Ukrainian culture in the 16th century briefly. The development of Ukrainian culture in the 14th - 16th centuries
1. Humanistic ideas of the Renaissance in Ukrainian culture.
2. Science, education and literature in Ukraine in the XIV-XVI centuries.
3. Artistic culture of this period.
Basic concepts: Ukrainian Renaissance, brotherhoods, polemical literature, thoughts, partes singing.
1.P development of Ukrainian culture in the XIV-XVI centuries. took place under difficult conditions. The socio-political situation was determined by the final loss of the remnants of statehood and self-government of Kievan Rus - Ukrainian lands became part of the Lithuanian-Polish state. After Union of Kreva(Treaties of 1385) Poland launched a total attack on the culture, faith, customs and traditions of the Ukrainian people. During the XV-XVI centuries. still continued, which began in the XIII century. an unequal struggle with the Tatar horde, which devastated the region, taking people into captivity, ruining and destroying Russian cities.
The spiritual and cultural life of society has changed. On the one hand, these changes were determined by a decisive reorientation towards interaction with the cultural achievements of Western Europe- in the XIV-XVI centuries. cities continue to be built, guild production, crafts, trade develop, international contacts, including creative contacts, are revived, and various types of artistic creativity are on the rise.
On the other hand, the expansion of Catholicism, the strengthening of social and national oppression provoked exacerbation of the socio-political situation and as a consequence, - national liberation and spiritual and educational confrontation of the people. The defender of faith, traditions was Cossacks, the period of formation of which falls on the middle. 16th century
The awakening of national consciousness was supplemented spreading the ideas of humanism of the Renaissance. The growing interest in nature and man laid the ground for the appearance of a galaxy of representatives in the circle of European cultures. Ukrainian intellectual elite, who not only mastered the humanistic ideas of their time, but also made a certain contribution to the development of Western European culture. They are rightfully considered founders of humanistic Ukrainian culture.
Having received a proper education in European universities, immigrants from Ukraine became famous scientists, teachers, doctors, and artists. Yuri Drogobych (Yuri Kotermak) became a doctor of philosophy and medicine at the University of Bologna, lectured there on mathematics, and served as rector of the Faculty of Medicine. Rome saw the light of the first printed work in our history by a Ukrainian researcher of nature - " Prognostic assessment of the current year 1483".
In the XV century. 13 Ukrainian professors worked at Krakow University! Lukash from Novy Grad, for a long time he was a master and teacher of this university.
Pavel Rusin from Krosno, who in his works emphasized his Ukrainian origin, taught a university course in Roman literature in Krakow, wrote poetry, and also taught in Hungary. He is the first Ukrainian humanist poet, as well as one of the founders of Polish humanistic poetry.
Stanislav Orekhovsky-Roksolan he realized his many-sided talent as an orator, publicist, philosopher, historian in many works that were read in Italy, Spain, France, Germany. It is no coincidence that in Western Europe it was called " Ruthenian(Russian Ukrainian) Demosthenes", "modern Cicero".
The work of the early Ukrainian humanists is characterized by a deep knowledge of ancient philosophy, attention to the problems of studying nature, affirmation of the dignity of the individual, his freedom, and the ideals of social justice. They had a positive impact on education and literature, and became the ideological inspirers of the art of their era.
A sharp aggravation in the XVI century. religious conflicts associated with attempts to convert the Ukrainian population to the Catholic faith, caused the spread ideas consonant with the ideology of the Western European Reformation. Controversial Writers - Gerasim and Meletius Smotrytsky , Ivan Vyshensky, Vasily Surazhsky sharply criticized the higher Orthodox clergy for their greed, moral decline, betrayal of the interests of the Ukrainian people, defended their right to their faith, customs, language. Simultaneously in polemical literature Much attention was paid to the development of education and book printing. One of the brightest examples of polemical literature is the work of G. Smotrytsky " Key of the kingdom of heaven"(1587).
2.C system scientific knowledge in the Ukrainian culture of that time consisted of theological disciplines, grammar, poetics, arithmetic, ethics, stories, rights, medicine, music. Spread translated works on the problems of metaphysics, logic, astrology, astronomy: " Aviasaf logic", "Cosmography"and others. The medical reference book was of great interest" Aristotelian Gates or the Secret of Secrets".
