Foreign trade in the Russian Empire in the XVIII century. Trade in the Russian Empire

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In the Russian Empire of the XVIII century.

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Peter's reforms and entrepreneurship

Lecture 4

Huge shifts in the state of domestic entrepreneurship occurred in the XVIII century. In many ways, they owe their origins to the reforms of Peter I.

From his foreign trips, this tsar brought out a firm conviction of the extreme importance of a radical reorganization of the life of Russian cities, which, like in the West, were to become the main sources of replenishment of the treasury. At the same time, he was not in the least embarrassed by the fundamental difference in the position of European and Russian cities. European city at the turn of the XVII-XVIII centuries. was the focus of bourgeois economic freedoms and civil liberties; the Russian city, as before, was an outpost of the autocratic oppression of the nation. Feudal-feudal Russia did not lend itself well to redrawing according to Western bourgeois patterns, but this did not stop Peter, who, in the implementation of his plans, relied on the method of severe coercion.

Immediately after returning home, Peter I in 1699 ᴦ. began to carry out urban reform and in the implementation of this venture did not know the hold.

The first intermediate goal of this event is to form urban estates in order to "collect the scattered temples of the entire Russian merchant class"; the ultimate goal was "that the real state benefit would extend from it everywhere." Translated into the language of economics, the last lofty wording of Peter's decree meant nothing more than Peter's desire "to create a reliable taxable class and reliable suppliers of the treasury." However, Peter I himself did not hide his true intentions. Starting to collect the "scattered temple" of the Russian merchants, he announced that this was done so that the "merchant people" would not go bankrupt from the extortion of orders and military services and that "the treasury of the Great Sovereign would be replenished." For this, by decree of Peter, a city self-government was created, elected from the townspeople; cities were given the right, "if they wanted to," to free themselves from the power of governors and regulate their lives by the decision of elected bodies - zemstvo huts and magistrates. Judicial power was also transferred to elected bodies and burmisters, who were charged with the duty to manage merchant affairs. Switching merchants to self-government, as in Europe, Peter sought to divert merchant capital from the bottomless pockets of governors, clerks and military people and direct their flow into an even more immense treasury.

To do this, Peter I divided all regular citizens (as the inhabitants of cities were henceforth called) into two guilds - with unequal quotas of representation in self-government bodies and different rights *. The 1st guild of regular citizens (or simply citizens) included townspeople who, not being nobles and farmers, had the following occupations: merchants (wholesalers and former guests), bankers, artists, scientists, sailors, healers. (Taking into account the personal authorship of Peter I in the preparation of the relevant decrees, it is interesting to trace his ideas about professional rating.) To the 2nd guild - merchants of small goods and food products, as well as artisans. In the decree, representatives of the 2nd guild were called " vile citizens." Outside the guild lattice, the so-called. "mean people"(note - not citizens): day laborers, clerks, working people.

The hopes of Peter I for the cleansing effect of self-government ("his involuntarily brother") did not come true. In other words, they completely failed. For 500 years of being in an oppressed state, the Russians have completely lost their "social feeling", ᴛ.ᴇ. a sense of citizenship. Not to a lesser extent, "the strong influence of the principle of feeding, which in the Muscovite state captured everyone who only became power, no matter whether it was appointed or elected," had an effect. To put it another way, unwittingly, Peter I drove the merchants into a position between Scylla and Charybdis, when the governors and clerks were still robbing him, but with even greater frenzy the officials of the new, Peter's, generation, the burmisters, were doing this. Reports flowed to Peter I from all over the country that “a lot of theft had been exacted from the city stewards,” that it was from them that “many thefts of the treasury came.” And neither the harsh “righteousness” perpetrated by Per I over bribe-takers and embezzlers of public funds, nor public floggings, saved Russia and its merchants from the oppression of the bureaucracy.

And one more point should be noted. Carrying out the urban reform with great vigor, Peter I thought least of all about the main object of reformist aspirations - about the merchants themselves. It was a transformation not for the sake of the people, incl. and merchants, but for the sake of the treasury (ᴛ.ᴇ. ultimately for the sake of transforming the army and navy and implementing geopolitical tasks). How else can you explain the following paradox of Peter's domestic policy: while relying on the most "capital" part of Russian society, the all-powerful autocrat did not lift a finger (didn't risk it? didn't dare? didn't want to? was afraid?) Russia - with all the ensuing rights of the merchants, at least in the economic sphere. Having taken over from the West only the technical and fiscal side of development, Peter I did not want to release control over the sources, scale and origin of merchant capital from under his strict tutelage in order to forcibly combine them with the feverishly forced "military-industrial complex" (more on this in the next sectione).

And most importantly: Peter did not bring the merchants out of the draft state, forcing them to pay a humiliating poll tax on a par with serfs. Instead of the bourgeois freedoms seen in the West, Peter I gave the Russian entrepreneur the miserable role of economic servant of his reform initiatives.

Nevertheless, it cannot be said that Peter I did nothing to elevate the Russian merchant class. The very fact of the special attitude of the tsar to this subject of economic life could not remain unaccounted for by contemporaries and successors of Peter I. At the same time, Peter freed the domestic merchants from many duties, significantly weakened foreign competition, and finally cut through a wide a window to Europe", riding the Baltic. “Pre-Petrine Russia already knew capitalism, but in its primitive, crude form only merchant capitalism; it already had and was already growing strongly ... the merchant bourgeoisie,” argued (following M. I. Tugan-Baranovsky, S. S. Zak and other historians and economists) is one of the leading historians of the Russian bourgeoisie. The statement, frankly, is not controversial. But something else is indisputable: it was Peter I who pushed the merchants, who had won trade and sales, to conquer production.

The forced Europeanization of Russia, carried out by violent, cruel, often barbaric methods, the militarization of the economy, the monstrous "multiplication" of the bureaucratic apparatus, and much more - all this was an unbearable burden on the shoulders of taxable and draft classes, incl. merchants. Tax burdens under Peter I tripled (from 25 million to 75 million a year), and the country's population decreased by 3 million and amounted to 13 million people in the year of the death of the first Russian emperor (1725 ᴦ.).

There were no changes for the better in the situation of the Russian merchants, which the tsar tearfully asked in his wonderful "Book of Poverty and Wealth" Ivan Pososhkov, the great (as it turned out later) economic thinker of Peter the Great's time. “Trade is a great thing,” Ivan Tikhonovich convinced the tsar, “because merchants make every kingdom rich, and without merchants even a small state cannot exist, and for that, under free guard, it is necessary to observe them, and protect them from insults, so that they do not whom they were not offended and would not enter into squalor, His Imperial Majesty would carry the offspring with zeal. The calls of the smartest economist and the great patriot of Russia turned out to be a voice crying in the wilderness. No one knows whether Peter I read the essay addressed to him, but it is known for sure: its author was immediately imprisoned in the Peter and Paul Fortress, where he died under torture in February 1726. (The manuscript of I. T. Pososhkov, accidentally discovered in the archives of the secret office, was published by N. P. Pogodin only in 1842 ᴦ.). Innovators have never been loved or appreciated in Russia, especially in such a delicate area as the economy.

It is no coincidence that the vast majority of the economic innovations of Peter I died with him. Personal decree of February 24, 1727 ᴦ. Empress Catherine I actually canceled the Peter the Great city reform, recognizing it as untenable and even harmful, because "not only serfs ... find themselves in great poverty and ... come to extreme ruin, but other things, like commerce, justice and mints. ..". March 17, 1727 ᴦ. A special "Commission on Commerce" was established, which was called upon to investigate the causes of the decline in trade and develop effective measures to revive this most important sphere of the economic life of the state. Catherine I did not manage to wait for the results of the work of this commission; she died suddenly in the same 1727 ᴦ., however, the successors to the throne who followed her, faithful to the Peter's tradition, tenaciously kept the "capital people" in the field of their unflagging attention.

The daughter of Peter I, Elizaveta Petrovna, having barely ascended the throne, undertook something concrete that really accelerated the formation of the merchant class in Russia. We are talking about the establishment in 1742 ᴦ. three merchant guilds. In the event itself, a certain continuity by the young empress of the ideas of her sovereign parent is seen, but there was a fundamental difference. So, if Peter divided into guilds regular urban population, the Elizabethan division concerned only merchants. What was it for? The answer is the same: all with the same fiscal goal, because the tax on trading capital clearly did not correspond to their size.

So, three merchant guilds were established. On what principles and grounds was the division into guilds made? Formally, according to the combined principle - functional-property, but actually according to one - functional, ᴛ.ᴇ. by type of trade - taking into account the fact that different types of trade bring different incomes.

In itself, this measure significantly revived entrepreneurial activity in Russia, drawing representatives of various social strata into this sphere, including. many persons of "vile rank". The roots of powerful entrepreneurial dynasties - Garelins, Konshins, Mamontovs, Naydenovs, Alekseevs, etc.
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- originate in the middle of the 18th century.

The guild system certainly increased the social status of the merchants, their weight in the eyes of society, but did not bring the expected replenishment to the state treasury. The fact is that in Russia, as elsewhere at all times, the fiscal relations of the government with the people were built according to the scheme of playing "cat and mouse". The government has always wanted to stick its hand deep into the taxpayer's pocket, and the taxpayer has always tried to build a simpler fig in the same pocket. And the merchants were no exception to this rule, especially since the flaws of the Elizabethan guild system were programmed from the very beginning.

Introduced for the sole purpose of streamlining the collection of taxes from the merchant class, this system left intact the former "forty-altyn" poll duty (altyn - 3 kopecks), which degraded merchant dignity. However, the problem was elsewhere. As you know, in order to establish a "fair" amount of tax, it is extremely important to solve at least two problems: to establish the sources of income and their exact amounts.

But in order to answer these questions, it is extremely important to maintain a whole army of fiscals, ᴛ.ᴇ. tax officials - for the most part, as already noted, dashing bribe-takers and bribe-takers, whose maintenance cost the treasury "a pretty penny" of colossal proportions. Under this system, the procedure for withdrawing trading duties to the state treasury was reminiscent of an expensive hunt with a paddock, when there are a lot of hoots, and you can’t wait for prey, because the “shooting wolves” taken into the paddock have long learned to jump over red flags.

The situation changed radically during the reign of Catherine II - the most outstanding, in our opinion, personality on the Russian throne in modern history. In the last third of the XVIII century. a new stage in the history of Russian entrepreneurship begins, incl. and trading. Catherine II did what her predecessors on the Russian throne did not dare to do: she expanded the personal and individual rights of the merchants to an unprecedented scale, freed them from the "contemptuous poll" tax, ᴛ.ᴇ. delivered "from great slavery," as the merchants themselves wrote. And most importantly, Catherine II granted the merchants real "freedoms" and "liberties" in their business affairs. The "Instruction" compiled by the Empress contains a truly wise judgment: "Trade is removed from there, where it is oppressed, and settled where it is not disturbed."

Catherine II, by a strong-willed decision "from above", completed what had long been ripe "below" - she established the third estate in Russia.

More on this below, but now let's get back to the merchant guilds. Catherine left them, but "summed" a completely new basis for them. If we again resort to the hunting image, then from now on the procedure for collecting taxes from merchants resembled hunting with a decoy duck, to the inviting quacking of which drakes in rich plumage, suffering from love comforts, voluntarily flock.

Now no one divided the merchants into tax categories: now they sharedᴛ.ᴇ. divided themselves. By property principle with the obligation to annually pay a fee of 1% from "capitals declared in good conscience", as stated in the decree of Catherine II (1775 ᴦ.). Let us pay attention to the psychological meaning of the wording: "with capital declared in good conscience." So confidentially the Russian state has never communicated with its subjects, and this could not but impress the merchants, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ greeted the decree of Catherine II with jubilation. But, in addition, the decree was filled with deep economic content.

History, incl. the newest one is full of examples when the most beautiful decree or the highest decree turns into zilch if they are not supported by an effective mechanism for their implementation. Catherine II was not so naive as to appeal only to conscience merchants, without backing up their call with a whole system of powerful incentives, the name of which is privileges. For each merchant guild, privileges were established that were significantly differentiated from each other. That is why the merchants staged a real race for guild titles, although "entry tickets" to these corporate communities were not cheap at that time. So, the declared "in conscience" capital is over 10 thousand rubles. gave the right to receive the title of merchant of the 1st guild, from 1 thousand to 10 thousand - 2nd, from 500 rubles.
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up to 1 thousand - 3rd; persons who declared a capital of less than 500 rubles were classified as philistines. Essentially, in the decree of Catherine II 1775 ᴦ. (reinforced by the city regulation of 1785 ᴦ.) in a carefully camouflaged, but quite perceptible form, the right of the state to trade in social privileges was proclaimed and affirmed. But the game into which the government drew "capital" people, really, was worth the candle.

What kind of "goods" was offered by the government to the Russian merchant in exchange for a one percent tax on capital? Privileges (according to the bureaucratic terminology of that time - "different advantages in trade and exemption from the operation of general laws") were established on the basis of guilds. Thus, the merchants of the 1st and 2nd guilds and their household members were exempted from corporal punishment, recruitment duties, and soldiers' quarters; they were granted the right to move freely throughout the territory and reside anywhere in the empire, as well as the right to be awarded orders and ranks "for providing the Fatherland with especially important merit." In addition, the merchants of the 1st guild were granted the purely noble right to come to the imperial court with a sword (if in Russian clothes - with a saber), the right to wear a provincial uniform and the right, after 12 years of continuous stay in the 1st guild, to be awarded the title of "commerce adviser" (the title was introduced by Paul I), and then (since 1832 ᴦ.) and the title of "manufactory-advisor".

According to the city regulation of 1785 ᴦ., "the average kind of people" were recorded in six magistrate books, while the guild merchants were recorded in the Second book. But in this nomenclature register there was a special - Fifth - book, where the elite of the third estate - eminent citizens was entered. This title was acquired: 1) long and impeccable service in city elected bodies; 2) significant capital and trade turnover(merchants who declared capital over 50 thousand rubles; bankers - over 100-200 thousand; wholesalers, ship owners who send their ships overseas); 3) education (having university certificates (diplomas), artists, sculptors). The title of "eminent citizen" was only one step away from the title of nobility, and this step was quite surmountable.

The three-level guild system lasted in Russia until 1863 ᴦ., when the 3rd guild was abolished (due to its large number), and the 1st and 2nd formally existed until 1917 ᴦ., but practically lost their former significance long before that , especially after in 1874 ᴦ. Recruiting was abolished and compulsory all-class service was introduced in the Russian army.

In the reign of Alexander I, eminent citizenship was abolished and first class merchants; holders of this title were entered in the Velvet Book "in order to perpetuate the memory of noble merchant families." In 1832 ᴦ. for persons of the third estate, the title of "honorary citizen" was established.

Unprecedented opportunities for advancement along the social class vertical literally turned the heads of many representatives of the third estate, prompting them to a frantic race for noble titles.

The phenomenon has become widespread when merchants "in good conscience" declared sharply inflated amounts of their capital - just to climb to a higher guild level, get a rank or order, and there, you see, a noble title. Looking at the "mean" merchant flow into the nobility, the talented and caustic publicist of that time, Prince M. M. Shcherbatov, "invented" a label for this phenomenon, which became winged - "chinobesie".

Inflaming the lust of the merchants, playing on the pride and eternal ambitions of merchant entrepreneurs, Catherine II introduced one comical, but, as was soon confirmed, extremely effective (for the treasury) differentiation in the rights of the guild merchants. So, the merchants of the 1st guild had the right to drive around the city on a pair of horses all year round - in a carriage merchants of the 2nd guild - the same, but in a carriage, but the merchants of the 3rd guild - in a carriage and only on one horse, and only in spring and autumn (during the muddy season) they could harness the second one. Violation of this order was punishable by heavy fines.

And now imagine the state of the wife of a merchant of the 3rd guild, who met her friend on the evening promenade - the wife of a merchant of the 2nd guild ... Isn't it a very urgent situation.

The plan of Catherine II to replenish the treasury at the expense of the capitals of the guild merchants was a complete success. Like another idea - to direct merchant capital into industry, which Peter I failed to do in his time.

At the same time, the main result of her "motherly concern" for the merchants was the creation of real conditions - economic, legal, social - for the formation of the merchants into an independent estate, on the basis of which the third estate took root and went into rapid growth in Russia.

The historical merit of Russian commercial entrepreneurship is, first of all, that it provided Russia with the material and financial basis for its transition to a civilized model of economic development. As a confirmation and for a “smooth transition” to the topic of the next section, we will quote from the already mentioned book by P. A. Buryshkin: “Russian factories were built and equipped by Russian merchants. Russian industry withdrew from trade ... And if the results speak for themselves , the merchant class was for the most part healthy ".

