-1775 took place. (the uprising of E.I. Pugachev). Published the Institution for the Administration of the Province in 1775, the Charter to the Nobility in 1785 and the Charter to the Cities in 1785.
Famous historians (M.M. Shcherbatov, I.N. Boltin), writers and poets (G.R. Derzhavin, N.M. Karamzin, D.I. Fonvizin), painters (D.G. Levitsky, F.S. Rokotov), sculptors (F.I. Shubin, E. Falcone). She founded the Academy of Arts, became the founder of the collection of the State Hermitage Museum, initiated the creation of the Academy of Russian Literature, whose president she made her friend E.R. Dashkova.
Under Catherine II Alekseevna as a result of the Russian-Turkish wars of 1768-1774, 1787-1791. Russia finally gained a foothold in the Black Sea, the Northern Black Sea region, the Kuban region, and Crimea were also annexed. In 1783, she took Eastern Georgia under Russian citizenship. Partitions of the Commonwealth were carried out (1772, 1793, 1795).
She corresponded with Voltaire and other figures of the French Enlightenment. She is the author of many fiction, journalistic, dramatic, popular science works, "Notes".
External policy of Catherine 2 was aimed at strengthening the prestige of Russia on the world stage. She achieved her goal, and even Frederick the Great spoke of Russia as a "terrible power" from which in half a century "all of Europe will tremble."
The last years of her life - the Empress lived with care for her grandson Alexander, personally engaged in his upbringing and education, and seriously thought about transferring the throne to him, bypassing her son.
The reign of Catherine II
The era of Catherine II is considered the heyday of favoritism. Separated in the early 1770s. with G.G. Orlov, in subsequent years, Empress Catherine replaced a number of favorites (about 15 favorites, among them the talented princes P.A. Rumyantsev, G.A. Potemkin, A.A. Bezborodko). She did not allow them to participate in solving political issues. Catherine lived with her favorites for several years, but parted for a variety of reasons (due to the death of a favorite, his betrayal or unworthy behavior), but no one was disgraced. All were generously awarded with ranks, titles, money.
There is an assumption that Catherine II secretly married Potemkin, with whom she maintained friendly relations until his death.
“Tartuffe in a skirt and a crown,” nicknamed A.S. Pushkin, Catherine knew how to win over people. She was smart, had a political talent, she was well versed in people. Outwardly, the ruler was attractive and majestic. She wrote about herself: “Many say that I work a lot, but it seems to me that I have done little when I look at what remains to be done.” Such a huge dedication to work was not in vain.
The life of the 67-year-old Empress was cut short by a stroke on November 6 (17), 1796 in Tsarskoe Selo. She was buried in the Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg.
In 1778 she composed the following epitaph for herself:
Having ascended the Russian throne, she wished well
And she strongly desired to give her subjects Happiness, Freedom and Prosperity.
She easily forgave and did not deprive anyone of freedom.
She was indulgent, did not complicate her life and had a cheerful disposition.
She had a republican soul and a good heart. She had friends.
Work was easy for her, friendship and the arts brought her joy. 
Catherine's spouses:
- Peter III
- Grigory Alexandrovich Potemkin (according to some sources)
- Pavel I Petrovich
- Anna Petrovna
- Alexey Grigorievich Bobrinsky
- Elizaveta Grigoryevna Tyomkina
At the end of the 19th century, the collected works of Catherine II the Great were published in 12 volumes, which included children's moralizing tales written by the empress, pedagogical teachings, dramatic plays, articles, autobiographical notes, translations.
In the cinema, her image is reflected in the films: “Evenings on a farm near Dikanka”, 1961; "Royal Hunt", 1990; “Vivat, midshipmen!”, 1991; "Young Catherine" ("Young Catherine"), 1991; "Russian rebellion", 2000; "Golden Age", 2003; "Catherine the Great", 2005. Famous actresses played the role of Catherine (Marlene Dietrich, Julia Ormond, Via Artmane, etc.).
Many artists captured the face of Catherine II. And works of art vividly reflect the character of the empress herself and the era of her reign (A. S. Pushkin "The Captain's Daughter"; B. Shaw "The Great Catherine"; V. N. Ivanov "Empress Fike"; V. S. Pikul "Favorite", "Pen and sword"; Boris Akunin "Extracurricular reading").
In 1873 monument Catherine II Velikaya was opened on Alexandrinskaya Square in St. Petersburg. On September 8, 2006, a monument to Catherine II was opened in Krasnodar, on October 27, 2007, monuments to Catherine II Alekseevna were opened in Odessa and Tiraspol. In Sevastopol - May 15, 2008
The reign of Ekaterina Alekseevna is often considered the "golden age" of the Russian Empire. Thanks to her reforming activities, she is the only Russian ruler who, like Peter I, was awarded the epithet "Great" in the historical memory of her compatriots.
Empress Catherine II Alekseevna the Great
Catherine 2 (born May 2, 1729 - died November 17, 1796). The reign of Catherine II - from 1762 to 1796.
Origin
Princess Sophia-Frederick-Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst was born in 1729 in Stettin. Daughter of Christian August, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst, a general in the Prussian service, and Johanna Elisabeth, Duchess of Holstein-Gottorp.
Arrival in Russia
She arrived in St. Petersburg on February 3, 1744 and converted to Orthodoxy on June 28, 1744. On August 21, 1745, she was married to her second cousin, Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich.
By nature, she was gifted with a great mind, a strong character. On the contrary, her husband was a weak man, ill-bred. Not sharing his pleasures, Ekaterina Alekseevna devoted herself to reading and soon moved from lyrical novels to historical and philosophical books. An elected circle was formed around her, in which the greatest confidence was first enjoyed by Prince N. Saltykov, and then by Stanislav Poniatowski, later King of the Kingdom of Poland.
The relationship between the Grand Duchess and Empress Elizabeth Petrovna was not particularly cordial, which was mutual. When Ekaterina Alekseevna gave birth to her son Pavel, the empress took the child to her and rarely allowed her mother to see him.
Death of Elizabeth Petrovna
Elizaveta Petrovna died on December 25, 1761. After the accession to the throne of Emperor Peter 3, the situation of his wife became even worse. The palace coup on June 28, 1762 and the death of her husband elevated Catherine II to the Russian throne.
The harsh school of life and the natural mind made it possible for the new empress herself to get out of a rather difficult situation, and to withdraw Russia from it. The treasury was empty, the monopoly suppressed trade and industry; factory peasants and serfs were agitated by rumors of freedom, now and then renewed; peasants from the western border fled to Poland.
Catherine 2
Under these circumstances, Catherine 2 ascended the throne, the rights to which belonged to her son under the law of succession to the throne. But she understood that a young son on the throne would become a toy of various palace parties. The regency was a fragile business - the fate of Menshikov, Biron, Anna Leopoldovna was remembered by everyone.
Catherine's penetrating gaze was equally attentive to the phenomena of life, both in Russia and abroad. 2 months after her accession to the throne, having learned that the famous French "Encyclopedia" was condemned by the Parisian parliament for godlessness and its continuation was prohibited, the empress invited Voltaire and Diderot to publish this encyclopedia in Riga. This proposal alone won the best minds to her side, which then gave direction to public opinion throughout Europe.
Catherine was crowned on September 22, 1762 in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin and she stayed in Moscow for autumn and winter. The following year, the Senate was reorganized, dividing it into six departments. 1764 - the Manifesto on the secularization of church possessions was announced, the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens and the Imperial Hermitage were founded, the first collection of which was 225 paintings received from the Berlin merchant I.E. Gotskovsky as a repayment of a debt to the Russian treasury.
CONSPIRACY
1764, summer - Lieutenant Mirovich decided to enthrone Ivan VI Antonovich, who was kept in the Shlisselburg fortress, the son of Anna Leopoldovna and Duke Anton-Ulrich of Brunswick-Bevern-Lunenburg. The plan failed - on July 5, Ivan Antonovich was shot dead by one of the guard soldiers during an attempt to free him; Mirovich was executed by a court verdict.
Domestic and foreign policy
1764 - Prince Vyazemsky, sent to pacify the peasants assigned to the factories, was ordered to investigate the issue of the benefits of free labor over the serf. The same question was put to the newly founded Economic Society. First of all, it was necessary to resolve the issue of the monastery peasants, which had taken on a particularly acute character even under Elizabeth Petrovna. At the beginning of her reign, Elizabeth returned the estates to monasteries and churches, but in 1757 she, along with the dignitaries surrounding her, came to the conclusion that it was necessary to transfer the management of church property to secular hands.
Peter 3 ordered the fulfillment of Elizabeth's plan and the transfer of management of church property to the college of economy. The inventory of the monastic property was carried out extremely rudely. Upon the accession of Catherine II to the throne, the bishops filed complaints with her and asked for the return of control to them. The empress, on the advice of Bestuzhev-Ryumin, satisfied their desire, canceled the collegium of economy, but did not abandon her intention, but only postponed its execution. She then ordered that the commission of 1757 resumed its studies. It was ordered to make new inventories of monastic and church property.
Knowing how the transition of Peter 3 to the side of Prussia irritated public opinion, the empress ordered the Russian generals to remain neutral and this contributed to the end of the war.
The internal affairs of the state demanded special attention. What struck me the most was the lack of justice. The empress expressed herself energetically on this occasion: “Covetousness has increased to such an extent that there is hardly the smallest place in the government in which the court would go without infection of this ulcer; if someone is looking for a place, he pays; if someone defends himself from slander, he defends himself with money; if anyone slanders anyone, he backs up all his cunning intrigues with gifts.