Theoretical comprehension and development of ideas consonant with the new era were carried out at the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th centuries. Ukrainian " scribes", which united around cultural and educational centers created by tycoons-philanthropists or representatives of the urban population to preserve the national culture. One of these cultural centers in con. 16th century became Ostroh Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy (collegium), which was opened in 1576 in the city of Ostrog (now in the Rivne region) by Prince Konstantin Ostrozhsky .
Over time, this school has risen to the level of European educational institutions. The Ostroh Collegium united around itself well-known cultural figures of that time; not only Russian and Ukrainian, but also foreign scientists taught there: Doctor of Philosophy and Medicine, Professor of Krakow University Jan Latosh , Greek Kirill Lukaris , who later became Patriarch of Constantinople, etc.
In the last quarter XVI - beginning. 17th century in cities everywhere began to be created brotherhood- public associations that have become in the conditions of strengthening the influence of Catholicism ideological centers for the protection of faith, language, culture and other spiritual values of the Ukrainian people. Schools, hospitals, printing houses, libraries were maintained at their expense.
The first of these was Lviv brotherhood originated in 1439.
By the beginning of the XVII century. brotherhoods were already active in many cities of Ukraine. Each of them opened a school. The leading among them was the school Lvov Assumption Brotherhood(a national-religious public organization of Orthodox philistines of Lviv, which has been operating for 200 years!).
Training in fraternal schools It began with the study of Slavic grammar, mastery of reading and writing skills, the study of Greek and Latin, knowledge of which enabled students to get acquainted with the achievements of Western European science and literature. The program of fraternal schools also included poetics, rhetoric, and music.
School graduates traveled around Ukraine, spreading knowledge and calling on the people to resist the Polish Catholic influence.
played an important role in the formation of a new culture literature.
book printer Ivan Fedorov (Fedorovich ) in 1574 published in Lvov the first printed book in Russia (in Ukraine) " Apostle", and a little later - " Primer". After moving to Ostrog at the expense of K. Ostrozhsky, he founded a second printing house, in which he produced the famous Ostrog Bible(1581) - the first complete edition of the Bible in Slavonic. Writer Gerasim Smotrytsky. rector of the Ostroh Academy, edited the Ostroh Bible and wrote to it foreword. This edition was widely distributed in Ukraine and abroad, entered the library of Oxford University, in the royal court of Sweden.
secular literature, associated with the traditions of chronicle writing and the development of Russian (Ukrainian) law, reflected the historical offensive of the Lithuanian statehood in its interaction with the cultural tradition of the Ukrainian people: " Sudebnik" Casimir (1468), Lithuanian Charter(1529, 1566), short Kyiv Chronicle XIV - beginning. 16th century
A special place in the literature of that time is occupied by Ukrainian epic - thoughts, ballads, historical songs.
deep imagery doom admired T.Shevchenko who put them above the Homeric ones" Iliad" and " Odyssey". The heroes of the thoughts embodied the best features of the Ukrainian people, their indomitable desire for life, freedom, broad nature, nobility. Ethnographer M.Maximovich drew attention to the organic connection of thoughts with the history of the people, he singled them out in separate literary genre.
cycle of doom" Marusya Boguslavka", "Samiylo Kishka"and others are imbued with liberating moods, loyalty to the Orthodox faith. Thoughts about the death of a Cossack in the steppe are permeated with high poetics, emotionality, and the spiritual power of invincibility:" Death of Fyodor Bezrodny", "Three Samara brothers". A separate group is the epic glorifying the heroism of the Cossacks: " thought about the Cossack Golota", and etc.
From martyr hero to hero-winner Ukrainian culture was going on, confirming the fact that it did not stay away from the pan-European process of the Renaissance.
3.B XV-XVI centuries popular culture is on the rise. Despite foreign influence, Ukrainian traditions and customs, songs and dances, folk crafts are preserved and developed.
AT architecture and fine arts of this period, features are formed Ukrainian style. They appear primarily in stone architecture of Western Ukraine, where the influence of the Renaissance style was organically combined with Ukrainian folk traditions, transferred from wooden architecture to stone religious buildings and urban buildings.