There is, perhaps, not a single publication about Peter I in which the great reformer of Russia would not be called the father of Russian industry, and there is no exaggeration in this metaphor. What was Russia before Peter in terms of its economic infrastructure? That's right: an agricultural, agrarian country, and such Russia will remain for more than two centuries - mostly. But it was not only an agricultural state. As already mentioned in the previous section, Russia was also a country of developed trade, the turnover of which was in the millions. Extrapolating this fact to the general laws of the development of capitalism, many authors argue that Russian merchant capital, having conquered trade and sales, was eager to conquer production in order to create industrial capitalism. Alas! In fact, everything happened exactly the opposite, otherwise why would Peter I grab the whip, saving the carrot "for later". The Russian merchant-capitalist did not show the slightest desire to seize production, arguing, apparently, in the spirit of an anecdotal scheme: "why, when and so good!". The merchant preferred to engage in his direct business - trade, buying up handicraft products, selling them monopoly and making huge capital on this. Good is not sought after, especially in Russia, and it is difficult to say how long it would take, evolving in line with general laws, for a Russian merchant to "mature" to understand the extreme importance of investing in the development of industry.

The great reformer of the country could not wait. He was in a hurry, apparently desiring to see Russia as a great country during his lifetime. From a two-year trip abroad, from the experience of the extremely unsuccessful start of the Northern War, the young tsar made a firm conviction: Russia has no well-wishers in this world, and in order to resist the exalted Europe, it is necessary regular army. Artillery. Sea and river fleet. A huge amount of cloth (for soldiers' uniforms), linen (for sails), cast iron, iron, copper, bronze, gunpowder and much, much more. Where can you get all of this? There is no hope for small handicrafts. Rely on foreign imports? The bird relied on the cat ... And there was no money for imports. There was only one option left - to "plant" the domestic industry.

It should be noted that the policy of oriented "planting" of industry is not an invention of Peter I, as it is often written about. The industry of any European country was "implanted" if not completely, then by 75%.

But the "reproduction" of the domestic industry is an extremely expensive undertaking, especially since it had to start from scratch, from scratch. Peter received from his "quietest" parent only a dozen or so frail manufactories that produced the most primitive items. Where to get the necessary capital? - this is the question that acquired Hamlet's poignancy for Peter I. More precisely, the greatest difficulty of the solution was not the question "where?", but "how?" invest in industry. Whose capital? Of course, merchants. After all, there is no one richer than merchants in any kingdom-state. But after all, these bearded "gold-carriers" will not let them go, they will not go with their capitals, what then? And Peter had a ready answer to this: “Everyone knows that our people will not go to anything themselves if they are not forced,” we read in one of the emperor’s decrees - however, of a later time (1724 ᴦ.) , but, I think, it is typical of the mindset of Peter throughout his entire life, especially since this decree also concerned the merchants.

Let us note, by the way: the decrees of Peter I are the most fascinating reading for all time; animated by profanity, filled with instructive maxims and unexpected judgments, they characterize the personality of this great Russian more vividly and deeper than other descriptions. It is hard not to cite one more excerpt from Peter's decree - this time a lengthy one - on the question raised. So, in response to reports that among the merchants, as expected, there were few who wanted to get involved in industrial entrepreneurship, Peter responds with a decree in which there are such lines: “That there are few hunters, and that’s true, since our people, like children, ignorance for the sake of which they will never be taken for the alphabet, "when they are not forced by the master, who at first seem annoyed, but when they learn, then they thank that, obviously, of all the current affairs, not everything has been done involuntarily, and already for Thanksgiving is heard by me, why the fruit has already occurred, and in manufactories-deeds not to do it with a proposal, but also to force and help with instruction, machines and in every way, as if to be a good housekeeper ".

And yet, as the researcher notes, "threatening with a severe club of government repressions and beckoning with generous favors, Peter the Great drew large capitalists who had left the ranks of the merchants onto the path of factory activity" . This process did not go as fast as Peter wanted, since a number of obstacles were discovered on the way of the Russian merchants from trade to industrial production. Three of them were especially serious: 1) foreign competition; 2) the almost complete absence of working industrial professions; 3) absence sales market.

All these problems were solved by Peter I in his characteristic imperative-coercive manner, which caused the "Russian originality" of the industrial development of the country. First of all, to protect the domestic industry, he erected a "Chinese wall of protectionism." Constantly prohibiting the import of certain goods from abroad, in 1724 ᴦ. Peter established a general protectionist tariff, according to which goods that were produced in Russia were subject to import duties of 50-75% of their value.

The solution of the second problem, connected with the staffing of the factories being created with workers, seemed more difficult. In the developed countries of Europe, which Peter worshiped, factory production was based on the labor of hired workers. And what about in serf-owning Russia, where "free labor" will appear very, very soon? First, Peter distributes "official" peasants to the factory owners (the landlords cannot be touched, for they are the "baptized property" of the nobility - the pillars of the autocratic regime). Then the trapping and escorting to the factories under escort of vagrants, professional beggars, petty criminals, girls of the "light profession", fugitive peasants begins. But there was a hitch with the latter, since the landlords, whose "baptized property" were the runaway peasants, often demanded that they be returned back. And here Peter I, to the obvious displeasure of the landowners, publishes July 18, 1721 ᴦ. a decree strictly forbidding the return of peasants from the factories, "whoever they may be, although they are fugitives ... because the interested parties (owners - A.G.) of the factories announce that they will then be stopped in the factories" . This decree logically supplemented the most important and fundamental in connection with the development of factory production, the decree of Peter I of January 16, 1721 ᴦ. were entirely at the same factories inseparably." In other words, Peter I introduced a system of forced labor in Russian factories (such factories were called "possession" factories). The very appearance of the Petrovsky industrial establishment resembled a prison - with ditches, bulk ramparts and a high palisade around the perimeter. And if we take into account the harsh regime of labor (14-16-hour working day, beating for offenses, barracks living, etc.), then Peter's "possession factory" was nothing more than a prototype of the Soviet Gulag, and Peter I can consider the latter to be the progenitor.

The solution to the third problem is also marked by Russian specifics. As you know, any "bourgeois" factory operates with a focus on the consumer market, the satisfaction of mass demand. That is how she lives and grows rich. Such a factory was not needed by Peter I; he needed a factory that primarily satisfied the needs of the military and naval departments. Given the lack of a domestic market for the corresponding "works" of the factory industry (guns, cannonballs, sails, muskets, etc.), Peter filled this gap with an economic procedure that is well known to Soviet people and is commonly called the state order. Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, Peter I can be considered the founder of two more extremely tenacious factors of the domestic economy: the military-industrial complex and the state order.

And now - about the specific forms of involving wealthy people in Russia in the occupation of industry. Decree of October 27, 1699 ᴦ. Peter I ordered the merchants to conduct business in a new way, as in Europe, uniting in companies (in the terminology of the Peter's decree - "kuppanstvo").

In Europe, by that time, many collective forms of entrepreneurial activity had already been "run in" to a brilliance. The most widespread are such associations of entrepreneurs as companies and societies ("societ"). Societies are small, 2-3 people, associations created to conduct trade operations, as a rule, within the country; their establishment does not require the permission of the authorities. It is a different matter for companies that are defined in the "Commercial Dictionary" of the Savary brothers (XVIII century): "A set of persons gathered in the same place or united for the same purpose." There were important differences between the society and the company. First of all, the "set of persons" in the company was much more than 2-3 people. Secondly - and this is the main thing - companies were established only with the permission of the government and operated under its vigilant control. It seems that it was precisely this quality that Peter I had in mind when ordering the creation of “kumpanstvo”, which in V. Tatishchev’s “Lexicon” (also of the 18th century) were defined as “a certain (not ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ. - A.G.) number of people , any agreement (common cause. - A.G.) or the community to support those who have agreed.

It should be said that collective (worldly, communal) forms of activity have been known in Russia since ancient times; they constitute one of the national signs of the economic life of the Russian people. In addition to the merchant "folds" mentioned above, there are fishing artels in the north (pomytchiks), "troops" in the south (fishermen, pickles), in which the labor of their members was combined. There were also such enterprises in Russia in which both labor and capital were combined. But all such initiatives did not receive an extremely important development in the peculiar conditions of Russia.

And then Peter I appeared and shouted: "Give me a commercial and industrial complex!" (as one might write if it happened two centuries later). Following the example of Western governments, Peter attracted wealthy, wealthy, "capital" people to the company, regardless of their class affiliation, and he had a chance to complete the work he had begun. According to the prominent Russian historian A.S. Lappo-Danilevsky, "industrial production in Russia in the first half of the 18th century, if not exclusively, then mainly concentrated in companies."

The first commercial and industrial companies were created by Peter I on a whim, when merchants had to be dragged into them literally by the ears or by the beards. Richard Pipes in his book, which was mentioned above, describes the procedure for transforming the Moscow Cloth Yard into a company, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ Peter I carried out on the advice of his friend, the Scot J. V. Bruce. “Knowing how hard Russian merchants are to rise,” writes R. Pipes, “he chose a number of names from the lists of the leading merchants of the empire and appointed these persons as members of the company. Having done this, he sent soldiers to find His victims and bring them to Moscow "on urgent dispatch".

In seeking to involve the merchants on a wide scale in the creation of commercial and industrial companies, Peter granted the “interested” (or “interested”) colossal benefits and privileges: the monopoly right to manufacture their products, huge interest-free loans, exemption from duties, the right to have serfs, and others. He even went to that in 1711 ᴦ. abolished the tsarist commercial monopoly on all goods, with the exception of vodka, bread, tobacco and salt.

Skillfully using the privileges provided, the partners very quickly amassed huge capital. Among them stood out the merchants Evreinovs, Markovs, Mokeevs, Startsovs, Turchaninovs and others. Peter I literally cherished the first industrialists of Russia, showered them with all sorts of favors and vigilantly protected them from the arbitrariness of officials. Above all, he valued in people a "creative vein", initiative, efficiency, without attaching any importance to their often "mean" origin. He elevated to the pinnacle of power, wealth and fame such organizers of industry as A. Kurbatov, N. Antufiev (later - Demidov), M. Zatrapeznov and others.

In addition to merchants, Peter energetically involved in the industrial activities of his courtiers and nobles, who, upon reaching the age of 40, were allowed to engage in commercial and industrial fishing. Not always sharing the aspirations of the emperor, but wanting to please him in order to remain in the cage of those close to him, many of the courtiers and "simple" nobles joined with their considerable capitals in the handicap of the "sociable" race arranged by Peter. So, for the creation of the Moscow cloth manufactory, Count Apraksin contributed a colossal sum of 20 thousand rubles, Count Shafirov - even more - 25.8, Count Tolstoy - 20 thousand, while the total contribution of Moscow merchants to this enterprise amounted to 23, 5 thousand rubles .

It should be noted that many very wealthy merchants, who were ordered to enter the "companies", did not want to unite with "outsiders" and preferred to conduct factory business with trading houses, ᴛ.ᴇ. unions of undivided relatives. So, for example, did the Yaroslavl merchant Maxim Zatrapeznoe. By personal decree of Peter the Great, Zatrapeznov and his sons were ordered to join the ranks of the partners of the Dutch entrepreneur I. Tames and produce a linen manufactory in Moscow. At the same time, Zatrapeznov asked for permission to "start" such a manufactory in Yaroslavl and run it independently - with his sons. Such permission was given, apparently, not only to Zatrapeznov. For Peter, the main thing was to attract merchant capital, and in what form it was not so important, especially since the state remained the owner of all manufactories, even those created with private funds. Zatrapeznov's business was continued by his sons - Ivan, Andrey and Dmitry. The manufactories of the Zatrapeznovs in Yaroslavl were the pride of Russia.

In order to quickly set up factory manufactories and improve the quality of their products, Peter I ordered the companions to send young and smart workers for training abroad, and also allowed to invite masters of various professions from there.

Forcing the merchants to build “kumpanstvo” or open their own manufactories, Peter I did not skimp on favors and encouragement: he distributed entire industries of production to large industrialists and “kumpanstvo” in monopoly possession, showered them with a golden rain of state subsidies, favored particularly distinguished manufacturers with ranks, orders and noblemen. ranks. It seems that there was not a single measure "from the stick" or "from the carrot" that Peter I did not use to turn Russia into a factory country. At the cost of a huge effort of forces and means, it was possible to put into operation over two hundred factories, which, of course, provided Russia with a certain military-technical independence from Western countries.

Nevertheless, the results of the policy of "multiplication of factories" did not please Peter. "Informers" regularly supplied him with the same type of facts: "Having received my

In the Russian Empire of the XVIII century. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "In the Russian Empire of the XVIII century." 2017, 2018.

trade routes

Trade within Russia was based on the grain trade. At the beginning of the reign of Peter I, the grain route was closely connected with Moscow and the adjacent region. The grain was brought here Okoy and Moscow river. In addition to grain also walked honey, hemp, butter, skins, lard and other goods. These goods came from Chernozem region.

Through Nizhny Novgorod and Vyshny Volochek bread began to reach the new city - Petersburg. Bread was delivered to the center of Russia from Volga region, livestock products, for example, wool, lard, etc., saltpeter, wax, potash came from Ukraine.

Domestic trade

Domestic trade both in the $XVII$ century and under Peter I can be divided to levels. The lowest level was county and village auctions where local merchants and peasants gathered several times a week. The next level was trade fairs. The largest known fairs were Svenskaya near the monastery near Bryansk and Makaryevskaya near Nizhny Novgorod. The fair network was extensive and extensive, but trade was most brisk in the Industrial Center of the country. Fairs connected the lower link of trade with the higher - with wholesale trade of big merchants.

It is possible to determine how intensively trade was in a particular region by the size annual amounts of customs payments. They are an indirect indicator. So, customs payments for $1724-1726$. demonstrate that the Moscow region had the largest amount of collections, more than $140$ thousand rubles. It was much more than in other regions: for example, in the Nizhny Novgorod province the fee was $40 thousand rubles, in the Yaroslavl province - about $28 thousand rubles, in Novgorod - about $18 thousand rubles. In the rest of the country, the turnover was much lower and, as a rule, did not exceed $5-6 thousand rubles in customs duties.

International trade. Ports, waterways, legislation

Peter I paid great attention to the development of trade. He made the construction of canals that united the waterways of the rivers. In $1703-1708$. was under construction Vyshnevolotsk Canal, then in $1720$-s. Don and Oka basins were connected by Ivanovsky Lake, construction began Volga-Don Canal, although this project was not developed; also due to lack of funds, Peter I did not implement the developed projects Mariinsky and Tikhvin Canals, they were built much later.

The foreign policy successes of Peter I were aimed not only at developing the power of the country and raising its prestige at the world level, but also at developing foreign trade, which, ultimately, was to bring the economy to a new level. Indeed, under Peter I, foreign trade began to play a huge role. The only port before the construction of St. Petersburg, Arkhangelsk, in the annual turnover had about $ 3 million rubles, the share of exports was almost $ 75% $; to $ 1726 $ Arkhangelsk lost a lot in turnover, but the port Petersburg reached an annual turnover of about $4 million rubles, and exports accounted for $60% of the amount.

Astrakhan has historically been a center of trade with the East. In the $20$-ies. $XVIII$ c. Astrakhan customs annual fee was several times less than St. Petersburg. But the strength of Astrakhan was fisheries, which accounted for the bulk of the fees.

Note Riga port, whose role in the Petrine era began to increase. It had an annual turnover of $20$-s. $XVIII$ c. more than $2$ million rubles. Based on the figures, the port of Riga has become the second most important after St. Petersburg. Its importance is also in the fact that through this port a large southwestern region of the country opened up to the European market. Hemp, canvas, lard, wax, leather, flax, grain, etc. moved abroad along the Western Dvina. This is important because the waterway along the Dnieper was a dead end, not only because of the rapids, but also the hostile attitude of neighboring states.

Remark 1

Thus, foreign trade under Peter I grew significantly and greatly influenced the revenues of the treasury.

The list of goods for sale grew, but only the state could trade many. Whenever possible, merchants tried to buy out the right to trade, becoming monopolists. To protect entrepreneurship in $1724$, Peter issued customs tariff, according to him there was a huge customs duty on those imported goods that were in abundance in Russia of domestic production.