The empress was especially amazed when she learned that within the Novgorod province they took money from the peasants for taking them to the oath of allegiance to the empress. This state of justice forced her to convene in 1766 a commission to issue the Code. She handed over to this commission her "Instruction", which the commission was to be guided by when drawing up the Code. "Instruction" was compiled on the basis of the ideas of Montesquieu and Beccaria.
Polish affairs, the outbreak of the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774 and internal unrest suspended Catherine's legislative activity until 1775. Polish affairs caused the division and fall of Poland.
The Russian-Turkish war ended with the Kyuchuk-Kaynardzhy peace, which was ratified in 1775. According to this peace, the Port recognized the independence of the Crimean and Budzhak Tatars; ceded Azov, Kerch, Yenikale and Kinburn to Russia; opened free passage for Russian ships from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean; granted forgiveness to Christians who took part in the war; allowed Russia's petition on Moldovan affairs.
During the Russo-Turkish War in 1771, plague raged in Moscow, causing the Plague Riot. This plague killed 130,000 people.
In the east of Russia, an even more dangerous revolt, known as the Pugachevshchina, broke out. January 1775 - Pugachev was executed in Moscow.
1775 - the legislative activity of Catherine 2 resumed, which, however, had not stopped before. So, in 1768, commercial and noble banks were abolished and the so-called assignation, or exchange, bank was established. In 1775, the existence of the Zaporizhzhya Sich, which was already on the verge of collapse, ceased to exist. In the same year, 1775, the transformation of the provincial government began. An institution for the administration of the provinces was published, which took 20 years to complete: in 1775 it began with the Tver province and ended in 1796 with the establishment of the Vilna province. Thus, the reform of the provincial administration, begun by Peter 1, was brought out of a chaotic state by Catherine 2 and completed.
1776 - the Empress ordered in the petitions the word "slave" to be replaced by the word "loyal subject".
By the end of the first Russian-Turkish war, he was especially important, striving for great deeds. Together with his colleague Bezborodko, he drew up a project known as the Greek one. The grandeur of this project - destroying the Ottoman Port, restoring the Greek Empire, on the throne of which the Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich should be elevated, - Catherine liked.
Heraclius 2, king of Georgia, recognized the protectorate of Russia. 1785 - marked by two important legislative acts: "Charter to the nobility" and "City regulations". The statute on public schools on August 15, 1786 was implemented only on a small scale. Projects to establish universities in Pskov, Chernigov, Penza, and Yekaterinoslav have been postponed. 1783 - the Russian Academy was founded to study the native language. It was the beginning of the education of women. Orphanages were established, smallpox vaccination was introduced, and the Pallas expedition was equipped to study the remote outskirts.
Catherine 2 decided to explore the newly acquired Crimean region herself. Accompanied by the Austrian, English and French ambassadors, with a huge retinue in 1787, she set off on a journey. In Kaniv met the Empress Stanislav Poniatowski, King of Poland; near Keidan - the Austrian emperor Joseph 2. He and Catherine 2 laid the first stone of the city of Yekaterinoslav, visited Kherson and examined the Black Sea Fleet, which had just been created by Potemkin. During the journey, Joseph noticed the theatricality in the setting, saw how hastily they drove the people to the villages supposedly under construction; but in Kherson he saw the real thing - and gave justice to Potemkin.
The second Russian-Turkish war under Catherine 2 was waged in alliance with Joseph 2 in 1787-1791. A peace treaty was concluded in Iasi on December 29, 1791. For all the victories, Russia received only Ochakov and the steppe between the Bug and the Dnieper.
Along with this, the war with Sweden, declared by Gustav III on July 30, 1788, went on with varying happiness. It ended on August 3, 1790 with the Peace of Verel on the condition that the previously existing border was preserved.
During the second Russian-Turkish war, a coup took place in Poland: 1791, on May 3, a new Constitution was promulgated, which led to the second partition of Poland in 1793, and then to the third - in 1795. Under the second partition, Russia received the rest part of the Minsk province, Volyn and Podolia, on the third - the Grodno province and Courland.
Last years. Death
1796 - the last year of the reign of Catherine 2, Count Valerian Zubov, appointed commander-in-chief in the campaign against Persia, conquered Derbent and Baku; his successes were stopped by the death of the empress.
The last years of the reign of Catherine 2 were overshadowed by a reactionary direction. Then the French Revolution broke out, and with the Russian domestic reaction, the pan-European reaction, the Jesuit-oligarchic reaction, entered into an alliance. Her agent and instrument was the last favorite of the Empress, Prince Platon Zubov, together with his brother Count Valerian. European reaction wanted to draw Russia into a struggle against revolutionary France, a struggle alien to the direct interests of Russia.
The empress spoke kind words to the representatives of the reaction and did not give a single soldier. Then the undermining under her throne intensified, accusations were renewed that she reigns illegally, occupying the throne belonging to her son Pavel Petrovich. There is reason to believe that in 1790 an attempt was being made to elevate Pavel Petrovich to the throne. This attempt was probably connected with the expulsion from St. Petersburg of Prince Frederick of Württemberg.
The domestic reaction at the same time accused the empress of allegedly excessive free-thinking. Catherine has grown old, her former courage and energy are almost gone. And under such circumstances, in 1790, Radishchev's book "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" appeared with a project for the liberation of the peasants, as if written out from the articles of the "Order" of the Empress. The unfortunate Radishchev was exiled to Siberia. Perhaps this cruelty was the result of a fear that the exclusion from the "Instruction" of articles on the liberation of the peasants would be considered hypocrisy on the part of the empress.
1796 - Nikolai Ivanovich Novikov was imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress, who served so much for Russian enlightenment. The secret motive for this measure was Novikov's relationship with Pavel Petrovich. 1793 - Knyazhnin suffered cruelly for his tragedy "Vadim". 1795 - even Derzhavin was suspected of a revolutionary direction for transcribing the 81st psalm, entitled "To the Rulers and Judges." Thus ended the educational reign of Catherine II, which raised the national spirit. Despite the reaction of recent years, the name of the educational reign will remain with him in history. From this reign in Russia they began to realize the importance of humane ideas, they began to talk about the right of a person to think for the benefit of his own kind.
literary movement
Gifted with literary talent, receptive and sensitive to the phenomena of life around her, Catherine 2 took an active part in the literature of that era. The literary movement she initiated was devoted to the development of enlightenment ideas of the 18th century. Thoughts on education, briefly outlined in one of the chapters of the "Order", were subsequently developed in detail by the empress in the allegorical tales "About Tsarevich Chlor" (1781) and "About Tsarevich Fevey" (1782) and, mainly, in "Instructions to the Prince N. Saltykov”, given when he was appointed tutor of the Grand Dukes Alexander and Konstantin Pavlovich (1784).
The pedagogical ideas expressed in these works, the empress mainly borrowed from Montaigne and Locke; from the first she took a general view of the goals of education, the second she used in the development of particulars. Guided by Montaigne, the empress put forward the moral element in the first place in education - to sow humanity, justice, respect for the laws, indulgence towards people in the soul of a person. At the same time, she demanded that the mental and physical aspects of education should be properly developed.
Personally leading the upbringing of her grandchildren up to the age of seven, she compiled an entire educational library for them. For the Grand Dukes were written by their grandmother and "Notes on Russian history." In purely fictional writings, to which magazine articles and dramatic works belong, Catherine II is much more original than in writings of a pedagogical and legislative nature. Pointing to the actual contradictions of the ideals that existed in society, her comedies and satirical articles were to greatly contribute to the development of public consciousness, making more understandable the importance and expediency of the reforms she was undertaking.
Empress Catherine II the Great died on November 6, 1796 and was buried in the Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg.
The German Princess Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerptskaya, known as Catherine the 2nd, was born on April 21, 1729. Her family was not rich, and the princess received only a home education, which shaped the personality of Catherine the 2nd, the future Russian Empress. In 1744, an event occurred that determined not only the further biography of Ekaterina Alekseevna, but also in many respects the fate of Russia. Princess Sophia Augusta was chosen as the bride of the heir to the Russian throne, Peter III. At the invitation of Elizabeth Petrovna, she arrived at the court. Treating Russia as her second homeland, she actively engaged in self-education, studying the language, culture, history of the country in which she was to live.
In 1744, on June 24, she was baptized into Orthodoxy under the name of Ekaterina Alekseevna. The wedding ceremony with Peter the 3rd took place on August 21, 1745. The husband did not pay much attention to the young wife, and balls, masquerades and hunting became Catherine's only entertainment. In 1754, on September 20, Catherine had a son, the future Emperor Paul 1st, but the child was immediately taken away from her. Relations between the Empress and Peter the 3rd deteriorated markedly. Peter the 3rd had mistresses, and Catherine herself entered into a relationship with the future Polish king Stanislav Poniatowski.
Daughter Anna, born on December 9, 1758, was not accepted by her husband, since Peter the 3rd had serious doubts about the paternity of the child. Empress Elizabeth by that time was seriously ill. Catherine's secret correspondence with the Austrian ambassador was also revealed. The fate of Catherine the Great could have turned out quite differently if it were not for the support of associates and favorites with whom the wife of Peter the 3rd surrounded herself.
Peter III ascended the throne in 1761, after the death of Elizabeth. Catherine was immediately resettled away from the matrimonial quarters, which were occupied by her mistress. Having become pregnant from G. Orlov, Catherine was forced to hide her position. Her son Alexei was born in the strictest secrecy.
The domestic and foreign policy of Peter the 3rd caused growing discontent. The smart and active Catherine looked much more profitable against the background of such acts of Peter as the return of Prussia to the lands seized during the course. In the environment of Peter the 3rd, a conspiracy was formed. Supporters of Catherine the 2nd persuaded the guards to take part in the conspiracy. They took the oath to the future empress in St. Petersburg on June 28, 1762. The next day, Peter the 3rd was forced to abdicate in favor of his wife and arrested. Shortly thereafter, he was killed. Thus began the reign of Catherine the 2nd, called by historians the golden age of the Russian Empire.