In the XV-XVI centuries. the cities of Lvov, Lutsk, Kamenetz-Podolsky, Przemysl, Brody are actively expanding and re-planning, extensive construction of powerful castles-fortresses and castles-palaces is underway.
AT temple building new trends are also observed. Near the buildings of the old Old Russian type, more solemn buildings were erected: a tower-like building was built in the Hills. Church of Ivan the Baptist, Kuzma and Demyan, in Lviv - Church of St. Onufry(XV century), which preserved fragments (one of the few) frescoes of that time, Peter and Paul Church on Podil in Kyiv (XVI century).
The leading positions in architecture belonged to Lviv, whose Renaissance buildings occupy an outstanding place not only in the history of Ukrainian, but also in Western European art. So, Assumption Church, Kornyakt Tower, Chapel of the Three Hierarchs Together they make up a unique architectural ensemble of the late 16th - early 17th centuries.
Facades, portals, interiors of Renaissance houses, palaces, churches, iconostases are decorated with sculptural reliefs and rich wood carving. Closely associated with the traditions of the Renaissance and sculptural portrait, which has become widespread in the form of magnificent tombstones: monuments to the Kyiv governor A. Kisel, prince K. Ostrozhsky(in the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra), etc.
Ukrainian painting XIV-XVI centuries developed under the life-giving influence of the iconography of Kievan Rus. Masters strove for expressiveness, brevity, simplicity. The centers of painting were the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, Lvov, Przemysl.
The manifestation of humanistic Renaissance ideas was the appearance on the paintings and icons of signatures of painters: "Vladyka", "Yakov", "Matthew", etc. (Recall that one of the features of the culture of the Middle Ages was anonymity).
Masters of Ukrainian monumental fresco art were known far beyond the borders of their country. In the Polish cities of Lublin, Krakow, Wislice, Ukrainian craftsmen decorated churches and chapels. In contrast to the fresco painting of the 13th century, which was dominated by the mood of asceticism, renunciation of the world, typical of medieval art, in the 15th century. lyrical, bright, joyful motives predominate - kindness, self-sacrifice, heroism, love. Unfortunately, these fresco masterpieces have hardly been preserved in Ukraine itself.
The most common icon-painting images were: Yuri (George) Zmeeborets, Mother of God, Archangel Michael; plots - The Crucifixion of Jesus, the Last Supper, Christmas, the Last Judgment, the Expulsion from Paradise. The saints on the icons more and more resembled ordinary people, peasants, and not ascetic martyrs, acquiring individual features. A vivid example of such painting is the icon " Volyn Mother of God", whose majestic silhouette makes a deep impression and conveys the understanding of female beauty characteristic of that era.
At the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th centuries. is widely developed portrait painting. Under the influence of the ideas of humanism, artists began to pay special attention to the face of a person, sought to convey the character of the individual, his mind, willpower, self-esteem. These features are characteristic of portraits of the Polish King Stefan Batory, Prince K. Ostrozhsky made by such masters of the Lviv school as the artist V. Stefanovich .
Worked fruitfully in Ukraine graphic artists. They skillfully designed books - first handwritten, then printed. Unique in this respect is the design Kyiv Psalter(1397), containing more than 200 original miniatures on a variety of topics.
In the XIV-XVI centuries. developed musical culture and theatrical art. Musicians, singers, dancers, as before, united around monasteries and episcopal sees.
In instrumental music, such instruments as horn, harp, tambourine, bagpipes, etc. were used.
The Cossacks preferred the trumpet, timpani, bandura, kobza, lyre.
The original vocal and instrumental genre of that time was historical songs and thoughts with the free construction of poetic and musical phrases performed kobzars.
Played an important role music education in fraternal schools. It is then that the so-called partes singing[from lat. partes - part, voices] - polyphonic singing in parts (by voices), which eventually reached a high professional level.
The development of theatrical art was primarily associated with performances buffoons- folk singers, musicians, clowns, acrobats. They were not only performers, but also anonymous creators of folklore.
At the end of the XVI century. expanding the theatrical arts. Arises wandering puppet show, and simultaneously with fraternal schools - school theater in which both students and teachers played. At first, it had only educational value, but since the end of the century it has been actively used in the fight against Catholicism.
Achievements of the culture of the Ukrainian people in the XIV-XVI centuries. allow us to draw a conclusion about its bright original character, on the one hand, and close connection with the humanistic Renaissance ideas, on the other.