In the second half of the century, the process of decomposition of natural economy continued in all sectors, including agriculture, where market relations gradually penetrated. The marketability of agriculture was directly related to the growth of large cities and large fishing villages. By the end of the reign of Catherine II in Russia, there were more than 600 cities with a total population of more than 2 million people. The urban population showed an increased demand for food. The army was a constant consumer of food and fodder. The volume of agricultural products supplied for export increased noticeably. Thus, a capacious market for agriculture was formed. The main suppliers of all these products were the landed estates, which were increasingly drawn into commodity relations. Along with the market for agricultural products, the mass demand for products of industrial enterprises and craftsmen has noticeably expanded. This was facilitated by the final liquidation in 1754 of all internal customs. At the initiative of the adviser Elizabeth Petrovna P.I. Shuvalov, internal duties and numerous petty fees were abolished. Some losses from this step were offset by an increase in fees from foreign trade transactions from 5 to 13 kopecks. from 1 rub. turnover. In addition, mainly raw products were already exported, for which foreign consumers paid duties, and luxury goods, bought mainly by rich people, were imported. These events revived internal trade and put an end to the remnants of medieval fragmentation in Russia. Almost in all cities there were gostiny yards with numerous shops. Markets were open daily, where tradesmen, merchants, artisans, and peasants traded. Fairs played an important role in trade; at the end of the century there were over a thousand of them. The largest and most famous of them were Makaryevskaya, Irbitskaya, Kyakhtskaya. However, Moscow, as before, remained the largest trading center, where goods flocked from all over Central Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, from the southern outskirts and the Trans-Urals. Along the rivers, and especially along the Volga and its tributaries, products of agriculture, industry, fishing, and valuable furs arrived in Moscow. A lot of peddlers, ofeny, went around the villages, who carried small household goods and exchanged them for commodity waste from the peasant economy - leather, hemp, - bristles. These merchants, as a rule, were state or serfs and had to pay a special dues for their activities. But the merchants very zealously guarded their sphere of activity and in every possible way prevented the trading peasants from walking around the villages, eliminating competitors. The government actively encouraged the rapid development of domestic trade and supported the merchant class. In order to create favorable conditions for their activities, the Merchant Bank was established in 1754, which issued loans to merchants. In the 1780s, the division of the merchants into three guilds was finalized. The third guild included merchants who had a capital of 1-5 thousand rubles, with the right to engage in retail trade only. Merchants of the second guild, who had a capital of 5-10 thousand rubles, were allowed to conduct wholesale and retail trade in Russia. The first guild could include the most respectable merchants, whose capital amounted to 10-50 thousand rubles. They were granted the right to engage in wholesale trade in Russia and abroad, to own factories and plants. There were also "eminent citizens", whose declared capital reached 100 thousand rubles. They had great powers in production and wholesale trade, they could buy land plots, build estates on them, like nobles, and even plant parks and gardens there. In accordance with the charter granted by Catherine II to Russian entrepreneurs (1785), all merchants were exempted from excellent recruitment duty, corporal punishment, and poll tax. Merchants were required to pay 1% of the declared capital to the state treasury. Foreign trade developed especially actively, which was primarily associated with obtaining access to Europe through ports on the Baltic and Black Seas. Thus, the total volume of export-import operations increased from 3.5 million rubles. in 1726 to 12.6 million rubles. in 1749. In the second half of the century, the average annual foreign trade turnover increased from 20 million rubles. (1761-1765) up to 80 million rubles. (1791-1796). Moreover, the cost of exports was constantly higher than the cost of imports, which is consistent with the concept of mercantilism. So, in 1786, the country's exports amounted to 67.7 million rubles, and imports - 41.9 million rubles. An active foreign trade balance was maintained during all the years of the reign of Catherine II. The government still, as in the times of Peter the Great, adhered to the policy of protectionism. In 1757, new customs duties were established in the amount of 40 to 100% of the value of imported goods. In accordance with the new protectionist tariff of 1767, the import of those goods that were or could be produced within Russia was completely prohibited. Very high duties - from 100 to 200% - were imposed on luxury goods, wines, mirrors, writing paper, toys and other goods. However, not so high duties were imposed on raw materials needed for domestic production, for example, on raw cotton, dyes for the textile industry - about 6%. Export duties averaged 10-23% of the cost of exported products. Russia has traditionally been an active foreign trade partner of England, which bought timber for ship masts, canvas, hemp for ropes, and Ural iron. It should be noted that the main volume of cargo was transported on English and Dutch ships, for which Russia had to pay considerable sums, so the country needed its own merchant fleet. Denmark, Austria, France, Portugal, with which Russia has concluded trade agreements, can also be included among the permanent partners. In the second half of the century, joint trading companies began to be created with Turkey, Persia, Khiva, Bukhara and other eastern countries.

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1. Domestic and foreign policy of Russia at the end of the XVII century.

The transformations were preceded by a sharp struggle of groups within the ruling class. The well-born boyar nobility gradually lost its leading position in the state and was wiped off by people of ordinary nobility who were not of noble origin. Together with the ranks, the new service nobility received large land grants. The establishment of absolutism also changed the position of the church in the state. The church became more and more an instrument of secular power. The growth of church land ownership was limited. The fate of the noble nobility and spiritual feudal lords was to a certain extent shared by the archery army. The conservative boyars and the clergy considered the archers as an armed support and a tool for achieving their goals. The increase in the hardships of military service, separation from trading and crafts in connection with campaigns, the creation of new regiments of the regular system caused discontent among the archers. Therefore, the interests of part of the boyars and the clergy at a certain stage coincided with the interests of the archers.

As a result of the Streltsy uprising in 1682, power was in the hands of the elder sister of Peter I, Princess Sophia, and her favorite, Prince V.V. Golitsyn. However, Sophia was not satisfied with the position of the ruler under the underage tsars Peter (born in 1672) and Ivan (seriously ill, he did not take part in affairs and died in 1696) and sought a wedding to reign. The forces that opposed Sophia's plans were concentrated in the village of Preobrazhensky near Moscow, in the residence of Peter and his mother. Here, in contrast to the streltsy army, on which Sophia relied, amusing regiments were created. Initially, they were intended for the military amusements of the growing Peter, and then gradually turned into a real regular army.

Both groups were gradually preparing for a fight, which took place in the summer of 1689. On the night of August 8, Peter received information about a conspiracy of archers who intended to capture and kill him in Preobrazhensky. In one shirt, he jumped on a horse and galloped to the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. Here, under the powerful walls of the monastery-fortress, supporters of Peter began to flock, here the amusing Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky regiments were hastily called. Sophia tried to turn again to the streltsy army, but the overwhelming mass of the nobles turned out to be on the side of Peter. The archers did not dare to support Sophia, and she was imprisoned in the Novodevichy Convent. Thus, the attempt of the reactionary feudal circles to seize power suffered a complete failure. Peter I established himself on the throne, showing himself as an outstanding statesman and commander.

Azov campaigns

The first major step in the foreign policy of the new government, headed by Peter, was the organization of a campaign in the traditional for the second half of the 17th century. direction - to the south, to the shores of the Azov and Black Seas. But this time the government took into account all the disadvantages of the previous operational direction, when the Russian army had to overcome waterless steppes in order to overtake the enemy, and sent the main forces not against the Crimea, but against Azov, the largest Turkish fortress at the mouth of the Don. In the summer of 1695, Russian troops besieged Azov. However, it was not possible to block it due to the lack of a fleet, while the Turks continuously delivered reinforcements and supplies to the besieged by sea, and the Tatar cavalry attacked the Russian rear. The inconsistency of the actions of the Russian troops, who were under the command of three commanders independent of each other, led to the fact that the assault on Azov, carried out twice, did not bring success, the siege was lifted, and the troops retreated into the interior of the country.

In the winter of 1695, energetic preparations began for the second Azov campaign. At the same time, the main attention was focused on the construction of the fleet. This time the siege of Azov was successful, part of the fortress was destroyed by bombardment, and the presence of the fleet made it possible to block Azov from the sea. Without waiting for the assault, the Turks surrendered the fortress (July 18, 1696). This victory opened Russia's access to the Sea of Azov and made it possible to proceed with the broader construction of the navy. In Moscow, a solemn meeting was arranged for the winners, the troops led by Peter passed through the Triumphal Gate.

The occupation of Azov, however, did not yet provide access to the Black Sea, which remained an inland Turkish sea; to take possession of the Kerch Strait. In order to continue the war, it was decided in the same 1696 to build 52 large ships within two years.

Grand Embassy

Simultaneously with the construction of the fleet, steps were taken to create an anti-Turkish coalition of European states. In 1697, Russia, Austria and Venice entered into an offensive alliance against the Turks for a period of three years. Russian diplomacy was faced with the task of strengthening this alliance, achieving the attraction of new states into its composition. For this purpose, in the same 1697, a “great embassy” went abroad. In addition to performing diplomatic tasks, the embassy was supposed to hire sailors, artisans, gunners and other specialists for the Russian service. The embassy was accompanied by volunteers from among noble youth sent abroad to study naval affairs and shipbuilding.

As part of the embassy, officially headed by F. Ya. Lefort, F. A. Golovin and P. B. Voznitsyn, Peter I was incognito. Abroad, the inquisitive and energetic tsar filled in the gaps in his meager education. Work at the Zandam (Saardam) shipyard as a carpenter and visiting England, where Peter improved his shipbuilding knowledge gained in Holland, did not prevent him from directing the diplomatic activities of the embassy.

However, the plan to expand the union did not meet with support in Western Europe. The maritime powers - Holland and England - rejected it due to their interest in trade with Turkey, as well as in connection with the upcoming war for the Spanish Succession. Fearing the strengthening of Russia, Austria also refused to take active steps, to the capital of which Peter arrived in the summer of 1698. From Vienna, he was going to go to Venice, but in July he received alarming news from Moscow and urgently left for Russia. On the way back, Peter negotiated with the Polish king August II. These negotiations were completed later in Moscow with the conclusion of an agreement on joint struggle with Sweden, to which Denmark also joined.

Streltsy revolt of 1698

The news that alarmed Peter during his stay in Vienna was a report of a new streltsy revolt. The Streltsy army, being on the western border, in the region of Velikiye Luki, arbitrarily moved towards Moscow. It was defeated by troops loyal to the government not far from Moscow, near New Jerusalem. An additional investigation into the reasons for the performance of the archers, carried out with the participation of Peter upon his return to Moscow, showed that the threads of the conspiracy were in the hands of Princess Sophia, who was kept in the monastery. After the investigation, which established that Sophia, with the help of the archers, intended to overthrow Peter, about 800 archers were executed, and the rest were sent into exile. This massacre meant the end of the streltsy army.

2. Socio-economic development of Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century.

Agriculture. The position of the peasants

Feudal landownership, as in pre-Petrine times, continued to expand at the expense of royal grants. Only from 1682 to 1710, 273 volosts with more than 43 thousand peasant households were distributed from the palace fund. Huge awards were received by the most prominent employees of Peter I - A. D. Menshikov, Admiral F. A. Golovin and other nobles. Field Marshal B.P. Sheremetev “for many faithful services” received the Yukhotsky volost (Rostov district) as a reward from the tsar. Large land holdings went to immigrant nobles from Georgia, Kabarda, and Moldova.

Simultaneously with the growth of noble landownership in the central regions of the country, the penetration of serfdom into the South and Southeast continued. The nobles received land in the Belgorod and Voronezh provinces, whose borders moved further south. Relying on the support of the government, which pursued a colonial policy towards the peoples of the Volga region, the Russian landowners themselves seized the lands of the local feudal nobility, mainly the Tatars. Serf landownership expanded in the Ukraine as well. Hetman I. S. Mazepa issued to the Cossack foreman over a thousand universals (letters) for estates, and he himself captured about 20 thousand households. By 1729-1730. about two-thirds of the peasant households in Ukraine found themselves in feudal dependence on secular and spiritual landowners.

In agriculture, the same routine technique remained (the predominance of three-field, wooden plow); harvests were as low as in the previous time. The most significant shift was the expansion of industrial crops and the development of sheep breeding. Both processes were closely connected with the construction of new industrial enterprises and the increase in demand for raw materials for them.

The development of commodity-money relations expanded the ties between the landlord and peasant economy and the market and influenced their organization. Hence the further growth of two tendencies that expressed the adaptation of serfdom to these relations: in the non-chernozem regions, where the soil was infertile, the importance of quitrent duties, natural and monetary, increased; But in most cases, the landowner, as in the 17th century, combined the lordly plowing with the collection of dues. For example, on the estate of Prince M. P. Gagarin in the Kolomna district, the peasants annually delivered from each tax a ram, a piglet, half a pound of pork, a goose, a duck, four hens and 50 eggs. “Yes, besides that, they plow arable land, and mow hay, and do all sorts of landowner work, and they have been to Moscow as a reserve.”

The most common was a three-day corvee, but many landowners sent peasants to corvee more often. The well-known publicist of that time, I. T. Pososhkov, noted that “there are such inhuman nobles that they don’t give their peasants a single day at work ... many nobles,” he continued, “say: “Don’t let the peasant grow, but shear Evo like a sheep to the naked.

The situation of the peasants was seriously affected by the growth of state duties, and the peculiarities of recruitment, as well as numerous direct and indirect taxes. The state annually involved the population in various construction works. Tens of thousands of peasants, driven from all over the country, built a fleet in Voronezh, Taganrog, Azov, St. Petersburg, Kazan, dug canals, erected fortresses and cities. Compared to the 17th century accommodation (apartment) and underwater duties increased: the peasants were obliged to provide military teams with food for the duration of the camps, and fodder for horses. The troops stationed at the station repaired the peasants "a lot of ruin, losses and insults." In order to increase revenues, the government introduced new types of fees. On the advice of inventive profit-makers (the so-called authors of projects to increase the treasury's income, numerous in that era), home baths and mills were taxed, stamped paper was introduced. A special tax was paid by those wishing to keep a beard contrary to the royal order.

The monetary reform, accompanied by a decrease in the amount of silver in the coin, brought a large income to the treasury. In just three years (1701-1703), during which the minting of the new coin was carried out most intensively, the treasury received a net profit of over 2.8 million rubles. At the same time, as a result of the monetary operation, the exchange rate of the ruble almost halved, and, accordingly, the prices of goods rose.

Nevertheless, already in the third year of the war with Sweden, expenses significantly exceeded current income. In search of sources for increasing state revenues, in 1710 the government conducted a census. But contrary to expectations, the census revealed a decrease in the number of peasant and township households compared with the final data of the last census in 1678. The “emptiness” was explained by the mass exodus of peasants from the central counties to the outskirts. At the same time, many landowners, in order to reduce taxation and increase their own incomes, united several peasant households into one household.

Then it was decided to move from the household taxation to the poll tax. To this end, in 1718, a population census (male) began, the results of which, however, also did not satisfy the government, since the landlords submitted underestimated information about the number of serfs they had. To clarify the number of the taxable population, the census was carried out again, in connection with which it received the name "audit". Based on her data, the population in Russia can be estimated at about 14 million people. The main direct tax was the poll tax in the amount of 70 kopecks from each male “peasant soul”.

The significance of the first revision was not limited to the interests of the Fisk. It also had a great social significance, since with its implementation the number of serfs increased. If earlier bonded serfs received freedom after the death of their master, then during the first revision they were equated with serfs and, along with them, were obliged to pay a poll tax. Thus, bonded serfs merged with the mass of the enslaved peasantry and became the hereditary property of the landowner. The feudal exploitation of the so-called state peasants also increased. According to the revision, the black-eared peasants of the northern regions and arable peasants of Siberia, the peoples of the Middle Volga region and single-palace dwellers (more than 1 million male souls) were assigned to them. In addition to the poll tax, they paid an additional quitrent of 40 kopecks per man's soul.

At the same time, the economic influence of more prosperous ("subsistence" and "family") households grew in the countryside. The village rich people started trading and crafts, carried out, along with merchants, contracts for construction work and for supplying the army with food and fodder. The cost of such contracts was often estimated at tens of thousands of rubles. Part of the trading peasants and contractors joined the ranks of the merchants, moved to the cities and invested in industry.

Nobility

In the XVI-XVII centuries. two forms of feudal landownership were distinguished: estate - conditional, lifelong possession, mainly noble, and patrimony - unconditional and hereditary, mainly boyar property. The difference between an estate and a patrimony had practically no significant significance already in the second half of the 17th century, however, only the decree of 1714 declared the estate the full property of the owner. The estate and patrimony merged into one legal concept of "immovable" property. This contributed to the consolidation of the ruling class, the merging of the boyars and the nobility. The decree of 1714 ordered the nobleman to inherit his estate only to one of his sons, so that the rest would receive an inheritance in money and other movable property. But this limitation of hereditary rights was abolished in 1730.

The Table of Ranks of 1722, which determined the order of service, was of great importance for the nobility. The table of ranks put in the first place not the origin, but the serviceability of a nobleman, his personal abilities. She established a career ladder of 14 steps, or ranks, from ensign and artillery constapel in the military and naval service or collegiate registrar in the civil service to the first rank - field marshal, admiral general and chancellor. The table of ranks opened access for the unborn nobility to higher ranks, helped to identify its more capable representatives for use in the military and civil service. According to Peter, the ranks should complain to those who serve, "and not to impudent and parasites", who boast of their nobility. Thanks to their personal abilities, such well-known figures of the time of Peter the Great as General-Admiral F. M. Apraksin, diplomats P. A. Tolstoy, I. I. Neplyuev and others came to the fore from among the unborn nobility.

At the same time, the Table of Ranks provided an opportunity, albeit limited, to “become noble” to individual representatives of other classes: with the receipt of the eighth rank, they became hereditary nobles. Among the prominent statesmen of the first quarter of the XVIII century. there are people of humble origin. First of all, they included A. D. Menshikov, who, according to rumor, sold pies in childhood. Peter brought him closer to him, guessing in him an intelligent, energetic and diligent person, not a single important event of that time was complete without the active participation of Menshikov. He became president of the Military Collegium, His Grace Prince and Generalissimo.

The well-known profit-maker A. A. Kurbatov, who held the post of Arkhangelsk vice-governor, came forward with his project on levying duties on stamped paper. Kurbatov, like the Moscow vice-governor V. S. Ershov, was a serf before his elevation.