The domestic policy of Catherine the 2nd was determined by the commitment of the Russian Empress to the ideas of enlightenment. It was during the period called the enlightened absolutism of Catherine the 2nd that the bureaucratic apparatus was strengthened, the management system was unified, and the autocracy was strengthened. In order to carry out comprehensive and useful reforms for the country, Catherine II convened the Legislative Commission, which included deputies from the nobility, townspeople and rural population. But it was not possible to avoid internal political problems, and the largest of them was the peasant war led by Emelyan Pugachev in 1773-1775.
The foreign policy of Catherine II was quite energetic and very successful. The empress sought to secure the southern borders of the country from the claims of Turkey. Perhaps, it was in Turkish companies that the interests of the Russian Empire most sharply clashed with the interests of France and England. The second most important task for Catherine the 2nd was the annexation of the lands of Belarus and Ukraine to the territory of the empire, which she achieved with the help of the partitions of Poland, carried out jointly with Austria and Prussia. It is worth noting the decree of Catherine the 2nd on the liquidation of the Zaporozhian Sich.
The reign of Empress Catherine II the Great was long and lasted from 1762 to 1796. It was based on the philosophy of enlightenment. There is information that Catherine was thinking about, but did not dare to make such large-scale changes. In the era of Catherine the 2nd, the Hermitage and the Public Library, the Smolny Institute and pedagogical schools in Moscow and St. Petersburg were created. It was during this period that the foundations of civil society in Russia were laid. The death of Catherine the 2nd came from a cerebral hemorrhage that occurred on November 5, 1796. The Empress died the next day, November 6. Her son, Pavel 1st, ascended the Russian throne.
Upon closer examination, the biography of Catherine II the Great is replete with a large number of events that significantly influenced the empress of the Russian Empire.
Origin
Family tree of the Romanovs
Family ties of Peter III and Catherine II
The hometown of Catherine the Great is Stettin (now Szczecin in Poland), which was then the capital city of Pomerania. On May 2, 1729, a girl was born in the castle of the above-mentioned city, named at birth Sophia Frederick August of Anhalt-Zerbst.
The mother was the great-aunt of Peter III (who was at that time just a boy) Johanna Elizabeth, Princess of Holstein-Gottorp. The father was the prince of Anhalt-Zerbst - Christian August, the former governor of Stettin. Thus, the future empress was of very noble blood, although not from a royally wealthy family.
Childhood and youth
Francis Boucher - Young Catherine the Great
Being educated at home, Frederica, in addition to her native German, studied Italian, English and French. The basics of geography and theology, music and dancing - the corresponding education of the nobility coexisted with very active children's games. The girl was interested in everything that was happening around, and despite some dissatisfaction of her parents, she took part in games with the boys on the streets of her native city.
When she first saw her future husband in 1739, at Eitin Castle, Frederica did not yet know about the upcoming invitation to Russia. In 1744, at the age of fifteen, she traveled with her mother through Riga to Russia at the invitation of Empress Elizabeth. Immediately after her arrival, she began an active study of the language, traditions, history and religion of her new homeland. The most prominent teachers of the princess were Vasily Adadurov, who taught the language, Simon Todorsky, who taught Orthodoxy with Frederica, and choreographer Lange.
On July 9, Sophia Federica Augusta was officially baptized and converted to Orthodoxy, named Ekaterina Alekseevna - it is this name that she will later glorify.
Marriage
Despite the intrigues of her mother, through which the Prussian King Frederick II tried to remove Chancellor Bestuzhev and increase his influence on the foreign policy of the Russian Empire, Catherine did not fall into disgrace and on September 1, 1745, she was married to Peter Fedorovich, who was her second cousin.
Wedding on the reign of Catherine II. September 22, 1762. Confirmation. Engraving by A.Ya. Kolpashnikov. Last quarter of the 18th century
In view of the categorical inattention on the part of the young spouse, who was exclusively interested in military art and drill, the future empress devoted her time to the study of literature, art and science. At the same time, along with the study of the works of Voltaire, Montesquieu and other enlighteners, the biography of her young years is filled with hunting, various balls and masquerades.
The lack of intimacy with a legitimate spouse could not but affect the appearance of lovers, while Empress Elizabeth was not happy with the lack of heirs-grandchildren.
Having suffered two unsuccessful pregnancies, Catherine gave birth to Pavel, who, by personal decree of Elizabeth, was excommunicated from his mother and brought up separately. According to an unconfirmed theory, Pavel's father was S.V. Saltykov, who was sent from the capital immediately after the birth of the child. In favor of this statement, one can attribute the fact that after the birth of his son, Peter III finally ceased to be interested in his wife and did not hesitate to start favorites.
S. Saltykov
Stanislav August Poniatowski
However, Catherine herself was not inferior to her husband and, thanks to the efforts of the English ambassador Williams, entered into a relationship with Stanislav Poniatowski, the future king of Poland (thanks to the patronage of Catherine II herself). According to some historians, it was from Poniatowski that Anna was born, whose own paternity Peter questioned.
Williams, for some time, was a friend and confidant of Catherine, gave her loans, manipulated and received confidential information regarding Russia's foreign policy plans and the actions of its military units during the seven-year war with Prussia.
The first plans to overthrow her husband, the future Catherine the Great, began to hatch and voice as early as 1756, in letters to Williams. Seeing the morbid state of Empress Elizabeth, and no doubt about Peter's own incompetence, Chancellor Bestuzhev promised to support Catherine. In addition, Catherine attracted English loans to bribe supporters.
In 1758, Elizabeth began to suspect Apraksin, Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Empire, and Chancellor Bestuzhev of conspiracy. The latter managed to avoid disgrace in time by destroying all correspondence with Catherine. The former favorites, including Williams, recalled to England, were removed from Catherine and she was forced to look for new supporters - they were Dashkova and the Orlov brothers.
British Ambassador C, Williams
Brothers Alexey and Grigory Orlov
On January 5, 1761, Empress Elizabeth died and Peter III ascended the throne by right of succession. The next round in the biography of Catherine began. The new emperor sent his wife to the other end of the Winter Palace, replacing her with his mistress Elizaveta Vorontsova. In 1762, Catherine's carefully hidden pregnancy from Count Grigory Orlov, with whom she began a relationship back in 1760, could in no way be explained by relations with her lawful spouse.
For this reason, to divert attention, on April 22, 1762, one of Catherine's devoted servants set fire to his own house - Peter III, who loved such spectacles, left the palace and Catherine calmly gave birth to Alexei Grigorievich Bobrinsky.
Organization of the coup
From the very beginning of his reign, Peter III caused dissatisfaction among his subordinates - an alliance with Prussia, which was defeated in the Seven Years' War, an aggravation of relations with Denmark. secularization of church lands and plans to change religious practices.
Taking advantage of her husband's unpopularity among the military, Catherine's supporters began to actively agitate the guard units to go over to the side of the future empress in the event of a coup.
The early morning of July 9, 1762 was the beginning of the overthrow of Peter III. Ekaterina Alekseevna arrived in St. Petersburg from Peterhof, accompanied by the Orlov brothers, and taking advantage of her husband's absence, took the oath first of the guards units, and then of other regiments.
Oath of the Izmailovsky Regiment to Catherine II. Unknown artist. Late 18th - first third of the 19th century
Moving along with the adjoining troops, the empress received from Peter at first a proposal for negotiations, and why the abdication of the throne.
After the conclusion, the biography of the ex-emperor was as sad as it was vague. The arrested husband died while under arrest in Ropsha, and the circumstances of his death have not been fully clarified. According to a number of sources, he was either poisoned or died suddenly from an unknown disease.
Having ascended the throne, Catherine the Great issued a manifesto accusing Peter III of trying to change religion and make peace with hostile Prussia.
Beginning of the reign
In foreign policy, the foundation was laid for the creation of the so-called Northern System, which consisted in the fact that the northern non-Catholic states: Russia, Prussia, England, Sweden, Denmark and Saxony, plus Catholic Poland, united against Austria and France. The first step towards the implementation of the project was considered the conclusion of an agreement with Prussia. Secret articles were attached to the treaty, according to which both allies were obliged to act together in Sweden and Poland in order to prevent their strengthening.
King of Prussia - Frederick II the Great
The course of affairs in Poland was of particular concern to Catherine and Friedrich. They agreed to prevent changes in the Polish constitution, to prevent and destroy all intentions that could lead to this, even resorting to weapons. In a separate article, the allies agreed to patronize Polish dissidents (that is, the non-Catholic minority - Orthodox and Protestants) and persuade the Polish king to equalize their rights with Catholics.
The former King August III died in 1763. Friedrich and Catherine set themselves the difficult task of placing their protege on the Polish throne. The Empress wanted it to be her former lover, Count Poniatowski. In achieving this, she did not stop either at bribing the deputies of the Sejm, or at the introduction of Russian troops into Poland.
The entire first half of the year was spent in active propaganda of the Russian protege. On August 26, Poniatowski was elected king of Poland. Catherine was very happy about this success and, without delay, ordered Poniatowski to raise the issue of the rights of dissidents, despite the fact that everyone who knew the state of affairs in Poland pointed out the great difficulty and almost impossibility of achieving this goal. Poniatowski wrote to his ambassador in St. Petersburg, Rzhevuski:
“The orders given to Repnin (the Russian ambassador in Warsaw) to bring dissidents into the legislative activity of the republic are thunderbolts both for the country and for me personally. If there is any human possibility, inspire the empress that the crown that she delivered to me will become for me the clothes of Nessus: I will burn in it and my end will be terrible. I clearly foresee the terrible choice ahead of me if the empress insists on her orders: either I will have to refuse her friendship, so dear to my heart and so necessary for my reign and for my state, or I will have to be a traitor to my fatherland.