Unfading cultural values are gradually revealed before us, created at that time by anonymous, for the most part, authors. In the lands dominated by the enslavers, in the conditions of foreign cultural expansion, all the spiritual energy of the Ukrainian people was directed to prove their vitality, national dignity and adherence to the traditions of national culture.
The process of formation of the culture of the Ukrainian people in the period under review simultaneously reflected the formation of the Ukrainian ethnos, which ended in the 16th century. In addition to the burghers and the Cossacks, the bulk of the population (peasantry) acted like " national coast", to protect the highest spiritual values - language, poetry, songs, folk rituals, unique Ukrainian identity.
1. Describe the historical conditions for the development of Ukrainian culture in the XIV-XVI centuries.
2. Expand the essence of humanistic processes in the Ukrainian culture of that time.
3. On the example of the work of polemical writers, analyze the essence of reformist ideas in Ukraine.
4. How did science, education, book business develop in Ukraine?
5. What moral ideal is sung in historical thoughts and folk songs?
6. What features were inherent in the architecture of Ukraine in the XIV-XVI centuries?
7. Describe the national features of the fine arts in Ukraine in the XIV-XVI centuries.
V.4. CULTURE OF UKRAINE OF THE NEW TIME (XVII-XVIII centuries)
1. Features of the cultural situation in Ukraine in the XVII century.
2. Education and intellectual life in Ukraine in the 17th - the first half of the 18th centuries.
3. Contradictions in the development of Ukrainian culture in the Age of Enlightenment.
4. Artistic culture and art of Ukraine in the era of the New Time.
Basic concepts Keywords: "condensation", "mandrivny" clerks, academic disputes, Cossack annals, Ukrainian (Cossack) baroque, school drama, nativity scene.
1.U Ukrainian culture in the first half. 17th century developed in conditions of armed struggle both with external enemies - the Crimean Khanate, Turkey, and with an internal enemy - the Polish-gentry state, under whose rule Ukraine was. But the masses of the people also had to wage an internal struggle against social, national and cultural oppression against their own landlord-serf elite.
aggravated at this time and struggle between Catholicism and Orthodoxy. Orthodox-Catholic contradictions connected with the unwillingness of the Polish elite to recognize the Orthodox tradition in the original Russian lands were wound on a tangle of Cossack-gentry social contradictions. Imprisonment in 1596 Brest Union, uniting the Catholic and Orthodox Churches on the territory of the Commonwealth, subordinating the latter to the Pope of Rome, caused serious discontent among the Ukrainian population. However, over time Greek Catholic (Uniate) Church nevertheless established itself in the territories of Western Ukraine.
Polonization and catholicization of the Ukrainian elite led to the fact that the Cossacks had to take on a social role that in other countries was performed by the nobility. the Cossacks become the main defender of the Orthodox faith, as a whole, having risen for the rights of fellow believers.
Cossack became a key figure not only in Ukrainian history, but also in culture, national consciousness, like a cowboy in American culture or a Viking in Scandinavian.
The growing role of the Cossacks was accompanied by a powerful renewal of religious and cultural life in Ukraine. Hetman Petr Sahaidachny substantiated the idea of an alliance between the Cossacks and the Ukrainian cultural and religious elite. The form for such an alliance was chosen brotherhood. In 1620, P. Sahaydachny, together with all the Zaporozhye Cossacks, joined the Kiev Brotherhood, demonstrating the intention of the Cossacks from now on to guard the cultural and religious interests of the Ukrainian people.
Defending the positions of Orthodoxy contributed to the weakening of the Polonization process and contributed to socio-political and national-cultural awakening of the Ukrainian people. The result of this was an uprising of unprecedented scope - the Cossack liberation war led by Bohdan Khmelnytsky , culminating in the conclusion in 1654 of the historical military-political union of the Hetmanate and the Muscovite state.
Exploring the features of Ukraine's interaction with the surrounding cultural world, scientists note that in the XVI-XVII centuries. Ukraine intensively compensated for its relative cultural backwardness in previous eras, greedily absorbing everything significant and progressive. During this period, there is a mixture of different styles related to different periods of European culture. Such a phenomenon in cultural studies is called " thickening".