Industry development

Innovations and advances in industry were especially significant. One of his contemporaries, I.K. Kirillov, in 1727 wrote an essay under the characteristic title “The Blooming State of the All-Russian State”, in which, as it were, the results of the vigorous activity of Peter I were summed up. Along with the geographical description of Russia, Kirillov gave a list of industrial enterprises, of which, as it is now established, about 200 were manufactories.

The greatest success fell on the share of metallurgy. If by the beginning of the XVIII century. the total production of large metallurgical plants was approximately 150 thousand pounds of pig iron, then by 1726 it reached 800 thousand. As early as the end of the 17th century. Russia bought iron for weapons production in Sweden, and by the end of the first quarter of the 18th century. she herself began to export metal abroad. The creation of a new metallurgical region in the Urals belongs to this time. In 1701, two water-operating plants were put into operation there, and by 1725 there were 13 of them, and these plants produced twice as much iron as all other Russian enterprises combined.

In direct connection with the needs of the army was the development of light industry, especially linen and cloth, which supplied the army and navy with sailing cloth and uniforms. Only a few years after the Poltava victory, the treasury weakened the demand for manufactory products, and some of the industrial goods began to enter the market. The emergence of manufactories designed for the production of household goods - stockings, tapestries (wallpapers), playing cards, buttons, smoking pipes, - consumed mainly by nobles and the most prosperous citizens, belongs to the same time.

Compared with the initial period of development of the manufacturing industry, the share of private capital in it has grown. During the first decade of the eighteenth century the treasury built 14 metallurgical enterprises, and private individuals - only 2; in the next 15 years, 5 factories were built with state funds, and 10 by private industrialists. Until 1715, there was not a single private enterprise in the cloth industry, and by the end of the first quarter of the 18th century. there were 10 of them. Diplomat P. P. Shafirov, not without pride, noted in 1717 that the production of such goods had been established, “of which many and names had not been heard much before in Russia.”

Large-scale industry also appeared on the outskirts of the empire. At the beginning of the XVIII century. A group of Olonets factories was built on the territory of Karelia, a large shipyard was founded in Kazan, cloth and leather manufactories arose. Saltpeter and gunpowder production developed in Ukraine. In the first quarter of the XVIII century. A large Putivl cloth manufactory was founded, as well as the first Akhtyrsky tobacco manufactory in Russia.

However, despite the spread of manufactories, urban craft and peasant crafts retained their paramount importance. A huge mass of rural residents continued to be content with simple household items made in their own households. However, the patriarchal isolation of domestic crafts was gradually broken; millions of arshins of peasant linen and other products through buyers got not only to the markets of large cities, but also abroad.

The strengthening of commodity production attracted rural artisans to the cities as well. Among those who signed up for the workshops of Moscow, about half were not native residents of the capital, but peasants who had resettled there. Particularly large was the share of non-residents in such workshops as shoemaking, bread, kalachny, kvass; the peasants who enrolled in them were engaged in their usual business. In large cities, primarily in Moscow and St. Petersburg, in connection with changes in everyday life, new branches of small-scale commodity production arose: the manufacture of fine cloth, braids, and wigs.

Some of the small commodity producers managed to become manufacturers, although such cases in the first quarter of the 18th century. were single. Major industrialists of the 18th century The Demidovs, Mosolovs, Batashovs, who became manufacturers at the time in question, trace their ancestry to Tula gunsmiths.

industrial policy. Mercantilism

Even in the economic policy of the XVII century. there were elements of mercantilism. Now, along with the protection of the interests of domestic trade by the government, energetic and versatile measures to encourage industry have begun to be carried out. As in a number of Western European states, under Peter I, the construction of manufactories was organized using state funds, followed by their transfer on preferential terms to private individuals. Industrialists received large cash loans from the treasury. The state often resorted to the forced organization of industrial companies - “if they don’t want to, though, into captivity.”

The government also sought to regulate small-scale production. In order to expand exports, for example, the production of narrow linen, which was not in sufficient demand abroad, was prohibited, specialists were brought in to train tanners in improved methods of leather processing. An important measure was the organization of craft workshops. In the early 30s of the XVIII century. in Russia there were up to 15 thousand guild artisans, of which more than half (8.5 thousand) were in Moscow.

Russian guild legislation, in contrast to Western European legislation, regulated the production process less strictly, did not limit the number of apprentices and apprentices, and allowed peasants to engage in crafts. The absolutist state created workshops in order to improve the skills of small producers and to more conveniently distribute government orders among them.

The government's concerns about the development of manufactories were expressed primarily in its efforts to provide them with forced labor. Already in the XVII century. the government, due to a lack of hired workers, took the path of assigning palace peasants to factories. In the first quarter of the XVIII century. new forms of providing industry with labor force have appeared. In 1721, the owners of manufactories were given the opportunity to buy serfs to the factories (such peasants were later called possessive); they, in addition, were allowed to keep runaway peasants "until the decree"; finally, convicts for various crimes, as well as homeless people and prisoners of war, were sent to work at manufactories. Legislation to provide enterprises with labor assigned, as well as serfs and workers, is a characteristic feature of Russian mercantilism. The work of bonded peasants was paid at low rates set by the government.

Thus, in Russia, as in other countries of Central and Eastern Europe, a special type of manufactory has developed. In terms of technical equipment, division of labor, relations with the market, Russian manufactories of the 18th century. differed little from the manufactories of capitalist England. The Ural blast furnaces even surpassed the English ones in size and productivity. But the composition of the labor force of Russian manufactories was more complex than in the large enterprises of England and even feudal-absolutist France, where serfdom had long since disappeared. Part of the Russian manufactories, especially in metallurgy, were fully serviced by forced labor. In other enterprises, along with hired workers, serf workers also worked. Finally, in the third group of manufactories, mainly in light industry, hired people worked mainly. It was the manufactories of this group that laid the foundation for capitalist production relations in industry.

The granting of various privileges to manufacturers was also of political significance, since by this absolutism firmly connected the emerging bourgeoisie with the feudal-serf system. The owners of manufactories dreamed of nothing with such lust as receiving the title of nobility, and with it broader rights to exploit serf labor.

Domestic and foreign trade

On the basis of the further development of the social division of labor, the growth of manufactories, small commodity production and the increased specialization of agriculture, domestic trade expanded. Moscow remained the center of the all-Russian market. Fairs, especially Makarievskaya, Svenskaya, Arkhangelsk and others, retained great importance. Goods from all over the country were brought to these centers.

The construction of canals contributed to the increase in trade turnover: in 1703, the construction of the Vyshnevolotsk Canal began, connecting the Volga basin with the Baltic Sea. The cheap waterway opened up wide opportunities for the delivery of goods to St. Petersburg and from there abroad. Around the turbulent Lake Ladoga, the construction of a bypass canal began, completed already in the second quarter of the 18th century; A number of other canal projects were developed (remaining, however, unrealized), including those to connect the Volga with the Don and the Moscow River with the Volga.

The accession of the Baltic coast changed the direction of Russia's foreign trade. The importance of Arkhangelsk and the route across the White Sea has fallen. In 1726, half of all Russian goods sent to Western Europe were already exported through St. Petersburg. The main export item was agricultural products: hemp, flax, leather. What was new in the structure of Russian exports was the export of manufactured goods abroad. In 1726 over 55,000 poods of iron and over 10 million arshins of linen were exported abroad. Among imported goods, luxury goods dominated, consumed mainly by the nobility: wine, sugar, silk and woolen fabrics. On the great growth of foreign trade in the first quarter of the 18th century. can be judged from the following data: in 1701, 103 foreign ships arrived in Arkhangelsk; in 1725, 914 ships arrived in the Russian ports of the Baltic Sea - St. Petersburg, Narva, Riga, Revel (Tallinn), Vyborg, and 12 - in Arkhangelsk.

Russia has achieved success in its mercantilist policy - it has increased its trade surplus. The export of goods through St. Petersburg, Arkhangelsk and Riga in 1726 amounted to 4.2 million rubles, and the import - 2.1 million. duties on goods already produced on a large scale domestically. Duties were collected from foreigners in efimki, that is, in foreign currency, accepted at a reduced rate. This doubled the amount of the duty and helped attract precious metals to the country. The highest duty (75%) was levied on imported iron, canvas, silk fabrics, braids, ribbons, needles, turpentine, wax, etc. A high protective duty (50%) was also imposed on the import of Dutch linen, velvet, drawn and spinning silver, kart. A more moderate duty was imposed on goods, although produced in Russia, but in insufficient quantities, such as woolen fabrics (except for cloths), writing paper. Only a 10 percent duty was levied on goods not produced in the country. A duty of 3% was set on Russian goods exported from Russia, with the exception of industrial raw materials or semi-finished products (for example, woolen and linen yarn), which were subject to a prohibitive duty "for what Russian factories need." Trading companies were established to strengthen trade. They were often created by force. So, for example, in the decree ab organizing a company for trade with Spain, it was noted that in this case "coercion is needed."

City and urban population

In the first quarter of the XVIII century. there are significant changes in the composition and size of the urban population. Recruitment and the growth of state duties caused a temporary decline in the urban population, who fled, supposedly peasants, to the outskirts. At the same time, in such cities as Kazan, Tula, and especially Moscow, where there were about 30 manufactories, the stratum of working people increased among the population. The development of manufactories is associated with the emergence of new types of settlements, which later became cities - Yekaterinburg in the Urals, Petrozavodsk in Karelia, Lipetsk in the Voronezh province, etc.

In 1703 St. Petersburg was founded. It was built under difficult conditions by tens of thousands of soldiers and peasants driven from all over the country. The new city was populated by artisans and merchants who were forcibly transferred from other commercial and industrial centers. Petersburg differed from the old cities, which were randomly built up with wooden buildings, by the strict layout of the streets, stone houses, pavements and street lighting. With the move of the royal court here in 1712, St. Petersburg became the official capital of the state; it was a seaport, a "window to Europe", a cultural and commercial and industrial center. At the Admiralty shipyard in St. Petersburg, the largest enterprise in Russia, over 10 thousand workers were employed.

The increased economic role of the merchants and the city was reflected in the city reform. As early as 1667, the government promised to organize a "Decent Order", which would "protect and control the merchants from the voivodship taxes." It took, however, more than 30 years for the implementation of this intention. By decree of 1699, the Burmister Chamber was created in Moscow, soon renamed the City Hall, and in other cities - Zemstvo huts. These were the bodies of city self-government, which were not subordinate to the voevodas in the localities and the orders in the center. The city reform was motivated by the fact that the merchants "from many orders of red tape and harassment suffered losses and ruin." But the main goal of the reform was to turn the Town Hall and Zemstvo huts into responsible collectors of customs and tavern money. As soon as in connection with the provincial reform of 1708-1710. the need for financial and administrative services of the merchants decreased, the government subordinated the bodies of city self-government to the regional administration.

The cities received a new administrative structure in 1720 with the formation of the Chief Magistrate in St. Petersburg and magistrates in the cities. The regulations of the Chief Magistrate reflected changes in the social structure of the urban population, but formalized these changes in a feudal way. He divided the inhabitants of the town into "regular" citizens in two guilds, which included merchants and guild artisans, and "irregular" or "mean" people, i.e. laborers and working people of manufactories. The latter represented the destitute mass of the urban population, deprived of the right to participate in the elections of self-government bodies. Social differences were also sharply reflected among the "regular" citizens. General township gatherings, at which the elections of city bodies took place, represented the arena of a fierce struggle between the top of the emerging bourgeoisie and the small handicraft people. The government was guided by the rich strata of the townspeople, offering to elect "efficient and best people in the merchant class" to the city bodies. Thus, in the social structure of Russian society, along with the old classes-estates - the peasantry and the nobility - elements of new classes began to take shape: factory workers (pre-proletariat) and the bourgeoisie (manufactory workers, the top artisans, merchants, etc.). The latter received a class organization with very significant privileges that fenced it off from the "vile" people.

As a result of reforms that accelerated the pace of social, economic and cultural development, Russia largely overcame its lagging behind the advanced states of Western Europe, which had a strong effect in the 17th century. But its successes should be recognized as relative. Thus, the number of urban population, which is one of the indicators of the level of social division of labor, according to the first revision, reached only 3%.

3. The struggle of the masses against feudal oppression

At the beginning of the XVIII century. large anti-feudal actions of the masses unfolded in Russia. The first decade of this century is the most intense period of the Northern War, when the population suffered especially from the continuous increase in taxes and intensive recruitment. Military teams in the field collected taxes imposed by the government; many people sought salvation from the oppression of the landowners and the tsarist administration in flight to the outskirts, to the Don and the Lower Volga region, where the main centers of uprisings arose.

Astrakhan uprising of 1705-1706

Astrakhan was a major commercial and industrial center, a transit point where, along with Russian merchants, Indian, Iranian, Central Asian and Armenian merchants carried on a lively trade. Fishing, salt works and shipping attracted many newcomers to Astrakhan, who became barge haulers, rowers and working people. The garrison of Astrakhan numbered more than 3,500 people, among whom were many disgraced archers exiled from Moscow.

The impetus for the uprising was the cruel forms of tax collection and abuses of the local administration, especially the governor T. I. Rzhevsky. The voivode used archers for personal services and in barbaric ways forced the population to comply with decrees on shaving their beards and wearing Western European dresses. The initiators of the uprising were archers and soldiers, and the urban population also joined them.

The uprising began on the night of July 30, 1705. The "initial people" and foreign officers were killed. Instead of the murdered voivode Rzhevsky, the rebels elected their own administration in a circle, headed by the Yaroslavl merchant Yakov Nosov and the Astrakhan Gavrila Ganchikov. The circle ordered the abolition of the newly introduced numerous taxes. From the confiscated monetary treasury, the archers and soldiers were given salaries. Soon the uprising swept the military towns of Krasny Yar and Guryev, where the Astrakhan circle sent detachments of archers. The rebels also tried to raise the Don Cossacks. However, the military circle in Cherkessk refused to join the uprising. Moreover, 2 thousand Cossacks were sent from Cherkassk to help government troops. The rebels made an attempt to expand the region of the uprising by attracting the cities of the Volga region. In August 1705, the Astrakhans sent a detachment to Tsaritsyn, inviting the garrison and the inhabitants to go over to their side, but the latter refused to join the uprising, and the detachment returned to Astrakhan with nothing.

To suppress the uprising, military units under the command of Field Marshal Sheremetev were allocated. On March 13, 1706, they captured the city in battle. Over 300 Astrakhans were executed, many participants in the uprising were exiled to Siberia.

Rebellion on the Don 1707-1708

Following the suppression of the Astrakhan uprising, unrest began on the Don. In 1707, a punitive detachment under the command of Prince Yu. V. Dolgoruky arrived on the Don to detect and return fugitive peasants. He acted with incredible cruelty and caused the strongest discontent of the population. The newly arrived people and salt-workers of the Bakhmut crafts, led by Kondraty Bulavin, attacked Dolgoruky's detachment and completely destroyed it. Expanding the area of the uprising, Bulavin moved to the Cossack settlements along the tributaries of the Don (Medveditsa and Khopra), where he defeated other groups of the punitive detachment. Loyal to the tsarist government, the grassroots Cossacks sent an army to the area of the uprising. It defeated the insurgents. Bulavin hid in Ukraine, in Zaporozhye, from where he sent out "charming" letters (proclamations) with a call to "beat" the boyars and governor. These appeals were close and understandable to the masses: "We don't care about the mob, we care about the boyars and who do lies." Appeals found a wide response among the Cossacks of the upper Don, Zaporozhye Cossacks and peasants of neighboring counties - Tambov, Kozlovsky and Voronezh. When in the spring of 1708 Bulavin reappeared on Khoper, the number of rebels reached several thousand people.

The government sent a 7,000-strong detachment to the Don, replenished with mobilized nobles, as well as Don Cossacks, led by their military chieftain. But the Cossacks of the cities located in the upper reaches of the Don betrayed the government and went over to the side of the rebels. In April 1708, the Bulavins captured the center of the Don Cossacks, Cherkassk, without a fight, where they executed the military ataman along with five foremen. Bulavin was elected military ataman.

In Cherkassk, the rebel army was divided into several detachments, of which one went to meet the advancing tsarist troops, the other two were sent to the Volga region, and the main forces went to Azov. The fragmentation of the forces of the rebels weakened them and hastened the defeat of the uprising. After an unsuccessful attempt by the Bulavins to seize Azov, the grassroots prosperous Cossacks, who temporarily joined the uprising, organized a conspiracy in Cherkassk against Bulavin. He was killed or, according to other reports, surrounded by conspirators, shot himself.

At the end of July, government troops, having defeated the scattered forces of the rebels, approached Cherkassk. Grassroots Cossacks brought the confession and handed over the active participants in the uprising. The Bulavins fought their last major battle in October, but they were defeated and almost completely exterminated.

After the pacification of the Don, centers of revolt arose in many districts of Russia. Gavrila Starchenko's detachment successfully operated on the Volga. In some central uyezds, the rebels burned the estates of the landlords, drove out the officials, cracked down on the landlords, and set up their own administration.