Russian diplomat N. V. Repnin
Even Repnin was horrified by Catherine's intentions:
“The orders given” on the dissident case are terrible, he wrote to Panin, “truly my hair stands on end when I think about it, having almost no hope, except for the only strength, to fulfill the will of the most merciful empress regarding civil dissident advantages” .
But Catherine was not horrified and ordered Poniatowski to answer that she absolutely did not understand how dissidents admitted to legislative activity would, as a result, be more hostile to the Polish state and government than they are now; cannot understand how the king considers himself a traitor to the fatherland for what justice requires, which will be his glory and the solid good of the state.
“If the king looks at this matter in this way,” Catherine concluded, “then I remain eternal and sensitive regret that I could be deceived in the friendship of the king, in the image of his thoughts and feelings.”
Since the empress so unequivocally expressed her desire, Repnin in Warsaw was forced to act with all possible firmness. By intrigues, bribery and threats, the introduction of Russian troops into the suburbs of Warsaw and the arrest of the most stubborn opponents, Repnin achieved his goal on February 9, 1768. The Sejm agreed with the freedom of religion for dissidents and their political equalization with the Catholic nobility.
It seemed that the goal was achieved, but in reality it was only the beginning of a big war. The dissident “equation set fire to all of Poland. The Sejm, which approved the treaty on February 13, had hardly dispersed, when in Bar the lawyer Puławski raised the confederation against him. With his light hand, anti-dissident confederations began to flare up all over Poland.
The answer of the Orthodox to the Bar Confederation was the Haydamak revolt of 1768, in which, together with the Haydamaks (Russian fugitives who had gone to the steppes), the Cossacks led by Zheleznyak And the serfs with the centurion Gonta rose up. At the height of the uprising, one of the Haidamak detachments crossed the border river Kolyma and plundered the Tatar town of Galta. As soon as this became known in Istanbul, a 20,000-strong Turkish corps was moved to the borders. On September 25, the Russian ambassador Obrezkov was arrested, diplomatic relations were broken off - the Russian-Turkish war began. Such an unexpected turn was given by the dissident case.
First wars
Having suddenly received two wars in her hands, Catherine was not at all embarrassed. On the contrary, threats from the west and south only added to her enthusiasm. She wrote to Count Chernyshev:
“The Turks and the French took it into their heads to wake up the cat who was sleeping; I am this cat who promises to make himself known to them, so that the memory does not soon disappear. I find that we freed ourselves from a great burden that crushes the imagination when we got rid of the peace treaty ... Now I am free, I can do everything that my means allow me, and Russia, you know, has not small means ... and now we will set the bell, what did not expect, and now the Turks will be beaten.
The inspiration of the Empress was transferred to her surroundings. Already at the first meeting of the Council on November 4, it was decided to wage a war not defensive, but offensive, and above all to try to raise up the Christians oppressed by Turkey. To this end, on November 12, Grigory Orlov proposed sending an expedition to the Mediterranean in order to promote the Greek uprising.
Catherine liked this plan, and she energetically set about implementing it. On November 16, she wrote to Chernyshev:
"I so tickled our marines by their craft that they became firemen."
And a few days later:
“I have a fleet in excellent care today, and I will truly use it in this way, if God commands, as it has not yet been ...”
Prince A. M. Golitsyn
Hostilities began in 1769. The army of General Golitsyn crossed the Dnieper and took Khotyn. But Catherine was dissatisfied with his slowness and transferred the supreme command to Rumyantsev, who soon took possession of Moldavia and Wallachia, as well as the coast of the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov with Azov and Taganrog. Catherine ordered to fortify these cities and start building a flotilla.
She developed amazing energy this year, worked like a real chief of the general staff, entered into the details of military preparations, drew up plans and instructions. In April, Catherine wrote to Chernyshev:
“I set fire to the Turkish empire from four corners; I don’t know if it will catch fire and burn, but I know that since the beginning they have not yet been used against their great troubles and worries ... We have boiled a lot of porridge, it will be delicious for someone. I have an army in the Kuban, armies against the brainless Poles, ready to fight with the Swedes, and three more inpetto turmoil, which I don’t dare to show ... "
In fact, there were many troubles and worries. In July 1769, a squadron finally sailed from Kronstadt under the command of Spiridov. Of the 15 large and small ships of the squadron, only eight reached the Mediterranean.
With these forces, Alexei Orlov, who was treated in Italy and asked to be the leader of the uprising of Turkish Christians, raised the Morea, but could not give the rebels a solid combat device, and, having failed from the approaching Turkish army, left the Greeks to their fate, annoyed by the fact that he did not find in them Themistocles. Catherine approved of all his actions.
Connecting with another Elphingston squadron that had approached meanwhile, Orlov chased the Turkish fleet and in the Chios Strait near the fortress of Chesme overtook the armada by the number of ships more than twice as strong as the Russian fleet. After a four-hour battle, the Turks took refuge in the Chesme Bay (June 24, 1770). A day later, on a moonlit night, the Russians launched fireships, and by morning the Turkish fleet crowded in the bay was burned (June 26).
Amazing naval victories in the Archipelago were followed by similar land victories in Bessarabia. Ekaterina wrote to Rumyantsev:
“I hope for God’s help and your art in military affairs, that you don’t leave this in the best way to satisfy and carry out such deeds that will gain you glory and prove how great your zeal is for the fatherland and for me. The Romans did not ask when, where their two or three legions were, in how many numbers the enemy was against them, but where he was; they attacked and struck him, and not by the multitude of their troops did they defeat the diverse against their crowd ... "
Inspired by this letter, Rumyantsev in July 1770 twice defeated the many times superior Turkish armies at Larga and Cahul. At the same time, an important fortress on the Dniester, Bendery, was taken. In 1771, General Dolgorukov broke through Perekop to the Crimea and captured the fortresses of Kafa, Kerch and Yenikale. Khan Selim Giray fled to Turkey. The new Khan Sahib-Giray hastened to make peace with the Russians. At this, active actions ended and lengthy peace negotiations began, again returning Catherine to Polish affairs.
Storm Bender
Russia's military successes aroused envy and fears in neighboring countries, primarily in Austria and Prussia. Misunderstandings with Austria reached the point where they started talking loudly about the possibility of war with her. Friedrich strongly inspired the Russian Empress that Russia's desire to annex the Crimea and Moldova could lead to a new European war, since Austria would never agree to this. It is much more reasonable to take part of the Polish possessions as compensation. He directly wrote to his ambassador Solms that it makes no difference to Russia where she gets the reward to which she is entitled for military losses, and since the war started solely because of Poland, Russia has the right to take a reward from the border regions of this republic. At the same time, Austria should have received its part - this will moderate its hostility. The king, too, cannot do without acquiring a part of Poland for himself. This will serve as a reward for the subsidies and other expenses he incurred during the war.
Petersburg liked the idea of partitioning Poland. On July 25, 1772, an agreement between the three powers-shareholders followed, according to which Austria received all of Galicia, Prussia - western Prussia, and Russia - Belarus. Having settled the contradictions with the European neighbors at the expense of Poland, Catherine could start the Turkish negotiations.
Break with Orlov
At the beginning of 1772, through the mediation of the Austrians, they agreed to start a peace congress with the Turks in Focsani in June. Count Grigory Orlov and the former Russian ambassador in Istanbul, Obrezkov, were appointed representatives from the Russian side.
It seemed that nothing foreshadowed the end of the 11-year relationship between the empress and the favorite, and meanwhile Orlov's star had already set. True, before breaking up with him, Catherine suffered from her lover as much as a rare woman is able to endure from her lawful husband
Already in 1765, seven years before the final break between them, Beranger reported from Petersburg:
» This Russian openly violates the laws of love towards the Empress. He has mistresses in the city, who not only do not incur the wrath of the empress for their compliance with Orlov, but, on the contrary, enjoy her patronage. Senator Muraviev, who found his wife with him, almost made a scandal, demanding a divorce; but the queen pacified him by giving him lands in Livonia.
“I can no longer restrain myself from informing Your Majesty of an interesting event that has just happened at this court. The absence of Count Orlov revealed a very natural, but nevertheless unexpected circumstance: Her Majesty found it possible to do without him, change her feelings for him and transfer her disposition to another subject.
A. S. Vasilchakov
Horse guards cornet Vasilchikov, accidentally sent with a small detachment to Tsarskoe Selo to carry guards, attracted the attention of his empress, completely unexpectedly for everyone, because there was nothing special in his appearance, and he himself never tried to advance and is very little known in society. . When the royal court moved from Tsarskoe Selo to Peterhof, Her Majesty for the first time showed him a sign of her disposition, giving him a golden snuffbox for the proper maintenance of the guards.
No significance was attached to this occasion, however, Vasilchikov's frequent visits to Peterhof, the care with which she hastened to distinguish him from others, her calmer and more cheerful disposition since Orlov's departure, the displeasure of the latter's relatives and friends, and finally, many other minor circumstances opened the eyes of the courtiers .