Thus, the 17th century in the life of the Ukrainian people was marked by intense development of national culture, national identity, the best features of the national character such as the pursuit of freedom and social justice. At the same time, the phenomenon thickening" emphasizes the originality of the culture of Ukraine, focused on the ideas of the Renaissance and the Reformation and formed under the influence of baroque aesthetics.
2.B the most important indicator of Ukrainian culture in the XVII century. was high level of literacy and education various segments of the population. This is evidenced by many documentary evidence. Thus, a Syrian Christian Arab Pavel Aleppsky , passing through Ukraine, testified that even Ukrainian peasants were literate, and rural priests, teaching orphans, saved them from vagrancy.
Every church had schools where they taught clerks. For the Ukrainian culture of this period, the clerk is a very popular figure. Most often, this is a young man who has received or is completing a theological education, but does not yet have the priesthood. Their main occupation was teaching in Orthodox schools.
A special flavor was given to the educational culture of that time " mandrivni"clerks[ukr. mandrivenni- vagrants, travelers], who wandered around Ukraine alone or in groups. The main source of existence for this educated but highly unorganized group of people was intellectual labor. They were hired to write letters, compose complaints, compose a rhymed ode or stage a play they had written, translate from Latin and Greek.
Under the influence of Western European humanistic and reformist ideas in Ukrainian education in the 17th century. significant changes are taking place. Created with high quality new educational institutions based on national traditions, combining advanced domestic and European experience. These include, first of all, organized on the model of European universities Kiev-Mohyla Collegium, which subsequently received the status academy. It was founded in 1632 on the initiative of an outstanding Ukrainian religious and statesman, one of the most educated and most advanced people of the era - the Kyiv Metropolitan Petra Mogila .
The Collegium studied four languages: Slavic, Latin, Greek and Polish. In addition to grammar, rhetoric, poetics, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music, metaphysics, and other sciences, philosophy. The entire course of study lasted 12 years. The end of the collegium made it possible to continue education at any university in Europe.
The great merit of the collegium was that the Ukrainian educated elite was formed here, polemicists were trained to defend the faith, the concept of higher education in Ukraine.
Many well-known figures of science and culture came out of the walls of the Kiev-Mohyla Academy: Feofan Prokopovich , Grigory Skovoroda , Mikhailo Lomonosov and others. They carried out an educational and cultural mission among the people, replenished the governing bodies of the Zaporizhzhya army, and worked in government institutions. Academy graduates were the first professors and teachers of Moscow and St. Petersburg Universities, and F. Prokopovich and M. Lomonosov became one of the founders of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
At this time, passionate controversy on the problems of national and religious independence of the Ukrainian people, which contributed to the flourishing of journalism and oratory of polemicists. academic disputes― a striking phenomenon of Ukrainian cultural life of the 17th - early 18th centuries. Researchers consider heated debates, which were a real synthesis of the arts, model of Ukrainian culture of the Baroque era.
In the second floor. 17th century activity is activated literary studios. In addition to the previously established literary genres, it begins to develop memoirs (memoirs- autobiographical notes, memoirs).
Historical and memoir prose is presented Cossack annals. One of the earliest Cossack chronicles is considered " Chronicle of a seer". The name of the author is unknown, but, as the text of the chronicle testifies, he was a direct participant in the liberation war of the Ukrainian people led by Bohdan Khmelnytsky .
The most fundamental historical work is the four-volume chronicle Samiyla Velichko "The legend of the Cossack war with the Poles through Zinovy Bogdan Khmelnitsky"(1720). This chronicle belongs to the genre of artistic and literary research.
3.R development of cultural life in Ukraine in the era Enlightenment largely due to the economic and political circumstances of the time.
In the first floor. 18th century in the cultural life of the Ukrainian people there is some revival, especially during the "hetmanate". However, the Russian Empire gradually limits and then destroys political independence. Little Russia, as Ukraine was then called, having abolished the hetmanship in 1764 and liquidated the Zaporozhian Sich in 1775. And already by the end of the century, Ukraine becomes provincial in all its regions and in all spheres of life― social, economic, cultural, religious, having lost its significance as a cultural conductor between Western Europe and Russia which she was in the 17th century.