The disunited actions of the rebels, their poor organization, and the general spontaneous nature of the movement made its defeat inevitable. Nevertheless, the uprising of 1707-1708. showed the readiness of the masses to fight against the intensification of feudal exploitation.

The uprising in Bashkiria in 1705-1711.

In 1705, an uprising began in Bashkiria, which dragged on until 1711. The inclusion of Bashkiria into the Russian state (as early as the 16th century) had a progressive significance for the Bashkir people. Economic and cultural ties with the Russian people contributed to the development of productive forces among the Bashkirs, accelerated the transition from a semi-nomadic economy to settled life and agriculture. The closer the Bashkirs lived to the Russian settlements, the more developed their agriculture was. However, the tsarist government and local authorities pursued a colonial policy in Bashkiria, ruthlessly exacted taxes, and sometimes demanded unbearable duties.

The impetus for the uprising was an attempt by profit-makers who arrived in Ufa in 1704 to collect new emergency taxes, as well as a demand to send a thousand people to replenish the army and 5 thousand horses. All this was accompanied by violence and bullying of the tsarist officials over the Bashkirs.

The Bashkir uprising was an expression of protest against the colonial policy of tsarism. But the Bashkir feudal lords, using their influence, directed the masses to fight not only against the tsarist officials and punitive detachments, but also against the Russian working population. Hundreds of Russian villages were devastated, many peasants were taken prisoner and sold into slavery. During the uprising, the Bashkir feudal lords sent embassies to Turkey and the Crimea, where they negotiated the transfer to the power of the Crimean Khan.

Armed forces were sent to Bashkiria, which suppressed this uprising.

4. The establishment of absolutism

Transformation of central and local government

Absolutism in Russia took shape in the second half of the 17th century, but its final approval and formalization dates back to the first quarter of the 18th century. The absolute monarchy exercised the dominance of the nobility in the presence of the emerging bourgeois class. Absolutism also enjoyed the support of the merchants and manufacturers, who increased their wealth thanks to the benefits they received, the promotion of trade and industry.

The assertion of absolutism was accompanied by increased centralization and bureaucratization of the state apparatus and the creation of a regular army and navy.

There were two stages in the implementation of public administration reforms. The first of them covers 1699-1711 - from the creation of the Burmister Chamber, or City Hall, and the first regional reform to the establishment of the Senate. Administrative transformations of this period were carried out hastily, without a clearly developed plan.

The second stage falls on quieter years, when the most difficult period of the Northern War was left behind. Carrying out transformations at this stage was preceded by a long and systematic preparation: the state structure of the Western European states was studied; with the participation of foreign jurists, the regulations of new institutions were drawn up. When compiling them, Swedish regulations were used, appropriately revised and supplemented in relation to Russian conditions. Peter I warned: "Which items in the Swedish regulations are inconvenient or dissimilar to the situation of this state, and put them according to your own reasoning." In carrying out reforms, Peter I showed outstanding abilities, exceptional energy and perseverance in the implementation of his plans.

Legislative acts of the beginning of the XVIII century. consolidated the unlimited nature of royal power: "His royal majesty is an autocratic monarch who should not give an answer to anyone in the world about his affairs." Instead of the Boyar Duma, which by this time had been reduced in its composition, the Governing Senate was established. Initially, the Senate was created as the supreme governing body during the absence of the tsar, who personally participated in the Prut campaign, but then it turned into the highest bureaucratic institution directly subordinate to the tsar. Unlike the Boyar Duma, which was staffed according to the principle of nobility of origin, the Senate consisted of a few (9 people) trusted persons appointed by the tsar, regardless of their generosity.

The Senate prepared new laws, was in charge of the entire system of central and local government, was engaged in recruiting the army and navy and collecting taxes. Simultaneously with the Senate, the institute of fiscals was established to secretly supervise the execution of decrees. Fiscals in cities and provinces were subordinate to the chief fiscal of the Senate.

After the organization of the Senate, the replacement of old orders with new central institutions - colleges began. The collegiate system differed from the command system primarily in a stricter distribution of responsibilities between the central departments. If before that, dozens of various orders were in charge of collecting taxes and distributing them, then since the organization of the colleges, the main budget items were under the jurisdiction of two institutions - the Chamber College and the State Offices College. As part of the new collegiate system, previously absent institutions appeared that were in charge of justice, industry and trade. In the boards, each of which consisted of ten people (the president, vice president, four advisers and four assistants to them - assessors), all decisions were made not individually, but by a majority of votes. Unlike orders, the competence of the collegiums on a certain range of issues extended to the whole country.

In 1718-1721. 11 collegiums were created. Colleges - Military, Admiralty and Foreign Affairs constituted a group of "three of the first state colleges." The Chamber College was in charge of expenses, and the State Offices College was in charge of state revenues. The Audit Board exercised financial control. Trade and industry were under the jurisdiction of the Berg Collegium, the Manufactory Collegium and the Collegium of Commerce. The College of Justice was in charge of the courts and was their appellate instance. The patrimonial collegium, which replaced the Local Order, protected the nobility's ownership rights to land and serfs.

Initially, all presidents of the colleges were members of the Senate. But already in 1722, Peter I admitted that “this was done without thinking at first,” because such a composition of the Senate made it impossible to control the work of the collegiums and contradicted the principle of subordination of lower institutions to the higher. The presidents of most colleges, with the exception of the "three first ones", were removed from the Senate. In the same year, Peter established the highest office in the state, Prosecutor General. In the founding decree, the prosecutor general is called "like our eye and a lawyer on state affairs." He was instructed to "keep a close watch" on the activities of the Senate and all state institutions.

Local institutions have also been transformed. The old fractional division of the country into counties, directly subordinate to orders located in the capital, did not satisfy the new needs of the state. According to the new administrative division introduced after the suppression of the uprising on the Don, larger units were established - provinces. The country was divided into eight provinces (Arkhangelsk, St. Petersburg, Moscow, Smolensk, Kyiv, Kazan, Azov and Siberian) headed by governors who had broad military, financial and police powers. The governors were subordinate to officials who were in charge of certain branches of government (chief commandant, who was responsible for the state of military affairs, chief commissar, who was in charge of collecting monetary and natural taxes, etc.).

The second regional reform (1719) made the province, smaller than the province, the main unit of administrative control. There were about fifty such provinces. The division into provinces was preserved, but only military affairs remained in the power of the governors, and on other issues, the provincial governors communicated directly with the central institutions. The provinces into which Russia was divided under the second regional reform were the distant predecessors of the provinces organized under Catherine II. Officials of provincial and provincial institutions, as well as members of the boards, were appointed from the nobility and constituted an expensive bureaucratic management machine.

Reorganization of the army and creation of the navy

Along with the transformation of the administrative apparatus, a newly organized regular army and navy were created - the military stronghold of absolutism. The reorganization of the army began with the development of a new military charter (1698) and the creation of guards and regular regiments. The archers, who spoke three times (in 1682, 1689 and 1698), according to Peter's recall, "truly were only mischief-makers, not warriors" and did not inspire confidence in the tsar either militarily or politically. In 1699, the government produced the first set of recruits for permanent military service in regular regiments, one person from a certain number of peasant and township households. Of the recruits, 27 infantry regiments were formed. In addition to the special military educational institutions organized during these years, the Guards regiments, Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky, in which the nobles served as privates, after which they were appointed officers to field regiments, were a kind of training school for officers.

Under Peter I, 53 recruiting was carried out. By 1725, the field army (infantry, cavalry, artillery) numbered about 130 thousand people, not counting the garrison and irregular troops.

Access to the Azov and Baltic seas made it possible to start creating a navy. In 1703, a shipyard began operating on the Svir River. Here, in August of the same year, the first-born of the Baltic Fleet, the Shtandart frigate, was launched. Soon, other ships began to leave the stocks of the Admiralty shipyard in St. Petersburg. By 1724 the Russian fleet had become the most powerful in the Baltic.

Church government reform

The establishment of absolutism significantly changed the position of the church. government since the 16th century. began to take measures to limit the growth of landownership and the number of peasants in the spiritual feudal lords, bearing in mind the interests of secular landownership. However, the church and monasteries in the first quarter of the XVIII century. still owned about a fifth of the rural population of the country. The policy of subordinating the spiritual hierarchy to secular power in the first quarter of the 18th century. carried out more decisively than before. In 1701, Peter carried out a partial secularization of church property, for which he restored the Monastic Order, which administered the monastic estates through secular officials. A significant part of the income from the monastic possessions came from that time to the national treasury.

Instead of the patriarchal authority, on the model of secular collegiums, the Spiritual Collegium was established to manage the church, later renamed the Holy Synod. The members of the Synod, as well as other colleges, were appointed by the tsar. This reform completed the subordination of the church to secular power.

The case of Tsarevich Alexei

Dissatisfied with the reforms, circles of the clergy and nobility pinned their hopes on Tsarevich Alexei. This weak-willed and inactive heir to the throne became a tool in the hands of a reactionary group of boyars who sought to return to the old order, abandon an active foreign policy and state reforms. The prince said: “When I am a sovereign, I will live in Moscow, and I will leave St. Petersburg as a simple city, I will not keep ships ... I will live in Moscow in the winter, and in Yaroslavl in the summer.”

Peter repeatedly suggested that his son either actively participate in state affairs, or take the veil as a monk. Alexei, following the advice of one of his closest supporters, A. Kikin, agreed to be tonsured. Kikin told the prince that "the hood is not nailed to the head" and, if necessary, it can be removed. Then Alexei adopted a different plan: counting on the support of Emperor Charles VI (Alexei was married to the sister of the Empress), he fled to Vienna in 1717, but the next year, at the insistence of Peter I, he was taken to Russia. An investigation began, revealing the plans of the prince and his accomplices. A special court consisting of the generals, the Senate and the Synod sentenced the prince to death.

The failure of the plot was not accidental. The defeat of the boyar opposition testified that the reforms of Peter I were in the interests of the bulk of the nobility.

5. Northern war. Foreign policy of Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century.

The main task of Russia's foreign policy after the Azov campaigns was the mastery of the shores of the Baltic Sea, which were in the power of the Swedes. As early as the beginning of the 17th century. Sweden seized the ancient Russian lands along the Neva River and closed access to the sea. The turn in Russian foreign policy found expression in the alliance of Peter I with the Saxon Elector Augustus, who then occupied the Polish throne, and with the Danish king to fight Sweden (Northern Union). In January 1699, an agreement was reached in Karlovitsy on a two-year Russian-Turkish truce. On July 3, 1700, in Istanbul (Constantinople), the Russian ambassador E.I. Ukraintsev concluded a peace treaty with Turkey, which had abandoned Azov. As soon as the courier delivered this news to Moscow, Russian troops were moved to the Swedish border.

Beginning of the Northern War

The beginning of the war for the participants of the Northern Union was unsuccessful. The Swedish king Charles XII unexpectedly landed 15,000 troops near Copenhagen and forced Denmark out of the war. Russia's second ally, the Polish king Augustus II, tried unsuccessfully to capture Riga, a strong fortress that was in the hands of the Swedes. Russian military operations began with the siege of Narva. Charles XII, having signed a peace treaty with Denmark in Travendal, hastily transferred troops to Narva and in November 1700 suddenly attacked the Russians. The poor training of the noble cavalry and the newly formed infantry, as well as the betrayal of foreign officers, led to the defeat of the Russian troops.

Narva, according to Marx, "was the first serious defeat of the rising nation, which knew how to turn even defeats into instruments of victory" ( K. Marx, A retrospective look at the Crimean campaign, K. Marx and F. Engels, Soch., v. 10, p. 589.). After the loss of almost all artillery near Narva, a feverish construction of new industrial enterprises began. In the Urals in 1701-1704 the country's four largest metallurgical plants began producing iron, cast iron, cannons and cannonballs. Closer to the theater of operations, in the area of the Olonets and Belozersk ore deposits, five metallurgical and weapons factories were built. At the same time, the construction of manufactories began, which were supposed to provide the army with uniforms and equipment - a tanneries and harness factories, a cloth manufactory, etc. This made it possible to eliminate the severe consequences of the defeat near Narva in a short time and accelerate the formation of a regular army. The February decree of 1705 determined the recruitment rules and completed the recruitment system. Starting from 1705, annual replenishment of more than 30 thousand people was envisaged; every 20-30 peasant and posad households were supposed to supply one recruit. The rank and file of the army was replenished with peasants and townspeople, officer positions were occupied by nobles who underwent special training in educational institutions organized in these years or in guards regiments. The staffing of the army and navy on the basis of recruitment quickly increased the size of the armed forces, which in 1708 reached 113 thousand people instead of 40 thousand, available at the beginning of the war.

Charles XII, believing that the Russian armed forces were finished near Narva, sent his troops against the third member of the Northern Union of the Polish King Augustus II. But while, in the words of Peter I, "the Swede got stuck in Poland," the recovered Russian troops began to win one victory after another. Following the capture in 1702 of the Noteburg fortress (renamed by Peter to Shlisselburg, Old Russian Oreshek), located at the exit of the Neva from Lake Ladoga, the Russians took the Nienschanz fortress at the confluence of the Neva into the sea; On May 16, 1703, the construction of the Peter and Paul Fortress began, which laid the foundation for St. Petersburg. The security of St. Petersburg from the sea was ensured by the Kronstadt fortress built on the island of Kotlin. Having examined it, Peter ordered "to maintain this city with God's help, if it happens, even to the last person." In 1704, Russian troops laid siege to Narva for the second time and took it.

To assist Poland in its fight against the Swedes, the Russian command concentrated its army in 1706 near Grodno. Charles XII, approaching Grodno, threatened to cut off the Russian troops. With a skillful maneuver developed by Peter I, the Russian troops got out of the trap set by the Swedes and were withdrawn to Ukraine without loss. Meanwhile, the Polish-Saxon troops were defeated, and in September 1706, Charles XII forced Augustus II to conclude the Treaty of Altranstadt, according to which Poland and Saxony refused an alliance with Russia, and Augustus II was deprived of the Polish crown, retaining only the Electorate of Saxony. Thus, the Northern the union no longer existed and the further struggle with Sweden had to be waged by Russia alone. The most intense and at the same time the most brilliant period of the Northern War for Russian weapons began.

Battle of Poltava and its historical significance

Charles XII hoped to bring Russia to its knees without much difficulty. In the autumn of 1707, the Swedish troops began their march to the east with the aim of invading Russian borders and marching on Moscow.

The aggressive campaign of Charles XII ended, however, in complete failure. The Russian army by this time had become much stronger than at the beginning of the war. The enemy was rebuffed not only by the army; partisan detachments arose, smashing the rear of the enemy and striking at small detachments of the Swedes.

Waging defensive battles, the Russian army in 1708 retreated to the borders of Russia. Attempts by the Swedes to impose a general battle on the Russians in unfavorable conditions for the latter were unsuccessful. The fierce defensive battles waged by the Russian troops forced Charles XII to change the invasion plan. Instead of going through Smolensk to Moscow, he was forced to accept the plan of bypass movement and go to Ukraine, where the traitor Hetman Mazepa was waiting for him. The Swedish corps under the command of A. Levenhaupt, who was near Riga, was supposed to arrive there, intended to replenish the troops of Charles XII, battered in battles. But this strategic plan of the Swedish king failed. Mazepa managed to bring only about 2 thousand people to Charles XII, some of whom were also deceived and believed that they were going on a campaign against the Swedes. The Ukrainian people remained faithful to the alliance with the Russian people and did not follow the hetman. Ukrainian peasants and townspeople, with bold raids on enemy detachments and staunch defense of a number of cities, provided significant assistance to the Russian army. The Lewenhaupt corps did not fulfill its task either. In the battle near the village of Lesnoy on September 28, 1708, he was completely defeated; more than 8 thousand Swedes died; the entire convoy and artillery fell into the hands of the Russians. Instead of the expected reinforcements, Charles XII received 5-6 thousand demoralized soldiers. The brilliant victory at Lesnaya, which took place nine months before the battle of Poltava, was later called by Peter I "the mother of the Poltava battle."

The main forces of the Swedish army from April 1709 were concentrated near Poltava. The heroic defense of this city by the garrison and the population under the command of Colonel A. S. Kelin pinned down the enemy forces and made it possible to concentrate Russian troops near Poltava. The battlefield, 5 versts from Poltava, was fortified by order of Peter I with earthen redoubts in order to delay the first onslaught of the Swedes. The Russian army was well trained by this time, had excellent artillery and numbered 42 thousand people, while Charles XII had about 30 thousand at his disposal. . At the most critical moment of the battle, Peter rushed forward with a battalion of the Novgorod regiment. Unable to withstand the onslaught, the Swedes began a retreat, which turned into a disorderly flight. On the battlefield, they left over 9 thousand corpses, about 3 thousand people were captured. “The invincible gentlemen, the Swedes, soon showed their backbone,” Peter wrote from the battlefield in a report about the Poltava victory. The victory was celebrated on the same day with a feast in the royal tent with the participation of captured Swedish generals. The remnants of the defeated army, led by the wounded Charles XII, fled to the Dnieper, where on June 30 Menshikov overtook them at Perevolochna. About 17 thousand Swedes surrendered to the 9 thousandth Russian detachment. Charles XII, together with Mazepa and a small detachment, escaped captivity and took refuge in Turkish possessions, in the city of Bendery.