Although everything is still kept secret, none of those close to him doubt that Vasilchikov is already in full favor with the Empress; they were especially convinced of this from the day when he was granted by the chamber junker .. "
Meanwhile, Orlov encountered insurmountable obstacles to peace in Focsani. The Turks did not want to recognize the independence of the Tatars. On August 18, Orlov broke off negotiations and left for Iasi, the headquarters of the Russian army. Here he was caught by the news of the dramatic change that followed in his life. Orlov abandoned everything and rushed to Petersburg on post horses, hoping to regain his former rights. A hundred miles from the capital, he was stopped by the order of the empress: Orlov was ordered to go to his estates and not leave there until the quarantine expired (he was traveling from the territory where the plague was raging). Although the favorite did not immediately have to reconcile, at the beginning of 1773 he nevertheless arrived in St. Petersburg and was sympathetically received by the empress, but there could no longer be any talk of previous relations.
“I owe a lot to the Orlov family,” said Ekaterina, “I showered them with riches and honors; and I will always patronize them, and they can be useful to me; but my decision is unchanged: I endured eleven years; now I want to live as I please, and quite independently. As for the prince, he can do whatever he pleases: he is free to travel or stay in the empire, drink, hunt, take mistresses ... He will behave well, honor and glory to him, they will behave badly - he is ashamed ... "
***
The years 1773 and 1774 were restless for Catherine: the Poles continued to resist, the Turks did not want to make peace. The war, exhausting the state budget, continued, and meanwhile a new threat arose in the Urals. In September, Yemelyan Pugachev raised an uprising. In October, the rebels gathered strength for the siege of Orenburg, and the nobles around the empress openly panicked.
Catherine's heart affairs also did not go well. Later, she confessed to Potemkin, referring to her relationship with Vasilchikov:
“I was more sad than I can say, and never more than when other people are happy, and all sorts of caresses forced tears in me, so I think that from my birth I did not cry as much as these one and a half years; at first I thought that I would get used to it, but what happened next, it got worse, because on the other side (that is, from Vasilchikov’s side) they began to sulk for three months, and I must admit that I had never been happier than when I got angry and left me alone, and His caress made me cry.
It is known that in her favorites, Catherine was looking for not only lovers, but also assistants in the matter of government. In the end, she succeeded in making good statesmen out of the Orlovs. Less fortunate with Vasilchikov. However, another contender remained in the reserve, which Catherine had long liked - Grigory Potemkin. Ekaterina knew and celebrated him for 12 years. In 1762, Potemkin served as a sergeant-major in a horse guard regiment and took an active part in the coup. In the list of awards after the events of June 28, he was assigned the rank of cornet. Ekaterina crossed out this line and wrote "captain-lieutenant" in her own hand.
In 1773 he was granted the rank of lieutenant general. In June of this year, Potemkin was in battle under the walls of Silistria. But a few months later, he suddenly asked for leave and quickly, hastily left the army. The reason for this was the event that decided his life: he received the following letter from Catherine:
"Mr Lieutenant General! You, I imagine, are so busy looking at Silistria that you have no time to read letters. I do not know whether the bombardment has hitherto been successful, but, in spite of this, I am sure that - whatever you personally undertake - no other goal can be prescribed than your ardent zeal for the benefit of me personally and dear homeland, whom you lovingly serve. But, on the other hand, since I want to save people who are diligent, brave, intelligent and efficient, I ask you not to be in danger unnecessarily. After reading this letter, you may ask why it was written; I can answer this for you: so that you have confidence in how I think of you, just as I wish you well.
In January 1774, Potemkin was in St. Petersburg, waited another six weeks, testing the ground, strengthening his chances, and on February 27 he wrote a letter to the Empress, in which he asked graciously to appoint him adjutant general, "if she considered his services worthy." Three days later he received a favorable answer, and on March 20 Vasilchikov was sent an imperial order to go to Moscow. He retired, making way for Potemkin, who was destined to become Catherine's most famous and powerful favorite. In a matter of months, he made a dizzying career.
In May he was introduced to the Council, in June he was granted the title of count, in October he was promoted to general-in-chief, and in November he was awarded the Order of St. Andrew the First-Called. All Catherine's friends were perplexed and found the choice of the empress strange, extravagant, even tasteless, for Potemkin was ugly, crooked in one eye, bow-legged, harsh and even rude. Grimm could not hide his astonishment.
"Why? Catherine answered him. “I bet because I distanced myself from some excellent, but too boring gentleman, who was immediately replaced by, myself, really, I don’t know how, one of the greatest fun, the most interesting eccentric that can be found in our iron age.”
She was very pleased with her new acquisition.
“Oh, what a head this man has,” she said, “and this good head is funny as the devil.”
Several months passed, and Potemkin became a real ruler, an omnipotent man, before whom all rivals humbled themselves and all heads bowed, starting with the head of Catherine. His accession to the Council was tantamount to becoming the first minister. He directs domestic and foreign policy and forces Chernyshev to give him the position of chairman of the military collegium.
On July 10, 1774, negotiations with Turkey ended with the signing of the Kyuchuk-Kaynarji peace treaty, according to which:
- the independence of the Tatars and the Crimean Khanate from the Ottoman Empire was recognized;
- Kerch and Yenikale in the Crimea are ceded to Russia;
- Russia departs the castle of Kinburn and the steppe between the Dnieper and the Bug, Azov, Big and Small Kabarda;
- free navigation of merchant ships of the Russian Empire through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles;
- Moldova and Wallachia received the right to autonomy and came under Russian protection;
- The Russian Empire received the right to build a Christian church in Constantinople, and the Turkish authorities undertook to ensure its protection
- A ban on the oppression of the Orthodox in Transcaucasia, on the collection of tribute by people from Georgia and Mingrelia.
- 4.5 million rubles indemnity.
The joy of the empress was great - no one expected such a favorable peace. But at the same time more and more disturbing news came from the east. Pugachev has already been defeated twice. He fled, but his flight seemed like an invasion. Never was the success of the uprising more significant than in the summer of 1774, never had the rebellion raged with such power and cruelty.
The indignation spread like wildfire from one village to another, from province to province. This sad news made a deep impression in St. Petersburg and clouded the victorious mood after the end of the Turkish war. Only in August Pugachev was finally defeated and captured. On January 10, 1775 he was executed in Moscow.
As for Polish affairs, on February 16, 1775, the Sejm finally passed a law on the equalization of dissidents in political rights with Catholics. Thus, despite all the obstacles, Catherine brought this difficult task to the end and successfully completed three bloody wars - two external and one internal.
The execution of Yemelyan Pugachev
***
The Pugachev uprising revealed the serious shortcomings of the existing regional administration: firstly, the former provinces represented too extensive administrative districts, secondly, these districts were provided with too few institutions with meager personnel, and thirdly, various departments were mixed in this administration: one and the same department was in charge of administrative affairs, and finances, and the criminal and civil courts. In order to eliminate these shortcomings in 1775, Catherine began a provincial reform.
First of all, she introduced a new regional division: instead of the 20 vast provinces into which Russia was then divided, now the entire empire was divided into 50 provinces. The basis of the provincial division was taken exclusively by the number of population. The provinces of Catherine are districts of 300-400 thousand inhabitants. They were subdivided into counties with a population of 20-30 thousand inhabitants. Each province received a uniform structure, administrative and judicial.
In the summer of 1775, Catherine stayed in Moscow, where the house of the princes Golitsyns at the Prechistensky Gates was placed at her disposal. In early July, Field Marshal Count Rumyantsev, the winner of the Turks, arrived in Moscow. The news has survived that Catherine, dressed in a Russian sundress, met Rumyantsev. on the porch of the Golitsyn house and, embracing, kissed. At the same time, she drew attention to Zavadovsky, a powerful, stately and exceptionally handsome man who accompanied the field marshal. Noticing the affectionate and interested look of the empress, thrown by her at Zavadovsky, the field marshal immediately introduced the handsome man to Catherine, flatteringly speaking of him as a man of excellent education, hardworking, honest and brave.
Catherine granted Zavadovsky a diamond ring with her name on it and appointed her office secretary. Soon he was granted the rank of major general and adjutant general, became in charge of the personal office of the empress and became one of the people closest to her. At the same time, Potemkin noticed that his charm for the Empress had weakened. In April 1776, he went on vacation to revise the Novgorod province. A few days after his departure, Zavadovsky settled in his place.
P. V. Zavadovsky
But, having ceased to be a lover, Potemkin, granted in 1776 to the princes, retained all his influence and sincere friendship with the empress. Almost until his death, he remained the second person in the state, determined domestic and foreign policy, and none of the subsequent numerous favorites, up to Platon Zubov, even tried to play the role of a statesman. All of them were close to Catherine by Potemkin himself, who tried in this way to influence the location of the empress.
First of all, he tried to remove Zavadovsky. Potemkin had to spend almost a year on this, and luck did not come before he discovered Semyon Zorich. He was a hero-cavalryman and a handsome man, a Serb by origin. Potemkin took Zorich to his aide-de-camp and almost immediately presented him for appointment as commander of the life hussar squadron. Since the life hussars were the personal guard of the empress, Zorich's appointment to the post was preceded by his introduction to Catherine.
S. G. Zorich
In May 1777, Potemkin arranged an audience with the empress with a potential favorite - and he was not mistaken in his calculation. Zavadovsky was suddenly granted a six-month vacation, and Zorich was granted the rank of colonel, adjutant wing and chief of the life hussar squadron. Zorich was already under forty, and he was full of manly beauty, however, unlike Zavadovsky, he was poorly educated (later he himself admitted that from the age of 15 he went to war and that until close to the empress he remained a complete ignoramus). Catherine tried to instill in him literary and scientific tastes, but seems to have had little success in this.
Zorich was stubborn and reluctant to educate. In September 1777, he became a major general, and in the fall of 1778, an earl. But having received this title, he was suddenly offended, as he expected a princely title. Soon after, he had a quarrel with Potemkin, which almost ended in a duel. Find out about this, Catherine ordered Zorich to go to her estate Shklov.