In this period the social structure of Ukrainian society is changing. There is a gradual enslavement of the Ukrainian peasants according to the Russian model and the stratification of the Cossack elders into the bourgeoisie and the peasantry.
The Ukrainian Orthodox Church ceases to exist as a whole. On the one hand, the subordination of the Western dioceses to the Pope of Rome, which led to the formation of a separate Uniate Church. On the other hand, the Moscow Orthodox Church, acting as the protector of all Orthodox, in fact " swallowed up"Eastern dioceses - by the end of the 18th century, church lands were transferred to the state, the church became completely financially dependent on the government.
Many members of the Russian clergy were suspicious of Ukrainians, considering them " infected"Latin heresies. Under the pretext of eradicating heretical deviations, the Synod forced Ukrainians to print books, paint icons, build churches according to all-Russian models. Gradually, the Ukrainian Orthodox Church lost its distinctive features, its pro-Western orientation, becoming another means of spreading imperial culture.
Fundamental changes have also taken place in the field of education in Ukraine. By the end of the XVIII century. leading educational institutions were no longer in Ukraine, but in Russia. The Kiev-Mohyla Academy is transformed into an ordinary theological seminary. Ukrainians, who wanted to join the latest knowledge, were now forced to enter higher educational institutions in Russia.
In the second half of the XVIII century. Ukrainian literature, crushed by censorship and the general impoverishment of cultural life, is turning into "second-rate". The works of Ukrainian writers are published only in the Great Russian language. In high society, a disdainful attitude towards the national language is gradually being formed. Even " enlightened"Ukrainians see it as a provincial, futureless, interesting, but dying phenomenon.
In the same time, many leading figures of Ukrainian culture with their works formed a sense of Ukrainian patriotism among the enlightened part of the country's population. So, Semyon Divovich in a poem Conversation between Great Russia and Little Russia"protests against the imperial policy of Russia, and Vasily Kapnist wrote " Ode to slavery"which speaks of Ukraine groaning" under the yoke of a heavy power".
A special place in the history of Ukrainian culture of the XVIII century. belongs to the work of the outstanding Ukrainian philosopher, writer Grigory Skovoroda (1722-1794). The son of a poor Cossack from the Poltava region, he was educated at the Kyiv Academy, worked as a teacher at the Pereyaslavsky and Kharkov Collegiums, was a "mandriving" philosopher (he was forced to do this by the church authorities, who were hostile to his progressive views and pedagogical methods) (see section. I .2).
G. Skovoroda is called " Ukrainian Socrates". Meeting with different people, the thinker entered into polemics with them. Most of all he was interested in the question of human happiness. The creative heritage of G. Skovoroda is diverse: poems, fables, textbooks on ethics, poetics, philosophical treatises.
It should be noted that the Ukrainian poets had very strong feelings of grief over the lost rights, the loss of autonomy. Although sometimes the desire for a career and class welfare overcame " idioms of the past Romantic dreams did not prevent some Ukrainian cultural figures from supporting the policies of the empire.
Thus, in connection with the historical conditions that developed in the XVIII century, in Ukraine neither social nor cultural prerequisites for the widespread development of the Enlightenment arose. In the official culture, oriented towards Russian statehood, a stereotype of the second-rateness of everything Ukrainian was taking shape. Folk culture, which carefully preserved national traditions, could not rise to the level of the highest ideals of the Enlightenment, much less defend them.
4.3 significant cultural phenomenon of the XVII-XVIII centuries. is Ukrainian or Cossack baroque. This universal style, which manifested itself in all areas of culture, types and genres of art, is characterized by a joyful worldview, love of life, generosity of soul, harmony with
nature, closeness to the traditions of Ukrainian folk art.
The Baroque style (see section IV.2.) preferred synthesis to novelty in art, which predetermined its attractiveness for Ukrainians. Ukrainian baroque did not contribute to the emergence of new ideas - rather, it offered new techniques for Ukrainian art: paradox, allegory, contrast. For the very intermediate position between Eastern Orthodox and Latinized Western cultures inclined the Ukrainian people to synthetic thinking and demanded synthetic style:
· in Galicia, the baroque preserved the classical Western European traditions as much as possible - the ensemble Cathedral of St. Jura in Lvov (XVIII century);
· A number of monuments in the Baroque style were created by Russian masters, or under the strong influence of Great Russian official art. Such, for example, are architectural masterpieces of world significance - Andrew's Church and Mariinsky Palace, built in ser. 18th century in Kyiv, the famous Russian architect F.Rastrelli ;
· However, buildings created under the influence of European baroque on the basis of the traditions of cult Ukrainian art of the period of Kievan Rus and folk wooden architecture became a truly Ukrainian phenomenon.