The defeat of the first-class Swedish army for that time near Poltava radically changed the military and foreign policy situation. Engels wrote: “... Charles XII made an attempt to penetrate into Russia; in this way he destroyed Sweden and showed everyone the invulnerability of Russia ”( F. Engels, The foreign policy of Russian tsarism, K. Marx and F. Engels, Works, vol. XVI, part II, p. 9.).

As a result of the Poltava victory in the autumn of 1709, August II, an ally of Russia, was restored to the Polish throne. Denmark rejoined the coalition, and Prussia joined it. Thus, the Northern Union was restored and even expanded thanks to the successes of Russian weapons.

The most important result of the Poltava victory was the strengthening of the Russian conquests in the Baltic states, which could no longer be threatened by the Swedish army. According to Peter I, after the defeat of the Swedish army, "a stone was laid in the foundation of St. Petersburg." Following Poltava, Russian troops won a number of victories in the Baltic. In 1710 Riga, Revel, Vyborg and Kexholm were taken.

Prut campaign

After the Poltava victory, Turkey in November 1709 renewed the peace treaty with Russia. But then Russian-Turkish relations deteriorated again. Charles XII tried to restore the Turkish government against Russia. The sea powers - England and Holland, as well as the Empire, acted in the same direction, interested in weakening Russia, tying up her forces in the south and avoiding her influence on the course of the War of the Spanish Succession. In addition, Turkey was dissatisfied with the presence of Russian troops in Poland, close to the Turkish borders, and was afraid of turning Russia into a maritime power with a strong fleet on the Sea of Azov.

A year after the renewal of the peace treaty, in November 1710, the Turkish government imprisoned the Russian ambassador in the Seven Towers Castle (a prison in Istanbul) and declared war on Russia. In January 1711, the Crimean Tatars invaded the Russian lands and the territory of the Right-Bank Ukraine.

Peter I hoped to win over the Christian and Slavic population of the Balkan Peninsula. Manifestos of Peter I with a call to rebel against the Turkish yoke were distributed in Serbia, and 30 thousand rebels were ready to join the Russians. The Moldavian ruler D. Cantemir went over to the side of Russia. But the Wallachian ruler K. Brankovan remained on the side of the Turks and prevented the Serbs from joining the Russian army.

Russian troops led by Peter I were drawn to the borders of Moldova. In difficult conditions, in extreme heat, lacking food, they reached the river. Prut. Here, in the first days of July 1711, they met with the numerically superior forces of the Turks and Tatars under the command of the Grand Vizier Baltaji Mehmed Pasha: there were 38 thousand Russians, and 188 thousand Turks and Tatars. The position of the Russian troops was extremely difficult, but and the Turks failed to realize their advantage. In the battle that took place on July 9, the Turks suffered heavy losses, and the Janissaries demanded that the Grand Vizier begin peace negotiations. Peter sent Vice-Chancellor P. P. Shafirov to the Turkish camp, and on July 12, 1711, a peace treaty was concluded. It contained difficult conditions for Russia: the return of Azov to the Turks, the obligation to tear down the fortresses in the South, etc. Nevertheless, in the current situation, the Treaty of Prut had a positive meaning for Russia, since it freed its armed forces to continue hostilities in the main theater of war - in the Baltic.

Continuation of the Northern War

The failure of the Prut campaign did not have a significant impact on the favorable course of the Northern War for Russia. The defeat suffered by the Swedes near Poltava was so crushing that after that they could no longer restore their former power. Now military operations unfolded far from the Russian borders - in the Swedish province of Pomerania, where in 1713 Russian troops, despite the indecisive actions of their allies (Danes and Saxons), defeated the Swedes near Stettin, and in Finland, where in the same year the Russians captured Helsingfors (Helsinki) and Abo (Turku).

By this time, fighting at sea had become of paramount importance, where the Swedes had a strong navy. But the Russian fleet already had a considerable number of ships, especially galleys. A great naval battle took place near Cape Gangut on July 27, 1714. The fierce battle ended with the surrender of the Swedish squadron led by Admiral Ehrenschild. The Gangut battle was essential for establishing the dominance of the Russian fleet in the Baltic Sea.

Peace of Nystadt

The successes of the Russian troops in Finland and on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea, as well as the victory of the Russian fleet in the Baltic waters and the threat of transferring hostilities to the territory of Sweden itself, forced Charles XII to negotiate peace. This was also facilitated by the negotiations conducted by Peter I and the Russian diplomats who went abroad with him in 1716. In August 1717, after Peter I visited Paris, an alliance treaty was concluded in Amsterdam between Russia, France and Prussia. France promised its mediation for the conclusion of peace between Russia and Sweden and at the same time pledged to renounce its alliance with Sweden and stop paying her cash subsidies. The Treaty of Amsterdam weakened the position of Sweden and brought France closer to Russia. This prompted the Swedes to make concessions, and negotiations began in Holland between the Russian ambassador B. I. Kurakin and the representative of Sweden, the Holstein minister Hertz. As a result of these negotiations, on May 10, 1718, a peace congress was opened in the Åland Islands. The draft treaty prepared at this congress satisfied the territorial requirements of the Russian government. Ingria, Livonia, Estonia and part of Karelia were to go to Russia; Russia agreed to the return of Finland, occupied by Russian troops, to Sweden. Sweden insisted on receiving an "equivalent" in the form of the return to her of Bremen and Verden, taken from her during the Great Northern War and annexed to Hanover. Russia agreed to provide the Swedes with military assistance for the war against Hanover, and consequently against England, since the Hanoverian elector George I was the English king. However, in November 1718, Charles XII was killed during the siege of a fortress in Norway, and the opponents of peace with Russia gained the upper hand in Sweden. The Åland Congress dragged on, and then the negotiations were interrupted.

In 1719, the British government achieved the conclusion of a convention between Sweden and Hanover, according to which Sweden ceded Bremen and Verden to Hanover, and for this England entered into an alliance with Sweden against Russia. In the summer of 1719, in accordance with the treaty, an English squadron under the command of Admiral Norris entered the Baltic Sea for a surprise attack on the Russian fleet, but the British failed to catch the Russians by surprise. Under pressure from England, Prussia signed an agreement with Sweden in 1720 and broke off the alliance with Russia. In the same year, the English fleet entered the Baltic Sea for the second time. Nevertheless, the Russian squadron defeated the Swedes at Grengam, after which a landing was made on the Swedish coast. In 1721, the English squadron again tried to attack the Russian fleet in the Baltic Sea and was also unsuccessful. All this forced the British to recommend to the Swedish government to resume peace negotiations.

A peace congress opened in the city of Nystadt in Finland in April 1721. Here Russia achieved the acceptance of all its territorial demands put forward at the Åland Congress, and even with fewer concessions on its part.

The Treaty of Nystadt, signed on August 30, 1721, was a huge success for Russia. Eternal, true and indestructible peace and friendship between Russia and Sweden were established. Ingria, part of Karelia, Estland, Livonia with the sea coast from Vyborg to Riga and the islands of Ezel, Dago and Moon passed to Russia in "perpetual possession" and "property". Russia undertook to return Finland to the Swedes, pay 2 million efimki and refused to support the pretender to the Swedish throne - the Duke of Holstein, the groom of Peter I's daughter Anna.

The Treaty of Nystadt brought about important changes in the balance of power in Europe. Sweden has lost its importance as a great power. The treaty consolidated Russia's successes achieved by victories in a long and difficult war. The most important task of Russia's foreign policy, set back in the 16th-17th centuries, was solved - access to the Baltic Sea was acquired. Russia received a number of first-class ports and thereby placed her trade relations with Western Europe on favorable terms. The significance of the Treaty of Nystadt for strengthening the country's defense capability was very great: the northwestern borders of Russia moved far to the west and from land became maritime; a powerful Russian military fleet appeared on the Baltic Sea. Before the negotiations in Nystadt, Menshikov told the French representative Compradon: "We do not want to have any more clashes with our neighbors, and for this we need to be separated by the sea." Subsequently, Compradon, who became the French ambassador in St. Petersburg, noted that "the Treaty of Nystadt made him (Peter I) the ruler of the two best ports on the Baltic Sea."

Sweden refused an alliance with England and concluded in 1724 an alliance treaty with Russia with an obligation of mutual assistance in case of an attack by another power (with the exception of Turkey). Subsequent attempts by Sweden to return the Baltic provinces were unsuccessful.

The external expression of the increased international significance of Russia and the establishment of absolutism was the proclamation by the Senate in the same 1721 of Peter I as emperor. The Russian state became known as the Russian Empire.

Estonia and Livonia, which became part of the Russian Empire, were formerly the possessions of Sweden. The landowners here were German and Swedish feudal lords, and their serfs were Estonians and Latvians.

The accession of the Baltic states to Russia put an end to the struggle of the northern powers for possession of it. Economic, political and cultural ties between the Russian and Baltic lands were restored. This contributed to the further development of industry and trade in Estonia and Livonia. The accession to Russia greatly benefited the local German nobility, which became the backbone of the Russian autocracy. It had enormous power over the dependent peasantry. The class privileges of the Baltic nobility were wider than the privileges of the Russian nobles: the Baltic nobles, under the Nishtadt Treaty, retained class self-government and patrimonial police. In St. Petersburg, a special Justice College and Chamber Office for Estonian and Livonian affairs were created.

Persian campaign. Liberation struggle of the peoples of Transcaucasia

Russia's policy in the region of the Caspian Sea and Transcaucasia was dictated by serious economic and political interests. Through Astrakhan, trade relations were established with the Central Asian khanates, as well as with Iran and Transcaucasia. On the other hand, Turkey, taking advantage of the weakening of Iran, sought to expand its borders in the Caucasus, which posed a threat to the Russians in the Caspian region. Armenians and Georgians have repeatedly asked the Russian government to take them into Russian citizenship in order to protect them from Iranian and Turkish oppression. The end of the Northern War allowed Russia to intensify its policy in the area. In Central Asia, the Russian government failed. Back in 1716, A. Bekovich Cherkassky was instructed to persuade the Khiva khan into Russian citizenship, and the Bukhara khan - to friendship with Russia. After an unsuccessful attempt to destroy the Bekovich-Cherkassky expedition in an open battle, the Khiva Khan decided to achieve this goal in a different way. He convinced Cherkassky to divide his armed forces into several parts, ostensibly to better provide the troops with apartments and food. When this was done, the Russian dismembered detachments were treacherously attacked and slaughtered.

In the first quarter of the XVIII century. Russia's ties with the peoples of Transcaucasia are being strengthened. Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan have long been objects of robbery and cruel exploitation for the Turks and Iranians. During frequent wars, Iranian and Turkish hordes, passing through these countries, left ashes behind them in the place of cities and villages. The economic oppression and political lack of rights of the peoples of Transcaucasia were aggravated by religious persecution. To force Georgians and Armenians to convert to Islam, the Iranian shahs, for example, used the so-called law of Imam Jafar, according to which a family member who converted to Islam became the sole heir to the property of all his Christian relatives; often people who converted to Islam, on the basis of false testimony, were recognized as relatives of wealthy Christians and appropriated their property.

At the end of the XVII - beginning of the XVIII century. Iran was going through a period of economic decline and political decentralization. One of the important factors in its weakening was the liberation struggle of the peoples of Transcaucasia.

The Russian government closely followed the developments in the countries of Transcaucasia. It was informed in detail about the situation in these countries, both through Russian and Armenian merchants, and especially through numerous envoys who came from Georgia and Armenia to St. Petersburg with requests for help. The Russian government sought to prevent the passage of Azerbaijan, Eastern Georgia and Eastern Armenia into the hands of a stronger Turkey, whose establishment on the western coast of the Caspian Sea would create an immediate threat to the borders of Russia and Russian trade with the East. In addition, Peter I planned to direct Iran's foreign trade with Europe along the Volga transit route and ensure the predominance of Russian merchants in this trade. The Afghan invasion of Iran (1722) and the rise of the liberation movement in the countries of Transcaucasia created an exceptionally favorable environment for Russia to act. It was hastened by the threat of Turkish invasion of Iranian possessions.

In 1722, the campaign of Peter I began in the Caucasus and Iran, which went down in history under the name of the Persian campaign. In July, Russian troops set off from Astrakhan by land and sea to the south, and in August captured Derbent without a fight. The appearance of Russian troops, their first successes and the manifesto of Peter I to the local population caused a new upsurge in the liberation movement.

In September, the Georgian king Vakhtang VI with his troops went to Ganja to connect with the military forces of the Armenian Catholicos Yesai and Azerbaijani detachments. They were supposed to establish contact with the Russians in Shamakhi. However, the expected meeting of the Georgian, Armenian and Azerbaijani troops with the Russians did not take place, since the latter, due to a lack of food and losses incurred from illnesses, returned to Astrakhan in the fall.

In 1723, Russian troops resumed their interrupted campaign and occupied Baku. The benevolent attitude of Azerbaijanis towards Russia was expressed in the fact that the Russian troops, upon entering Derbent, Baku and other cities, met resistance only from the Iranian garrisons, while the local population supported them. From there, Russian troops moved to Gilan and captured Rasht.

In September 1723, an agreement was concluded in St. Petersburg with Iran, according to which the western and southern coasts of the Caspian Sea remained with Russia.

Taking advantage of the collapse of the Safavid state, Turkey undertook the conquest of its Transcaucasian possessions. The peoples of Transcaucasia offered heroic resistance to the Turks, but the forces were unequal. The Turks barbarously exterminated the defenders of Tbilisi, Yerevan, Tabriz. Russia, having just gone through a difficult Northern War, was not ready for a long struggle. Therefore, in 1724, the Russian government concluded the Treaty of Constantinople with Turkey, according to which the sultan recognized Russia's acquisitions in the Caspian Sea, and Russia recognized Turkey's rights to Western Transcaucasia.

Thus, the Persian campaign of Peter I did not lead to the liberation of the peoples of Transcaucasia from the oppression of the Iranian and Turkish conquerors. Nevertheless, he contributed to the growth of Russia's influence in the Transcaucasus. With particular force, the movement of the broad masses of the people for joining Russia unfolded in Armenia, where numerous appeals were made to the Russian tsar with a request for acceptance into Russian citizenship.

As a result of foreign policy successes, the international significance of Russia has increased, it has taken a paramount place in international life in Europe and Asia, and not a single important issue of European politics has been resolved without its participation.

6. Culture of Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century.

Science and school. Technological development

The development of Russian culture under Peter I is closely connected with the ongoing shifts in economic life and with the transformation of the state apparatus. The foundation of manufactories, the construction of canals, the creation of the navy required the training of specialists in various fields of science and technology. For the regular army and navy and the new bureaucratic institutions, trained officers and officials were needed. Meanwhile, in the 17th century education was still imbued with medieval religious ideology and stood far from practical tasks.

In the first quarter of the XVIII century. the business of education is largely transferred from the clergy to the state. Theology gives way to applied sciences. The ignoramuses of the nobility were forced to master mathematics, engineering, shipbuilding and navigation techniques, fortification, etc. Some of them were sent to study in Western Europe.

In Moscow in 1701, classes began at the Navigation and Artillery Schools, where they studied engineering and artillery, later, in 1715, instead of the Navigation School, the Naval Academy was established in St. Petersburg. In 1712, an Engineering School was opened in Moscow; medical personnel were trained at the Medical School at the Moscow Hospital, where classes began in 1707.

In addition to the Naval Academy and schools organized in the capitals, educational institutions, special and general education, were created in the provinces. At the Petrovsky factories in Karelia and the Urals, the first mining schools in Russia were organized, where qualified craftsmen were trained for the metallurgical industry. Numerical (for townspeople), diocesan (for clergy) and garrison (for children of soldiers) schools arose in many cities. Educational literature was produced for schools - primers, manuals on mathematics and mechanics, manuals on military engineering. In 1703, L. Magnitsky, a teacher at the Navigation School, published the famous "Arithmetic", which taught more than one generation of Russian people.

Since January 1703, the first printed newspaper “Vedomosti about military and other affairs worthy of knowledge and memory that happened in the Moscow state and in other surrounding countries” began to appear in Moscow. Along with political and military news, Vedomosti published reports on new factories, discoveries of ore deposits, oil, etc.

The spread of printed literature was facilitated by the introduction in 1710 of a new civil type, more simplified than the complex style of the old Church Slavonic letters. The works of Western European scientists began to be systematically translated into Russian. It was a process of enriching the country with the achievements of foreign science and technology.

The greatest writer and publicist of that time was the Pskov Archbishop Feofan Prokopovich. Along with works of art and theological writings, he delivered sermons and essays on political topics. In laudatory words and sermons, Theophan defended the transformations of Peter I. In the treatises "Spiritual Regulations" and "The Truth of the Monarchs' Will," he justified absolutism and the complete subordination of the church to state power.