Even before Potemkin began to look for a new favorite for his girlfriend. Several candidates were considered, among which, they say, there was even some kind of Persian, distinguished by extraordinary physical data. Finally, Potemkin settled on three officers - Bergman, Rontsov and Ivan Korsakov. Gelbich says that Ekaterina went to the reception room, when all three applicants appointed for an audience were there. Each of them stood with a bouquet of flowers, and she graciously talked first with Bergman, then with Rontsov, and finally with Korsakov. The extraordinary beauty and grace of the latter captivated her. Catherine graciously smiled at everyone, but with a bouquet of flowers sent Korsakov to Potemkin, who became the next favorite. From other sources it is known that Korsakov did not immediately reach the desired position.
In general, in 1778, Catherine experienced a kind of moral breakdown and was fond of several young people at once. In June, the Englishman Harris notes the rise of Korsakov, and in August he speaks of his rivals, who are trying to wrest the grace of the Empress from him; they are supported on the one hand by Potemkin, and on the other by Panin, together with Orlov; in September, Strakhov, the "lowest jester", prevails over everyone, four months later, Major of the Semenovsky regiment Levashev, a young man patronized by Countess Bruce, takes his place. Then Korsakov again returns to his former position, but now he is fighting with some kind of Potemkin's favorite Stoyanov. In 1779, he finally won a complete victory over his competitors, became a chamberlain and adjutant general.
Grimm, who considered his friend's infatuation a mere whim, Catherine wrote:
"Whim? Do you know what this is: the expression is completely inappropriate in this case when they talk about Pyrrhus, the king of Epirus (as Catherine called Korsakov), and about this subject of temptation for all artists and despair for all sculptors. Admiration, enthusiasm, and not whim excite such exemplary creations of nature ... Pyrrhus never made a single ignoble or ungraceful gesture or movement ... But all this, in general, is not effeminacy, but, on the contrary, courage, and he is what you would like he was…"
In addition to his amazing appearance, Korsakov charmed the Empress with his wonderful voice. The reign of a new favorite constitutes an epoch in the history of Russian music. Catherine invited the first artists of Italy to St. Petersburg so that Korsakov could sing with them. She wrote to Grimm:
"Never have I met anyone so capable of enjoying harmonic sounds as Pyrrha, King of Epirus."
Rimsky-Korsakov I. N.
Unfortunately for himself, Korsakov failed to maintain his height. Once, in early 1780, Catherine found her favorite in the arms of her friend and confidante, Countess Bruce. This greatly cooled her ardor, and soon Korsakov's place was taken by the 22-year-old horse guard Alexander Lanskoy.
Lanskoy was introduced to Ekaterina by Chief of Police Tolstoy, he liked the empress at first sight: she granted him to the adjutant wing and gave 10,000 rubles to equip him. But he did not become a favorite. However, Lanskoy showed a lot of common sense from the very beginning and turned to Potemkin for support, who appointed him one of his adjutants and directed his court education for about six months.
He discovered in his pupil a mass of excellent qualities, and in the spring of 1780, with a light heart, he recommended him to the Empress as a cordial friend. Catherine promoted Lansky to colonel, then to adjutant general and chamberlain, and soon he settled in the palace in the empty apartments of the former favorite.
Of all Catherine's lovers, this was, without a doubt, the most pleasant and sweetest. According to contemporaries, Lanskoy did not enter into any intrigues, tried not to harm anyone and completely abandoned public affairs, rightly believing that politics would make him make enemies. The only all-consuming passion of Lansky was Catherine, He wanted to reign in her heart alone and did everything to achieve this. There was something maternal in the 54-year-old empress's passion for him. She caressed and educated him as her beloved child. Catherine wrote to Grimm:
“In order for you to form an idea about this young man, you need to convey what Prince Orlov said about him to one of his friends: “See what a person she will make of him! ..” He absorbs everything with greed! He began by swallowing all the poets and their poems in one winter; and in the other, a few historians ... Without studying anything, we will have countless knowledge and find pleasure in communicating with everything that is the best and most dedicated. In addition, we build and plant; besides, we are charitable, cheerful, honest and full of simplicity.
Under the guidance of his mentor Lanskoy, he studied French, got acquainted with philosophy and, finally, became interested in the works of art with which the empress liked to surround herself. The four years spent in Lansky's company were perhaps the most calm and happy in Catherine's life, as evidenced by many contemporaries. However, she always led a very moderate and measured life.
***
The daily routine of the Empress
Catherine usually woke up at six in the morning. At the beginning of her reign, she herself dressed and kindled the fireplace. Later, she was dressed in the mornings by chamberlain Perekusikhin. Ekaterina rinsed her mouth with warm water, rubbed her cheeks with ice and went to her office. Here, very strong morning coffee was waiting for her, usually accompanied by heavy cream and biscuits. The Empress herself ate little, but half a dozen Italian Greyhounds, who always shared breakfast with Catherine, emptied the sugar bowl and the basket of biscuits. Having finished eating, the empress let the dogs out for a walk, and she herself sat down to work and wrote until nine o'clock.
At nine she returned to the bedroom and received the speakers. The Chief of Police was the first to enter. To read the papers submitted for signature, the Empress put on glasses. Then the secretary appeared and work with documents began.
As you know, the Empress read and wrote in three languages, but at the same time she made many syntactical and grammatical errors, not only in Russian and French, but also in her native German. Mistakes in Russian, of course, were the most annoying of all. Catherine was aware of this and once confessed to one of her secretaries:
“Don't laugh at my Russian spelling; I'll tell you why I didn't have time to study it well. Upon my arrival here, I began to learn the Russian language with great diligence. Aunt Elizaveta Petrovna, learning about this, said to my chamberlain: enough to teach her, she is smart enough without that. Thus, I could learn Russian only from books without a teacher, and this is the very reason that I do not know spelling well.
The secretaries had to rewrite all the drafts of the Empress cleanly. But classes with the secretary were interrupted now and then by visits from generals, ministers and dignitaries. This went on until dinner, which was usually at one or two.
Having dismissed the secretary, Ekaterina went to the small dressing room, where the old hairdresser Kolov combed her hair. Catherine took off her hood and cap, put on an extremely simple, open and free dress with double sleeves and wide shoes with low heels. On weekdays, the Empress did not wear any jewelry. On ceremonial occasions, Catherine wore an expensive velvet dress, the so-called "Russian style", and adorned her hair with a crown. She did not follow the Parisian fashions and did not encourage this expensive pleasure in her court ladies.
After finishing the toilet, Catherine went to the official restroom, where they finished dressing her. It was time for a small exit. Grandchildren, a favorite and several close friends like Lev Naryshkin gathered here. The empress was served pieces of ice, and she quite openly rubbed her cheeks with them. Then the hair was covered with a small tulle cap, and the toilet ended there. The whole ceremony lasted about 10 minutes. After that, everyone went to the table.
On weekdays, twelve people were invited to dinner. The favorite sat on the right hand. The dinner lasted about an hour and was very simple. Catherine never cared about the sophistication of her table. Her favorite dish was boiled beef with pickles. As a drink, she used currant juice. In the last years of her life, on the advice of doctors, Catherine drank a glass of Madeira or Rhine wine. Dessert was accompanied by fruits, mostly apples and cherries.
Among the chefs of Catherine, one cooked very badly. But she did not notice this, and when, after many years, her attention was finally called to it, she did not allow him to be calculated, saying that he served too long in her house. She managed only when he was on duty, and, sitting down at the table, said to the guests:
“We are now on a Diet, you need to be patient, but after that we will eat well.”
After dinner, Catherine talked with the guests for several minutes, then everyone dispersed. Ekaterina sat down at the hoop - she embroidered very skillfully - and Betsky read aloud to her. When Betsky, having grown old, began to lose his sight, she did not want to replace him with anyone and began to read herself, putting on glasses.
Analyzing the numerous references to the books she read, scattered in her correspondence, we can safely say that Catherine was aware of all the book novelties of her time, and she read everything indiscriminately: from philosophical treatises and historical writings to novels. She, of course, could not assimilate deeply all this enormous material, and her erudition remained largely superficial, and her knowledge shallow, but in general she could judge a variety of problems.
The rest lasted about an hour. Then the empress was informed about the arrival of the secretary: twice a week she sorted out foreign mail with him and made notes on the margins of dispatches. On other fixed days, officials came to her with reports or for orders.
In the moments of a break in business, Catherine carelessly had fun with the children.
In 1776 she wrote to her friend Madame Boelcke:
“You have to be funny. Only this helps us to overcome and endure everything. I tell you this from experience, because I have overcome and suffered a lot in my life. But all the same, I laughed when I could, and I swear to you that at the present time, when I bear the brunt of my position, I play with my heart, when the opportunity presents itself, blind man's blind with my son, and very often without him. We come up with an excuse for it, we say, "It's good for health," but, between us it will be said, we do it just to fool around."
At four o'clock the working day of the Empress ended, and it was time for rest and entertainment. Catherine walked along the long gallery from the Winter Palace to the Hermitage. It was her favorite place to stay. She was accompanied by a favorite. She reviewed and posted new collections, played a game of billiards, and occasionally carved ivory. At six o'clock the Empress returned to the reception rooms of the Hermitage, which were already filled with persons admitted to the court.
Count Hord in his memoirs described the Hermitage as follows:
“It occupies a whole wing of the imperial palace and consists of an art gallery, two large rooms for card games and another where they dine on two tables “family”, and next to these rooms is a winter garden, covered and well lit. There they walk among the trees and numerous pots of flowers. Various birds fly and sing there, mainly canaries. The garden is heated by underground ovens; despite the harsh climate, it always reigns a pleasant temperature.