Original Ukrainian architects did not copy Western European models, their buildings are usually less decorative, their forms are more calm, they are characterized by grandeur of proportions, rich stucco and murals, in which folk motifs clearly sounded, bright colors. Given these peculiar and original features, this style was called Ukrainian or Cossack baroque(see section IV.2).
Among the masterpieces of this style is the recently restored Mikhailovsky Golden-Domed Cathedral in Kyiv, and most of the buildings Kiev Pechersk Lavra.
The most significant achievements of the Ukrainian baroque painting connected with Zhovkiv art center. This association included painters who had European fame: I. Rudkevich, Y. Shimonovich, V. Petrakovich .
A special place in Ukrainian baroque fine art is occupied by sculpture, which has both independent and applied significance - as a sculptural decor. works of the most famous Lviv sculptor Ivan Pinzel decorate, for example, the facades of the Cathedral of St. Jura. The work of a talented master balances on the verge of baroque and rococo. However, the serious passions that his characters experience leave no doubt that they belong to the expansive world of the Baroque.
A feature of Ukrainian baroque plastic art is its adherence to the traditional material in Russia - wood, which has lost popularity in European art since the Middle Ages. " carving"[Ukrainian woodcarving] remained an equal type of sculptural decoration along with the use of marble, bronze and other materials. Therefore, many of Ivan Pinzel's plastic, dynamic, colorful works are made of painted and gilded wood.
Baroque ideas appeared in all types and genres of Ukrainian art of that time, giving them new depth, originality and dynamics.
For baroque musical art characteristic is the desire to know the essence of man, to show the depth of his spiritual experiences, permeated with the struggle with human passions.
These features were especially pronounced in spiritual (church) music. The leading genre in it was party concert[ital. a cappella], which was also called " Kyiv singing".Outstanding representatives of Ukrainian spiritual music were composers: Maxim Berezovsky, Dmitry Bortnyansky .
Along with the spiritual in the XVIII century. secular music appears: romances (chamber vocal works, mostly of a sentimental nature), opera, symphonic music.
The Ukrainian theatrical art. At the beginning of the XVII century. remains especially popular school drama, in which teachers and students of fraternal schools played. And in the second floor. 17th century arises nativity scene[old glory. cave (where Jesus was then believed to have been born)] - itinerant theater, which staged productions of biblical Christmas stories. There were different types of nativity scenes - in some cases it was puppet show, others were played by disguised actors.
In general, the period of the XVII-XVIII centuries. ― a paradoxical epoch in the history of Ukrainian culture. On the one hand, it became evidence of a remarkable flowering of national culture with its bizarrely ornate baroque style and enlightening ideas, on the other hand, Ukrainian culture, having begun to adapt to Western European or Russian imperial models, is deprived of many of its original features and achievements.
QUESTIONS FOR INDEPENDENT WORK:
1. Under what historical conditions did Ukrainian culture develop in the 17th century?
2. How did education develop in Ukraine in the 17th-18th centuries? What is the history of the formation and development of the Kiev-Mohyla Academy?
3. What do you know about Ukrainian literature of the 17th-18th centuries? What phenomena in the cultural life of Ukraine are evidenced by the appearance of Cossack chronicles?
4. Describe the culture of Ukraine in the Age of Enlightenment.
5. Why is G. Skovoroda called " Ukrainian Socrates"?
6. What is the essence and features of the Ukrainian (Cossack) Baroque?
7. Tell us about the development of Ukrainian art in the 18th century.
History of Ukraine, Grade 8
Topic: Culture of Ukraine in the 16th century.
Purpose: to determine the conditions and state of development of culture in Ukraine in the 16th century, to characterize the influence of these conditions on the development of education, printing and art; to develop in students the ability to work independently with different sources of information and, on their basis, to determine the characteristic features of the development of Ukrainian art, draw conclusions and generalizations, form students' ability to work with ICT; to cultivate national-patriotic and aesthetic feelings.