An outstanding work of Russian economic thought and journalism is the "Book of Poverty and Wealth" by I. T. Pososhkov (1652-1726), which was distributed in manuscript (for the first time, "The Book of Poverty and Wealth" was published only in 1842). Pososhkov was a native of a village near Moscow and belonged to the family of a silversmith, later he was a "money master", and by the end of his life - a "merchant's man". The ideologist of the emerging bourgeoisie, Pososhkov, proposed in his book measures to encourage trade and industry, corresponding to developed mercantilism. Trade, in his opinion, should be the exclusive privilege of the merchants; trade should be prohibited for nobles and peasants; it is necessary to protect the Russian merchants from the competition of foreigners. He recommended building state-owned factories and then transferring them to private hands, providing merchants with cheap credit. He proposed to limit serfdom by establishing in law the exact amount of peasant duties in favor of the landowners and separating the peasant lands from the landowners. His writings are imbued with a sense of deep patriotism, faith in the strength of the Russian people.

Remarkable progress was made in geographical science, in the search for new trade routes, in cartographic work, as well as in the study of the fossil wealth of the country.

In 1697, V. Atlasov led an expedition to Kamchatka and compiled its geographical and ethnographic description. At the beginning of the XVIII century. The northern group of the Kuril Islands was discovered. In 1715, an expedition of I. Buchholz was sent to Central Asia to search for gold. The path taken by Buchholz was later repeated by Likharev and I. Unkovsky. For the first time, a map of the Caspian and Aral Seas was compiled. The results of the work of Russian cartographers were summed up in 1732 by I.K. Kirillov, who compiled the capital Atlas of the All-Russian Empire. He also owns the statistical and geographical description of Russia - "The flourishing state of the All-Russian state." A systematic study of minerals led to the discovery of sulfur and oil deposits in the Volga region, coal in the Donbass, iron ores were widely explored in the Urals, and silver-lead ores were found in Transbaikalia.

Talented technicians and administrators V. N. Tatishchev, V. Genii, N. Kleopin and others came to the fore in metallurgy. In 1722, the self-taught inventor, merchant and contractor M. Serdyukov reconstructed the Vyshnevolotsk Canal and made it practically suitable for navigation. Mechanic A.K. Nartov invented a mechanical support for a lathe. Foreign experts were also invited.

For the development and dissemination of scientific knowledge, the Academy of Sciences was established in St. Petersburg. It was supposed to serve as a research center and train young scientists. The opening of the Academy took place already after the death of Peter I, at the end of 1725. Along with research institutions, the Academy included a gymnasium and a university. The first natural-science museum (Kunstkamera), organized in 1714, was transferred to the Academy.

Art and literature

In 1702, a public theater was opened in Moscow, in a building built on Red Square. Prior to that, there was only a court theater. Along with foreign actors, Russian artists soon began to perform here. Later, the plays were performed by students of the Medical School and the Theological Academy; performances were also staged at the court of Peter's sister, Princess Natalya Alekseevna. The theater served the cause of propaganda for change. In the plays, allusions were made to the political events that were taking place, for example, to the rebellions of the archers, to the betrayal of Mazepa, and the enemies of enlightenment were ridiculed.

New trends penetrate into fiction and the visual arts. In the stories of the first quarter of the XVIII century. new heroes appear - energetic and enterprising people of "sharp mind" and "worthy mind". In this regard, the "History of the Russian sailor Vasily Koriotsky and the beautiful princess Heraclius of the Florensky land" is indicative. The hero of the story, a nobleman by birth, perfectly comprehended the dangerous business of a sailor and mastered the necessary scientific knowledge. He earned the recognition and respect of the Austrian emperor, the "King of Florence" and a wealthy merchant. At the same time, the hero is endowed with all the qualities of a gallant gentleman.

In contrast to the architecture of the 17th century, which was predominantly church in nature, in the first quarter of the 18th century. civil engineering took the lead. At that time, buildings for large industrial enterprises were built - Khamovny Dvor, Cloth Yard, Arsenal in Moscow, the Arms Plant in Tula, fortress factories in the Urals, as well as public buildings: the Main Pharmacy, the Comedy Khoromina (theater building) in Moscow, the monumental buildings of the Kunstkamera, the Admiralty and the Twelve Collegia in St. Petersburg, etc. For the first time in the history of Russian architecture, the construction of the new capital, St. Petersburg, was carried out according to a predetermined plan, which provided for the construction of buildings along wide straight streets.

The turning point in the visual arts was expressed in the replacement of biblical and gospel stories with themes from real life. Portrait painting reached a particularly high level. Portraits of Peter I by I. M. Nikitin are distinguished by a deep psychological characteristic, the artist expressed the inexorable will and determination of a statesman. On Nikitin's battle canvases ("Battle of Poltava", "Battle of Kulikovo"), the heroic struggle of the Russian people against foreign invaders is depicted with deep patriotism. Of great artistic value were the sculptural portraits of Peter I and Menshikov, made by Rastrelli the father. The art of engraving was widely used, capturing the most important events of modern life.

7. Russia in the second quarter of the XVIII century.

Struggle for power within the ruling class

In the political life of Russia in the second quarter of the XVIII century. characterized by infighting within the nobility and palace coups.

Peter I died on January 28, 1725 and did not manage to appoint a successor before his death. The nobles who advanced under Peter I wanted to see the wife of the deceased emperor, Catherine, on the throne; the old nobility had its own candidate - the son of the executed Tsarevich Alexei, the young Peter. The dispute over the successor was decided by the guards regiments, which since that time have become the main instrument of the struggle for power. Menshikov, Tolstoy, Apraksin and other representatives of the new nobility, who advanced under Peter I, enlisted the support of the guards regiments called to the palace, enthroned Catherine (1725-1727).

The contradictions between the old and new nobility led to the creation of the Supreme Privy Council, which included Menshikov and other supporters of Catherine. With such a composition of this institution, the empress was completely dependent on Menshikov, who concentrated in his hands the actual power in the state. In order to weaken the influence of the temporary worker, as well as to reach a compromise with the old nobility, a representative of the noble aristocracy, Prince D. M. Golitsyn, was introduced to the Supreme Privy Council. The Supreme Privy Council became the highest body, the three "first" colleges - Military, Admiralty and Foreign Affairs - were directly subordinate to it, and the Senate lost the title of government and began to be called high.

After the death of Catherine, according to her will, the grandson of Peter I, the son of the executed Tsarevich Alexei, Peter II, was proclaimed emperor, and the functions of regent were transferred to the Supreme Privy Council. In reality, the Supreme Privy Council was an obedient instrument of Menshikov. To further strengthen his influence, Menshikov was going to marry the young emperor to his daughter Maria. But Menshikov's omnipotence and his unlimited ambition displeased even his recent allies. On the eve of the death of Catherine I, a conspiracy arose against him, led by Tolstoy. Menshikov won the victory, the conspirators paid with exile, but the number of supporters of the temporary worker decreased, which prepared his fall. In 1727 Menshikov was exiled to Berezov. This was tantamount to a palace coup: in the Supreme Privy Council, the aristocratic families of Golitsyn and Dolgoruky now received the majority. The latter included their relatives in its composition. Having achieved the predominant influence in the Supreme Privy Council, the aristocratic group sought to restore the order that existed in Russia before the reforms. The "Verkhovniki" moved the capital from St. Petersburg to Moscow, broke up the regional administration, restoring the institutions that existed in the 17th century.

Dolgoruky, like Menshikov, tried to consolidate their influence by the marriage of Peter II with the daughter of A. G. Dolgoruky. The royal wedding was scheduled for mid-January 1730, in connection with which, in addition to the highest dignitaries, the guards and numerous representatives of the provincial nobility arrived in Moscow for the expected celebrations. But the wedding did not take place: Peter II fell ill with smallpox and died suddenly.

The Supreme Privy Council offered the crown to the early widowed Duchess of Courland Anna Ivanovna, the niece of Peter I. Conditions were hastily drawn up, that is, the conditions for Anna Ivanovna's accession to the throne. The empress was supposed to govern the state together with the Supreme Privy Council, without its consent she could not declare war and make peace, introduce new taxes, promote to a rank higher than a colonel, grant or take away estates. The command of the guard passed to the Supreme Privy Council. Thus, the conditions limited the autocracy in favor of the leaders, who expected that the Duchess of Courland would find herself without support after arriving in Russia and would unconditionally agree to fulfill their demands.

However, the nobles, who arrived in large numbers in Moscow for the expected wedding of Peter II, were hostile to the oligarchic aspirations of the leaders and demanded the preservation of "autocracy".

In contrast to the conditions of the supreme leaders, various groups of the nobility drew up several projects listing their class requirements, namely: reducing the service life, lifting restrictions on the inheritance of real estate, exempting the nobles from military service as privates, and organizing schools for the training of officers. Anna Ivanovna, in the presence of the leaders, the assembly of the nobility and the guards officers, tore up a sheet of paper with the conditions signed by her. After some time, the “entertainers” from the aristocracy, under plausible pretexts, were expelled from Moscow to the provinces, and subsequently were subjected to severe punishments.

In the reign of Anna Ivanovna, the influence of foreigners reached unprecedented proportions. Their influx into Russia began as early as the end of the 17th century, but before the accession of Anna Ivanovna, they did not play a significant role in the political life of the country. These were mainly specialists used by the government to carry out certain assignments. The position of foreigners under Anna Ivanovna became different. The ignorant favorite of the empress, the Courland German E. Biron, who, according to his contemporaries, “talked about horses like a man, and about people like a horse,” received a huge influence on management affairs. Under his patronage, rogue foreigners, having reached the administration of state property, robbed the treasury with impunity. One of them, Baron A. Shemberg, embezzled about half a million rubles during his time in the Russian metallurgical industry (4 million rubles with money from the beginning of the 20th century).

Under Anna Ivanovna, a new institution arises - the Cabinet of Ministers. Although the demand of the nobility to restore the rights of the Senate was satisfied and the Senate again became known as the ruling one, the actual power was in the hands of the Cabinet of Ministers. It consisted of Anna Ivanovna's trusted representatives, and Biron, who did not occupy an official position, was in charge of his work.

The dissatisfaction of the nobility with foreign dominance increased. Cabinet Minister A. P. Volynsky with a circle of like-minded people developed a "Project on the amendment of state affairs." Volynsky demanded further expansion of the privileges of the nobility, the filling of all positions in the state apparatus from the clerk to the senator by the nobles, the sending of noble children abroad for training, "so that they eventually have their own natural ministers." Harsh comments about Anna Ivanovna (“our empress is a fool and no matter how you report, you won’t get any resolution from her”), a protest against the dominance of Biron and his entourage led Volynsky to the chopping block.

After the death of Anna Ivanovna (1740), Biron, with the help of foreigners, was proclaimed regent under the emperor - the infant Ivan Antonovich, the son of Anna Ivanovna's niece, the Mecklenburg princess Anna Leopoldovna and the Duke of Brunswick. However, Biron lasted only three weeks in power. Guards led by Field Marshal B. Munnich overthrew Biron, and the regency passed to Anna Leopoldovna. Actual power for some time was in the hands of the President of the Military Collegium Minich, but the aggravation of contradictions within the German group led to the fall of Minich. On November 25, 1741, with the help of the guards, Elizaveta Petrovna, the youngest daughter of Peter I, a protege of the Russian nobility, came to power. The Germans lost high positions in the state. The ease of coups is explained by the fact that the struggle for power was between separate groups of the nobility, but did not affect the foundations of the state system.

The new government restored the institutions created during the period of transformations in the first quarter of the 18th century - the Berg Collegium, the Manufactory Collegium, as well as the magistrates in the cities, which consisted of elected merchant representatives; The Senate was returned to its former importance in the field of domestic policy.

Expansion of the privileges of the nobility and strengthening of serfdom

The “extreme, all-term ruin” of the peasantry, caused by the long Northern War, the growth of duties and severe crop failures in 1723-1726, became so obvious that it was talked about in government circles the very next year after the death of Peter I. The mass exodus of peasants caused alarm, growth of arrears, deficit of the state budget. All this weakened the power of the noble state, for, according to Menshikov, "the soldier is connected with the peasant, like the soul with the body, and if there is no peasant, then there will be no soldier." It was necessary to change the procedure for collecting taxes, which had previously been collected by military units stationed in the districts. The officers of these units, as well as numerous officials of the provincial administration, were even presented to members of the government as "wolves that burst into the herd." Landowners were declared responsible tax collectors. In order to save money, the staff of central institutions was reduced, the number of collegiums was reduced, and some institutions organized in 1718-1719 were abolished locally, since their maintenance excessively burdened the state budget. In carrying out these changes, the government has always emphasized that they provide the people with "prosperity." In fact, the general line of government policy in the second quarter of the XVIII century. It consisted in strengthening landowner ownership of land, expanding noble privileges and intensifying feudal exploitation of the masses, as well as in the development of large-scale industry and the promotion of the merchant class.

The successors of Peter I continued the practice of widely distributing lands and serfs to the nobility. Princes Dolgoruky appropriated 40,000 acres of land under Peter II. The Leibkampants, who took an active part in the coup in favor of Elizabeth Petrovna - guards companies that carried guard duty at court - received 14 thousand male souls as a gift from the new empress. The brother of the favorite of Elizabeth Petrovna, Count K. G. Razumovsky, was granted about 100 thousand souls.

In the second quarter of the XVIII century. the nobility receives numerous benefits and privileges enshrined in legislation. In 1730, the nobles achieved the abolition of that part of the decree of 1714 on uniform inheritance, which forbade the division of the estate during inheritance, and received the right to transfer property to children "evenly to everyone."

New benefits for the nobility made it easier for him to carry out military service. Already in 1727, two-thirds of the officers and privates from the nobility were allowed to leave the army for a period of three years. Satisfying the demand of the nobility, the government in 1731 organized the gentry cadet corps. Training "from a young age" in military affairs freed the nobles from hard service as ordinary soldiers and sailors. However, already in the early 1930s, it was common among the nobility to enlist young children for military service, so that by the time they came of age they received an officer's rank by "length of service", without having the slightest idea about military affairs.

Finally, in 1736, the harassment of the nobles about the abolition of indefinite service was satisfied. In order to better maintain "gentry houses and villages", one of the sons in the family of a nobleman was released from service to manage the estate. The remaining sons had a term of service limited to 25 years, after which they could retire. To what extent the nobility was burdened by compulsory military service, is evidenced by the fact that in 1739, after the end of the Russian-Turkish war, half of the officers resigned. Even young nobles, barely 35 years old and enlisted in the regiments from the age of 10 or 12, petitioned for dismissal from service.

Numerous decrees of the second quarter of the XVIII century. confirmed for the nobility the exclusive estate right to own serfs. The power of the landowner over the peasants expanded even more, even from 1731 the landowners began to take the allegiance oath for the peasants.

Secular and spiritual feudal lords drew up instructions for the administrators of their estates - clerks, to the smallest detail regulated the economic activities of the peasants, their family and spiritual life. The clerk had to ensure that the peasant did not go to the city to the market without his knowledge, and that the serf girls did not stay in brides, and that all peasants regularly attended church.

An indicator of the tension in the payment forces of the countryside was the growing amount of arrears in the collection of the poll tax. Already by 1732 it amounted to 15 million rubles. (about 120 million with money from the beginning of the 20th century). In lean years, poverty in the countryside reached horrendous proportions. Crop failures 1733-1735 hit a vast territory from the Smolensk region to the Volga region. Tens of thousands of peasant families ate roots, died of hunger or left their homes.

The decade from 1730 to 1740, known as the Bironovshchina (on behalf of the favorite of Empress Anna Ivanovna), cost the masses dearly. A large number of decrees were issued on the search for fugitives, punitive detachments raged, extorting taxes and arrears from the taxable population. Bironovism is characterized by the unprecedented extravagance of the royal court, the prosperity of embezzlement, extortion. Balls, "masherades" and similar entertainments succeeded each other. The cost of maintaining the courtyard tripled compared to the first quarter of the 18th century. 100 thousand rubles a year were spent on the maintenance of the royal stable, while less than 50 thousand rubles were spent on the needs of the Academy of Sciences and the Admiralty Academy.

The process of strengthening feudal exploitation in the 30s of the XVIII century. also spread to the peoples that were part of the Russian Empire. In Ukraine, wealthy Cossacks occupied a privileged position, their duties from 1735 were limited to military service, while ordinary Cossacks were equalized with peasants. The Cossack elite - the foreman arrogated to himself the right of full ownership of the land.

The tsarist government limited the self-government of Ukraine. Instead of an elected hetman, the management of the Left-bank Ukraine was carried out by the Little Russian Collegium. In 1727, the choice of a hetman was allowed, but from 1734 power was again concentrated in the Board of the hetman's ranks, which consisted of government-appointed officials and representatives of the Cossack elders.

Among the peoples of the Volga region (Tatars, Chuvashs, Maris, Bashkirs), state duties increased, attempts were made to forcibly convert Muslims to Christianity. The seizure of Bashkir lands for the construction of factories, the growth of taxes and the cruel methods of their collection testified to the growth of the colonial exploitation of the Bashkirs. The construction of the Orenburg fortress was supposed to strengthen the power of tsarism in Bashkiria and ensure further advancement into Central Asia. The uprisings of the Bashkirs that broke out in 1735-1740 were an expression of their protest against the colonial policy of tsarism.