This so charming apartment is made even better by the freedom that reigns here. Everyone feels at ease: the empress has expelled all etiquette from here. Here they walk, play, sing; everyone does what he likes. The art gallery abounds with first-class masterpieces".
All sorts of games were a huge success at these meetings. Catherine was the first to participate in them, aroused gaiety in everyone and allowed all sorts of liberties.
At ten o'clock the game ended, and Catherine retired to the inner chambers. Dinner was served only on ceremonial occasions, but even then Catherine sat down at the table only for show. Returning to her room, she went into the bedroom, drank a large glass of boiled water and went to bed.
Such was the private life of Catherine according to the memoirs of contemporaries. Her intimate life is less known, although it is also not a secret. The Empress was an amorous woman, who until her death retained the ability to be carried away by young people.
There were more than a dozen of her official lovers. With all this, as already mentioned, she was not at all a beauty.
“To tell you the truth,” Catherine herself wrote, “I never considered myself extremely beautiful, but I liked it, and I think that this was my strength.”
All the portraits that have come down to us confirm this opinion. But there is no doubt that there was something extremely attractive in this woman, which eluded the brush of all painters and made many sincerely admire her appearance. With age, the Empress did not lose her attractiveness, although she became more and more stout.
Catherine was not at all windy or depraved. Many of her connections lasted for years, and although the empress was far from being indifferent to sensual pleasures, spiritual communication with a close man remained very important for her too. But it is also true that after the Orlovs, Catherine never raped her heart. If the favorite ceased to interest her, she resigned without any ceremony.
At the next evening reception, the courtiers noticed that the empress was staring at some unknown lieutenant, who had been introduced to her only the day before or who had previously been lost in the brilliant crowd. Everyone understood what that meant. In the afternoon, a young man was summoned to the palace by a short order and subjected to repeated tests for compliance in the performance of the direct intimate duties of the favorite of the empress.
A. M. Turgenev tells about this rite, through which all Catherine's lovers went through:
“They usually sent to Anna Stepanovna Protasova for a trial of the favorite of Her Majesty. Upon inspection of the concubine destined for the highest rank to the mother empress by the life physician Rogerson and on the basis of a certificate presented as fit for service regarding health, the recruited to Anna Stepanovna Protasova was escorted to a three-night test. When the betrothed fully satisfied the requirements of Protasova, she informed the most merciful empress about the trustworthiness of the tested, and then the first meeting was appointed according to the established etiquette of the court or according to the charter of the highest for consecration to the rank of concubine to the confirmed.
Perekusikhina Marya Savvishna and the valet Zakhar Konstantinovich were obliged to dine with the chosen one on the same day. At 10 pm, when the empress was already in bed, Perekusikhina led the recruit into the bedchamber of the most pious, dressed in a Chinese dressing gown, with a book in her hands, and left him to read in the armchairs near the anointed bed. The next day, Perekusikhina took the initiate out of the bedchamber and handed him over to Zakhar Konstantinovich, who led the newly appointed concubine to the halls prepared for him; here Zakhar reported already servilely to the favorite that the most merciful empress deigned to appoint him with the highest person as her adjutant wing, brought him an adjutant wing uniform with a diamond agraph and 100,000 rubles of pocket money.
Before the empress even went out, in the winter to the Hermitage, and in the summer, in Tsarskoye Selo, to the garden, to take a walk with the new adjutant wing, to whom she gave her hand to guide her, the front hall of the new favorite was filled with the first state dignitaries, nobles, courtiers to bring him the most zealous congratulations on receiving the highest mercy. The most highly enlightened pastor, the metropolitan, usually came to the favorite the next day to consecrate him and blessed him with holy water..
Subsequently, the procedure became more complicated, and after Potemkin, the favorites were checked not only by the assayer-maid of honor Protasova, but also by Countess Bruce, and Perekusikhina, and Utochkin.
In June 1784, Lanskoy fell seriously and dangerously ill - it was said that he undermined his health by abusing stimulant drugs. Catherine did not leave the sufferer for an hour, almost stopped eating, left all her affairs and looked after him, like a mother for her only infinitely beloved son. Then she wrote:
"Malignant fever combined with a toad brought him to the grave in five days."
On the evening of June 25, Lanskoy died. Catherine's grief was boundless.
“When I began this letter, I was in happiness and joy, and my thoughts raced so fast that I did not have time to follow them,” she wrote to Grimm. “Now everything has changed: I suffer terribly, and my happiness is no more; I thought I couldn't bear the irretrievable loss I suffered a week ago when my best friend passed away. I hoped that he would be the support of my old age: he also aspired to this, tried to instill in himself all my tastes. This was a young man whom I brought up who was grateful, meek, honest, who shared my sorrows when I had them, and rejoiced in my joys.
In a word, I, sobbing, have the misfortune to tell you that General Lansky is gone ... and my room, which I used to love so much, has now turned into an empty cave; I can hardly move over it like a shadow: on the eve of his death, I had a sore throat and a violent fever; however, since yesterday I have been on my feet, but I am weak and so depressed that I cannot see a human face, so as not to burst into tears at the first word. I can neither sleep nor eat. Reading irritates me, writing exhausts my strength. I don't know what will become of me now; I know only one thing, that never in all my life have I been so unhappy as since my best and kindest friend left me. I opened the drawer, found this started sheet, wrote these lines on it, but I can no longer ... "
“I confess to you that all this time I have been unable to write to you, because I knew that this would make us both suffer. A week after I wrote you my last letter in July, Fyodor Orlov and Prince Potemkin came to see me. Until that moment I could not see a human face, but these knew what to do: they roared along with me, and then I felt at ease with them; but I still had a long time to recover, and because of the sensitivity to my grief, I became insensitive to everything else; my grief increased and was remembered at every step and at every word.
However, do not think that because of this terrible state I have neglected even the smallest thing that requires my attention. In the most painful moments, they came to me for orders, and I gave them sensibly and reasonably; this particularly struck General Saltykov. Two months passed like this without any relief; at last the first quiet hours came, and then the days. It was already autumn outside, it was getting damp, and the palace in Tsarskoe Selo had to be heated. All of mine went into a frenzy from this and so strong that on September 5, not knowing where to lay my head, I ordered the carriage to be laid down and arrived unexpectedly and in such a way that no one suspected it, to the city where I stopped in the Hermitage ... "
In the Winter Palace, all the doors were locked. Catherine ordered to knock down the door to the Hermitage and went to bed. But waking up at one in the morning, she ordered the cannons to be fired, which was usually heralded by her arrival, and alarmed the whole city. The entire garrison rose to their feet, all the courtiers were frightened, and even she herself was surprised that she had made such a fuss. But a few days later, after giving an audience to the diplomatic corps, they appeared with their usual face, calm, healthy and fresh, friendly, as before the disaster, and smiling as always.
Soon life went back into its groove, and the eternally in love returned to life. But ten months passed before she wrote to Grimm again:
“I will tell you in one word, instead of a hundred, that I have a friend who is very capable and worthy of this name.”
This friend was the brilliant young officer Alexander Yermolov, represented by the same indispensable Potemkin. He moved to the long-empty chambers of the favorites. The summer of 1785 was one of the most joyful in Catherine's life: one noisy pleasure was replaced by another. The aging empress felt a new surge of legislative energy. This year, two famous letters of commendation appeared - to the nobility and cities. These acts completed the local government reform begun in 1775.
At the beginning of 1786, Catherine began to grow cold towards Yermolov. The resignation of the latter was accelerated by the fact that he took it into his head to intrigue against Potemkin himself. In June, the Empress asked her to tell her lover that she allowed him to go abroad for three years.
Yermolov's successor was the 28-year-old captain of the guard Alexander Dmitriev-Mamonov, a distant relative of Potemkin and his adjutant. Having made a mistake with the previous favorite, Potemkin looked closely at Mamonov for a long time before recommending him to Catherine. In August 1786, Mamonov was introduced to the Empress and was soon appointed adjutant wing. Contemporaries noted that he could not be called handsome.
Mamonov was distinguished by his tall stature and physical strength, had a bony face, slightly slanted eyes, glowing with intelligence, and conversations with him gave the Empress considerable pleasure. A month later, he became an ensign of the cavalry guards and a major general in the army, and in 1788 he was granted a count. The first honors did not turn the head of the new favorite - he showed restraint, tact and gained a reputation as an intelligent, cautious person. Mamonov spoke German and English well, and knew French perfectly. In addition, he proved himself to be a good poet and playwright, which especially appealed to Catherine.
Thanks to all these qualities, as well as the fact that Mamonov constantly studied, read a lot and tried to seriously delve into state affairs, he became an adviser to the empress.
Catherine wrote to Grimm:
“The red caftan (as she called Mamonov) is worn by a creature with a beautiful heart and a very sincere soul. Mind for four, inexhaustible gaiety, a lot of originality in understanding things and conveying them, excellent education, a lot of knowledge that can give brilliance to the mind. We hide as a crime the inclination to poetry; we love music passionately, we understand everything unusually easily. What only we do not know by heart! We recite, chatter in the tone of a better society; exquisitely polite; we write in Russian and French, as rarely anyone else, as much in style as in beauty of writing. Our appearance is quite consistent with our internal qualities: we have wonderful black eyes with eyebrows that are extremely outlined; below average height, noble appearance, free gait; in a word, we are just as reliable in our souls as we are dexterous, strong and brilliant on the outside.
***
Travel to Crimea
In 1787, Catherine made one of her longest and most famous journeys - she went to the Crimea, which from 17.83 was annexed to Russia. Before Catherine had time to return to St. Petersburg, the news broke out about the break in relations with Turkey and the arrest of the Russian ambassador in Istanbul: the second Turkish war began. To top it off, the situation of the 60s was repeated) when one war pulled another.
As soon as they gathered forces to repulse in the south, it became known that the Swedish king Gustav III intended to attack defenseless Petersburg. The king came to Finland and sent a demand to Vice-Chancellor Osterman to return to Sweden all the lands ceded under the Nystadt and Abov worlds, and to return the Crimea to Porte.
In July 1788, the Swedish War began. Potemkin was busy in the south, and all the hardships of the war fell entirely on the shoulders of Catherine. She was personally involved in everything. affairs for the management of the maritime department, ordered, for example, to build several new barracks and hospitals, to fix and put in order the Revel port.
A few years later, she recalled this era in a letter to Grimm: “There is a reason why it seemed that I did everything so well at that time: I was then alone, with almost no assistants, and, being afraid to miss something out of ignorance or forgetfulness, I showed an activity that no one considered me capable of; I interfered in incredible details to such an extent that I even turned into an army quartermaster, but, according to everyone, soldiers have never been better fed in a country where it was impossible to get any provisions ... "
On August 3, 1790, the Treaty of Versailles was concluded; the borders of both states remained the same as they were before the war.
Behind these troubles in 1789 there was another change of favorites. In June, Catherine found out that Mamonov was having an affair with the maid of honor Daria Shcherbatov. The Empress reacted to treason quite calmly. She recently turned 60 years old, besides, a long experience of love relationships taught her condescension. She bought several villages for Mamontov, with more than 2,000 peasants, gave her bride jewelry and betrothed them herself. Over the years of his favor, Mamonov had gifts and money from Catherine for about 900 thousand rubles. The last hundred thousand, in addition to the three thousand peasants, he received when leaving with his wife for Moscow. At this time, he could already see his successor.
On June 20, Ekaterina chose the 22-year-old second-captain of the Horse Guards Platon Zubov as the favorite. In July, Toth was granted the rank of colonel and adjutant wing. At first, the empress's entourage did not take him seriously.
Bezborodko wrote to Vorontsov:
“This child is well-mannered, but not far-sighted; I don't think he will last long in his place.
However, Bezborodko was wrong. Zubov was destined to become the last favorite of the great empress - he retained his position until her death.
Catherine confessed to Potemkin in August of the same year:
“I came back to life like a fly after hibernation… I am cheerful and healthy again.”
She was moved by Zubov's youth and the fact that he cried when he was not allowed into the rooms of the Empress. Despite his mild appearance, Zubov turned out to be a prudent and dexterous lover. His influence on the empress became so great over the years that he managed to achieve the almost impossible: he nullified Potemkin's charm and completely ousted him from Catherine's heart. Having taken all the threads of management into his own hands, in the last years of Catherine's life he acquired a tremendous influence on affairs.
***
The war with Turkey continued. In 1790, Suvorov took Izmail, and Potemkin - Vendors. After that, Porte had no choice but to yield. In December 1791, peace was concluded in Iasi. Russia received the interfluve of the Dniester and the Bug, where Odessa was soon built; Crimea was recognized as her possession.
Potemkin did not live long enough to see this joyful day. He died on October 5, 1791 on the way from Iasi to Nikolaev. Catherine's grief was very great. According to the testimony of the French commissioner Genet, "at this news she lost consciousness, blood rushed to her head, and she was forced to open a vein." Who can replace such a person? she repeated to her secretary Khrapovitsky. “I and all of us are now like snails who are afraid to stick their heads out of their shells.”
She wrote to Grimm:
“Yesterday I was hit like a butt on the head ... My student, my friend, one might say, an idol, Prince Potemkin of Tauride died ... Oh, my God! Now I am truly my own helper. I have to train my people again!”
The last remarkable act of Catherine was the division of Poland and the annexation of western Russian lands to Russia. The second and third sections, which followed in 1793 and 1795, were a logical continuation of the first. Many years of anarchy and the events of 1772 brought many nobles to their senses. During the four-year Sejm of 1788-1791, the reforming party drafted a new constitution, adopted on May 3, 1791. She established hereditary royal power with the Sejm without the right to veto, the admission of deputies from the townspeople, the complete equality of dissidents, the abolition of confederations. All this happened in the wake of frenzied anti-Russian speeches and in defiance of all previous agreements, according to which Russia guaranteed the Polish constitution. Catherine was forced to endure impudence for the time being, but she wrote to members of the foreign collegium:
“... I will not agree to any of this new order of things, during the approval of which not only did they not pay any attention to Russia, but showered it with insults, bullied it every minute ...”
And indeed, as soon as peace was concluded with Turkey, Poland was occupied by Russian troops, and a Russian garrison was brought into Warsaw. This served as a prologue to the section. In November, the Prussian ambassador in St. Petersburg, Count Goltz, presented a map of Poland, which outlined the area desired by Prussia. In December, after a detailed study of the map, Catherine approved the Russian share of the partition. Most of Belarus went to Russia. After the final collapse of the May constitution, its adherents, both those who had gone abroad and those who remained in Warsaw, had one means of acting in favor of a lost enterprise: plotting, arousing displeasure, and waiting for an opportunity to start an uprising. All this has been done.
Warsaw was to become the center of the performance. A well-prepared uprising began early in the morning on April 6 (17), 1794 and was a surprise for the Russian garrison. Most of the soldiers were killed, and only a few units with heavy damage were able to break out of the city. Not trusting the king, the patriots proclaimed General Kosciuszko as supreme ruler. In response, a third partition agreement was reached between Austria, Prussia and Russia in September. Krakow and Sendomierz provinces were to go to Austria. The Bug and Neman became the borders of Russia. In addition, Courland and Lithuania retreated to it. The rest of Poland with Warsaw was given to Prussia. On November 4, Suvorov took Warsaw. The revolutionary government was destroyed and power returned to the king. Stanislav-August wrote to Catherine:
“The fate of Poland is in your hands; your power and wisdom will solve it; whatever the fate that you assign to me personally, I cannot forget my duty to my people, imploring Your Majesty's generosity for them.
Catherine replied:
“It was not in my power to prevent disastrous consequences and to fill up under the feet of the Polish people the abyss dug by their corrupters and into which they are finally carried away ...”
On October 13, 1795, the third section was made; Poland disappeared from the map of Europe. This partition was soon followed by the death of the Russian empress. The decline of Catherine's moral and physical strength began in 1792. She was broken both by the death of Potemkin and by the extraordinary tension that she had to endure during the last war. The French envoy Genet wrote:
“Catherine is clearly aging, she herself sees this, and melancholy takes possession of her soul.”
Catherine complained: "The years make everyone see in black". Dropsy overcame the Empress. It became increasingly difficult for her to walk. She stubbornly fought old age and illnesses, but in September 1796, after her granddaughter's engagement to King Gustav IV of Sweden did not take place, Catherine went to bed. She did not leave colic, wounds opened on her legs. Only at the end of October did the empress feel better. On the evening of November 4, Catherine gathered an intimate circle in the Hermitage, was very cheerful all evening and laughed at Naryshkin's jokes. However, she left earlier than usual, saying that she had colic from laughter. The next day, Catherine got up at her usual hour, talked with the favorite, worked with the secretary, and, dismissing the latter, ordered him to wait in the hallway. He waited an unusually long time and began to worry. Half an hour later, the faithful Zubov decided to look into the bedroom. The Empress was not there; was not in the toilet room. Zubov called people in alarm; they ran to the dressing-room and there they saw the immovable empress with a reddened face, foaming at the mouth and wheezing with a death rattle. Ekaterina was carried into the bedroom and laid on the floor. She resisted death for about a day and a half, but did not come to her senses and died on the morning of November 6.
She was buried in the Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg. Thus ended the reign of Catherine II the Great, one of the most famous Russian women politicians.
Catherine composed the following epitaph for her future tombstone:
Catherine II is buried here. She arrived in Russia in 1744 to marry Peter III. At fourteen, she made a threefold decision: to please her husband, Elizabeth, and the people. She did not miss anything in order to achieve success in this respect. Eighteen years of boredom and loneliness led her to read many books. Having ascended the Russian throne, she made every effort to give her subjects happiness, freedom and material well-being. She forgave easily and hated no one. She was indulgent, loved life, had a cheerful disposition, was a true republican in her convictions and had a good heart. She had friends. The job was easy for her. She enjoyed secular entertainment and the arts.
(1729-1796) Russian empress from 1762 to 1796
Her real name was Sophia Frederick Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst. In 1743, she came to Russia from Stettin to become the wife of the nephew of Empress Anna Ioannovna Peter of Holstein-Gottorp - the future Tsar Peter III. On August 21, 1745, their marriage took place, and she became Grand Duchess Catherine.
Until the end of her reign, the Empress failed to combine two incompatible desires: to become famous throughout the world for her liberal views and reforms and not to allow any freedoms in Russia. These contradictions of hers were especially evident in her relations with educated people. She instructed Ekaterina Dashkova, one of the most educated women of that time, to develop a project for the creation of the Russian Academy of Sciences, supported secular education. At the same time, it was during her reign that the already strict censorship was established.
The empress was afraid of the slightest manifestation of free-thinking and severely punished A.N. Radishchev for his criticism of the existing order, set out in the book "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow", at the same time punishing N.I. Novikov, who dared to publish this book.
At the end of her reign, Catherine II ordered the dissolution of all Masonic lodges. N.I. Novikov was arrested and imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress, Prince Trubetskoy was exiled.
Nevertheless, Catherine II was an outstanding and bright personality, a brilliant publicist and writer. She wrote a lot on a variety of topics, left behind her personal "Notes", numerous letters. Her correspondence with Diderot and Voltaire is especially interesting. True, she wrote mainly in French, since Russian remained for her the language of everyday communication.
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