Development of industry and trade

In the second quarter of the XVIII century. industry and commerce continued to grow. The development of Russian metallurgy is especially indicative: iron smelting in 1750 amounted to 2 million poods, having increased 2.5 times over a quarter of a century. The export of iron abroad in the same year reached a record figure of 1.2 million poods. Copper smelters fully satisfied the needs of the country, and copper also became an export item. For the metallurgical industry of the second quarter of the XVIII century. characterized by a further increase in the share of private capital, dozens of new private factories were built in the Urals and in other parts of the empire. In 1750, about 100 iron foundries, ironworks and copper smelters operated in the country.

During the second quarter of the century, the number of manufactories in the light industry also increased significantly. By 1753 there were 153 of them, including 10 cloth, 29 silk and 51 linen. Already in the middle of the 30s of the XVIII century. the government noted that "many manufactories and factories" in Russia were able to meet demand without importing foreign goods.

In the first quarter of the XVIII century. large light industry enterprises were located mainly in Moscow. Subsequently, a large number of cloth, linen, glass and other manufactories were built on the periphery - closer to the sources of raw materials.

The nobleman-entrepreneur was rare among the industrialists of the first decades of the 18th century; they were usually merchants. In the middle of the XVIII century. the construction of manufactories by the nobles began, initially in light industry. In 1749-1751. the nobles built 13 linen manufactories, serviced by the labor of serfs.

In manufactories by the middle of the XVIII century. about 50 thousand serfs and hired workers and artisans were employed, 2.5 times more than in 1725. In addition, about 100 thousand registered and bought serfs worked at metallurgical plants.

The Russian government, even after the death of Peter I, continued to pursue a policy of mercantilism. Industrialists and large merchants continued to receive government loans and privileges. Providing large enterprises with labor in the second quarter of the 18th century. It was carried out in the same ways as during the time of Peter I: through free hiring and the use of forced labor. However, the share of forced labor has increased significantly. In 1736, a decree was issued, by which all the workers and their families employed in production were assigned to large enterprises "forever". In addition, in the 30-40s of the XVIII century. the assignment of state peasants to private factories became widespread.

Expansion of the privileges of the nobility in the second quarter of the XVIII century. reflected in the commercial and industrial policy of the government. High protective duties were beneficial to industrialists, but infringed on the interests of the nobility, which was the main consumer of imported goods. The new tariff (1731) did not have such a pronounced protective character, the highest duty was 20% of the price of the goods.

The reduction in import duties contributed to the growth of foreign trade turnover. In 1749, Russian goods worth 6.9 million rubles were exported abroad, and the import from abroad amounted to 5.7 million rubles. Thus, the trade balance remained active, but the excess of exports over imports decreased markedly.

In the 30s of the XVIII century. the reorganization of institutions in charge of the commercial and industrial population was carried out. After the abolition of the Chief Magistrate in 1727, the city magistrates began to obey the governors. In the early 1930s, the Berg Collegium and the Manufaktura Collegium were merged with the Collegium of Commerce under the pretext that "one thing is found in different hands."

These measures indicate that the commercial and industrial policy, to a greater extent than in previous times, was subordinated to the interests of the nobility.

Thus, in the first half of the XVIII century. large-scale industry was created in Russia, domestic and foreign trade grew. All this was achieved in Russia, as in the countries of Western Europe, by cruel and coercive measures characteristic of the era of primitive accumulation. But the process of primitive accumulation took place in Russia under the dominance of feudal-serf relations. The methods of feudal-serf exploitation were also extended to large-scale industry. Wage workers in large manufactories were turned into serfs. Throughout the first half of the 18th century. the number of serfs and ascribed peasants who worked in manufactories continued to increase. Tax oppression in the first half of the XVIII century. put pressure on the working masses with much greater force compared to the end of the 17th century, ruining the peasants and townspeople. The tax system allowed the treasury to provide large loans to merchants and industrialists, to transfer to them industrial enterprises built with state funds, etc.

Simultaneously with the use of forced labor in manufactories, many enterprises of the capitalist type arose in Russia, based on the labor of hired workers. These enterprises successfully competed with the privileged noble and possessory manufactories, paving the way for the development of the capitalist way of life in the country.

Foreign policy

Foreign policy of Russia in the second quarter of the 18th century. in general, she continued the traditions of Peter I, but foreign policy tasks were now solved less energetically, the plans conceived were often not implemented. The main tasks were to continue the struggle with Turkey for access to the Black Sea and to consolidate the successes achieved in the Baltic states as a result of the Northern War. The problems of foreign policy in the Caspian region also had to be solved again. Particularly great disorder and routine were found in military and naval affairs. Artillery lost its former maneuverability, the importance of bayonet fighting was downplayed in the infantry, and a blind imitation of the linear tactics that dominated Europe was instilled. The construction of the fleet almost ceased, many ships were not manned and rotted laid up in the harbors.

Russia entered into a defensive alliance with Austria in 1726. France sought to oppose Russia with a coalition consisting of Sweden, Poland and Turkey. After the death of August II in 1733, kinglessness began in Poland, accompanied by the struggle of magnate-gentry groups. France supported its protege to the throne - Stanislav Leshchinsky. The second pretender to the Polish throne - Augustus, the son of the deceased king Augustus II, enjoyed the support of Russia and Austria. France managed to achieve the proclamation of Leshchinsky as king; then the supporters of Augustus among the Polish gentry turned to Russia for help. The War of the Polish Succession began, in which Russia and Austria opposed France. Hostilities continued for two years. Leshchinsky was forced to flee by sea from the besieged Gdansk, and August III became king.

During the Russo-Polish war, French diplomacy incited Turkey to oppose Russia. In an effort to enlist the friendly attitude of Iran, which had intensified by this time in the imminent conflict with Turkey, Russia in 1735 returned possessions to Iran along the western and southern shores of the Caspian Sea (Baku, Derbent, Gilan) and concluded an alliance with it. To capture the Caspian regions ceded by Russia to Iran, Turkey sent a 20,000-strong army of the Crimean Khan. The robberies and violence of the Crimean Tatars, who invaded Russian possessions, caused a new war with Turkey. Russia led it in alliance with Austria.

In the autumn of 1735, the 40,000-strong corps led by M.I. Leontiev moved to Perekop, but the troops, due to lack of roads and poorly organized supplies, did not reach their goal and suffered heavy losses, were forced to return. In the next campaign of 1736, the Russians crossed Perekop, occupied the capital of the Khanate, Bakhchisaray, but did not destroy the Tatar troops. Minich, who commanded the troops, was afraid of being locked up on the peninsula by the Tatars returning from the Iranian provinces and hastily retreated from the Crimea. More successfully proceeded military operations near Azov. In the summer of 1736, the Russians captured this fortress.

Military operations in 1737 unfolded in two theaters of war: in the Crimea, where the Russians defeated a 15,000-strong Tatar army, and in the Northwestern Black Sea region, where the Ochakov fortress was occupied. However, the victories of the Russian army this time were not fixed. The vicious tactics of Minich, who avoided a general battle, gave the Turks the opportunity to preserve their manpower. General Lassi, who commanded the Russian troops in the Crimea, and Minich returned to their original lines. Negotiations between Russian, Austrian and Turkish representatives at a congress that met in Nemirov in the summer of 1737 did not lead to peace. Fearing the strengthening of Russia, the Austrians did not support her and sought to limit Russian acquisitions to Azov alone. The Congress in Nemirov was interrupted, and the war resumed. The largest battle of the Russian-Turkish war took place in 1739, when Russian troops defeated the Turks near Stavuchany and captured the fortress of Khotyn. But in the same year, Russia's ally, Austria, suffered one defeat after another. At the cost of losing the previously captured Serbia and Wallachia, Austria made peace with the Turks.

Soldiers of Peter the Great. Bas-relief by K. B. Rastrelli "The Battle of Good in 1708"

In the same year, 1739, peace was concluded between Russia and Turkey. Under the Belgrade Treaty, Russia received Azov, but had to tear down its fortifications. In addition, a small territory on the Right-Bank Ukraine along the middle reaches of the Dnieper went to Russia. The northern coast of the Black Sea remained in the hands of the Turks, and Kabarda, from the 16th century. which was under the citizenship of Russia, was recognized as free and declared a "barrier between the two empires." Thus, the Russian-Turkish war of 1735-1739. led only to a partial cancellation of the peace conditions that ended the Prut campaign of 1711.

Sweden, having secured the promise of financial support from France, in 1741 declared war on Russia. But the war turned out to be unsuccessful for her and ended with the Peace of Abo in 1743, according to which part of the Finnish territory to the Kymene River went to Russia.

In 1746, Russia strengthened its ties with Austria, resuming a defensive alliance with it. In this way, the alignment of forces was prepared, which had in mind not to allow the further strengthening of aggressive Prussia. In 1747, a convention was concluded with England, which also prepared the way for the position taken by both sides in the ensuing Seven Years' War, when, despite the alliance of England with Prussia, there was no break in Russian-English relations.

culture

Under Peter I, the rapid development of national culture began, combined with the mastery of advanced European culture. This process continued into the second quarter of the 18th century. Since 1725, the Academy of Sciences has become the center of scientific thought. The largest Western European and Russian scientists took part in its work. Proceedings of the outstanding scientist of the XVIII century. L. Euler laid the foundation for modern analytical mechanics. Euler also dealt with astronomy, general mathematics, and theoretical questions of shipbuilding and navigation. The works of academician D. Bernoulli were of great importance in the development of mathematics and physiology.

The Academy of Sciences took an active part in organizing the second Kamchatka expedition, which continued the geographical discoveries of the 17th and early 18th centuries. The results of the first Kamchatka expedition (1725-1730) did not satisfy the government, since it was not possible to find the American coast and decide whether there is a connection between the Kamchatka land and America. In 1732, the second Kamchatka expedition was sent. The expedition was instructed to answer not only the question of whether Asia is connected to America (which was clarified by Dezhnev back in 1648, but soon forgotten), but also to carry out a comprehensive study of Siberia. The work of the expedition lasted eleven years (until 1743); its participants were divided into several detachments, which included academicians, students of the Academy, surveyors and sailors. Operating in the most difficult conditions, they put the outlines of the northern coast of Siberia on the map, carried out an ethnographic study of Kamchatka and collected numerous archival materials on the history of Siberia. The names of S. Chelyuskin, who discovered the northern extremity of Asia, D. and Kh. Laptev, V. Pronchishchev and others, who put on the map a vast territory from Baikal to Anadyr, S. Krasheninnikov, who gave a wonderful “Description of the land of Kamchatka”, are the pride of Russian science.

The main scientific feat of the expedition was to reach the northwestern shores of America. In July 1741, V. Bering, A. I. Chirikov and their companions were the first Europeans to see the northwestern region of America, about which they provided reliable information.

Russian cartography has achieved significant success. In 1745, the Academic Atlas was published. In connection with its publication, Euler noted: "Russian geography has been brought into a much better condition than the geography of the German land."

Historical science of the second quarter of the XVIII century. represented by the works of V. N. Tatishchev (1686-1750). His five-volume "History of Russia" brings the presentation of events to the end of the 16th century. This work was preceded by painstaking work on collecting and studying Russian chronicles and other sources. Peru Tatishchev also owns the second, unfinished, work - "The Russian Historical, Geographical and Political Lexicon", which contains a variety of information on the history, geography, and ethnography of Russia. Both works were published after the death of the author.

Expeditions to Siberia were of great importance for geographical and historical science. Historian G.F. Miller, a member of which, discovered many valuable materials preserved in the Siberian archives.

Russian literature in the second quarter of the 18th century. entered the stage of classicism, represented in Russia by the works of A. D. Kantemir, V. K. Trediakovsky, M. V. Lomonosov, A. P. Sumarokov.

The satires of Cantemir denounced the enemies of science, ridiculed ignorance, bribery, hypocrisy. Cantemir sharply criticized representatives of the aristocracy, whose arrogance was combined with deep ignorance and cruel tyranny in relation to the serfs. The point of the satires of Kantemir was directed against real historical figures - the famous enemy of Peter's reforms, the bishop of Rostov - G. Dashkov, against I. Dolgoruky, a favorite of Peter II, and others. V. G. Belinsky called Kantemir "the first associate of Peter the Great in the field of literature" .

VK Trediakovsky (1703-1769) was the first Russian philologist and professional writer. He wrote a textbook on the theory of poetry - "A new and brief way to add Russian poetry", a number of critical and historical and philological works. “His philological and grammatical researches are very remarkable” (Pushkin). In these works, Trediakovsky promoted a more perfect versification. Trediakovsky himself, devoid of significant poetic talent, failed to implement the innovations he proposed in his work. This task proved to be within the power of only Lomonosov. A significant place in the work of Trediakovsky was occupied by translations. His translation of the French novel by Paul Tallemand "Ride to the Island of Love" was one of the first printed works with a new secular theme and aroused, according to the translator, the indignation of hypocrites.

In the field of architecture, the second quarter of the 18th century. was marked by high creative achievements. During this period, mainly palace and church buildings were built. Grandiose palaces are created with luxurious decoration, with parks, gardens and sculptural decorations. The architect VV Rastrelli built a huge palace for Biron in Mitava (Jelgava). A wonderful monument of that time is the Grand Palace of Tsarskoye Selo, which amazed with its splendor.

M.V. Lomonosov

The most striking indicator of the level achieved by Russian science and culture in the 18th century is the multifaceted work of the brilliant scientist and thinker Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov (1711-1765). He was a native of the masses, the son of a Pomor fisherman.

An irresistible thirst for knowledge led the nineteen-year-old Lomonosov to Moscow, where he entered the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. Recalling his five-year stay at the academy, Lomonosov wrote: “Having one altyn (3 kopecks) per day of salary, it was impossible to have more food per day than money for bread and money for kvass, other things for paper, for shoes and other needs” . In 1735 Lomonosov was sent to St. Petersburg to study at the University of the Academy of Sciences. A year later, he was already on a scientific mission in Germany, from where he returned to St. Petersburg in 1741. Lomonosov was the first Russian scientist to receive the title of professor and academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1745).

The range of interests of Lomonosov and his scientific research is extremely wide; in this respect, he is on a par with such luminaries of science as Leonardo da Vinci. Leibniz, Franklin, Newton. Chemistry and mathematics, physics and geology, astronomy and mechanics, geography and botany, philosophy, linguistics and history were among his interests. An expression of recognition of Lomonosov's merits was his election as a member of the Stockholm and Bologna academies.

Lomonosov considered natural phenomena in their development. He wrote: “It must be firmly remembered that the visible bodily things on earth and the whole world were not in such a state from the beginning from creation, as we now find, but great changes took place in it, as history and ancient geography show.” In 1748 Lomonosov discovered the law of conservation of matter and energy. Lomonosov sought to introduce scientific discoveries into metallurgy, mining, the production of glass, porcelain, and paints. The organic unity of theory and practice was the main feature of Lomonosov's work. 0n invented a “night-sighting tube”, with the help of which it was possible to “distinguish rocks and ships more clearly and distinctly at night”, created a reflecting mirror telescope, etc. ocean to East India" (1763).

In the field of the humanities, Lomonosov's activities were no less diverse. He was the author of the first scientific grammar of the Russian language. Lomonosov's "Ancient Russian History" was directed against the anti-scientific Norman theory of the origin of the Russian state.

Lomonosov's poetic work was distinguished by life-affirming optimism, faith in the great future of his people. The main themes of Lomonosov's laudatory and solemn odes were Russia, peaceful labor; he glorified Peter I, in whom he found the ideal traits of an "enlightened monarch". "Ode on the Capture of Khotin" (1739) V. G. Belinsky considered the beginning of modern Russian literature.

Lomonosov used his poetic talent to promote science. His "Letter on the Benefits of Glass", like many other poems, is distinguished by its scientific and journalistic content. Lomonosov was an ardent supporter of the dissemination of scientific knowledge among the Russian people, he firmly believed in the creative abilities of the Russian people and was convinced that the Russian land could give birth to "its own Platos and quick-witted Newtons." In order to spread education in the country and train his own Russian personnel in the field of education, science and culture, Lomonosov devoted much effort to organizing teaching at the gymnasium and university, which were located at the Academy of Sciences. In 1755, on his initiative and according to his plan, Moscow University was founded. Thanks to the efforts of Lomonosov, Moscow University did not have a theological faculty, which contributed to the development of a materialistic direction in science and its liberation from the influence of the church. Teaching at the university was conducted in Russian, not in Latin. People from the unprivileged classes had the opportunity to study at the university. The university received at its disposal a number of laboratories, scientific rooms and a printing house. All this contributed to its transformation into the most important center of Russian education, culture and science.

Lomonosov's "great struggle" for "Russian sciences" soon bore fruit: a whole galaxy of Russian scientists appeared, students of Lomonosov - philosopher D. S. Anichkov, lawyer S. E. Desnitsky, physician S. G. Zybelin. and etc.

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