Predicted results:
Students will be able to:
determine the conditions and state of development of culture in Ukraine in the XVI century;
characterize the influence of these conditions on the development of education, printing and art;
to name the names of prominent figures of culture and art;
evaluate their activities;
recognize and describe outstanding cultural monuments;
independently work with different sources of information and on their basis determine the characteristic features of the development of Ukrainian art;
Work with ICT.
During the classes
Students are divided into 3 groups.
Group 1 received an advanced task to prepare a mini-project "Development of education in the 16th century"
Group 2 received an advanced task to prepare a mini-project " The development of literature and printing in the 16th century"
The 3rd group received an advanced task to prepare a mini-project “Peculiarities of the development of architecture, sculpture, painting in the 16th century”.
Each group prepared a presentation on a given topic.
I. Updating of basic knowledge.
Brainstorm.
Problematic issue: to determine the conditions for the development of culture in Ukraine in the XVI century.
Did Ukraine have its own state during this period?
Which states included Ukraine?
What policy did these states pursue towards the Ukrainian people?
What role did the Orthodox Church play in the life of the Ukrainian people?
What is culture?
How, in your opinion, did the socio-economic and political situation of Ukrainian lands influence the development of Ukrainian culture?
Could this stage in the history of Ukraine become a period of national cultural revival?
"Conditions for the Development of Culture in Ukraine in the 16th Century"
| Positive Factors | Negative factors |
Document #1
“Ambiguous processes have been attached to the cultural development of Ukraine at the same time. The fall of the Byzantine Empire became the destabilizing cultural processes. What allowed the Christian Orthodox religion to be encouraged, fundamentally reoriented trade, pushed the culture of the state in the Ukrainian lands; the presence of the ruling power; the growing threat of the Polish and Catholic after the establishment of the Union of Lublin; Tatar aggression. The rise of Ukrainian culture was sown by technical and technological progress; viniknennya that development of vlasnogo drukarstvo; the appearance of a cossack. Mutually, the officials have fundamentally changed the cultural face of the Ukrainian lands.” (Boyko O.D. History of Ukraine)
Checking Student Tables
Conclusion: At this stage of historical development, the Ukrainian lands did not have their own state and were part of other states, which led to the peculiar development of their culture.
II. Development of education.
Mini-project of the 1st group.
Questions for consolidation:
What and how was taught in fraternal schools?
What requirements were put forward for teachers of such schools?
What do you think the pupils of such schools were like?
What place did educational institutions occupy in the national-cultural development?
How, in your opinion, did the socio-economic and political situation of Ukrainian lands influence the development of education in the period under study?
III. "The Development of Literature and Printing in the 16th Century"
Mini-project 2 groups
Questions for consolidation:
What do you know about the activities of Schweipolt Fiol? What was the significance of the appearance of his printed books for the cultural life of Ukraine?
What was the significance of the activities of Ivan Fedorovich? What books have been published?
What role did chronicles play?
Make a ranked series in groups of the given topic.
Yes it is…
Yes, it is, but...
No, it's not...
No, it's not, but...
IV. Features of the development of architecture, sculpture, painting in the XVI century.
Mini-project 3 groups
Students receive a creative task: based on the mini-project of the group, draw up flowcharts:
1. The main directions in the development of architecture.
2. The main directions in the development of sculpture.
3. The main directions in the development of painting.
V. Generalization and systematization.
Microphone Method
1. Today in the lesson we studied the topic ...
2. During the lesson, we learned ...
3. The main characteristic features of the development of the culture of Ukraine in the period under study are ...
4. Today we met such cultural figures as ...
5. Today we got acquainted with such cultural monuments as ...
6. We learned such characteristic signs of the development of art as ...
Method "Discussion"
Did Ukrainian culture experience a period of revival in the 16th century?
Summarizing.
Homework: preparation for control testing, prepare an additional report on the topic:
"Culture of our region in the period under study"
The main directions in the development of sculpture
Introduction
The invasion of the hordes of Batu, which caused enormous damage to Southwestern Russia, had a severe impact on its cultural life. Many cultural centers were destroyed by the invaders, the most valuable monuments of literature and art irretrievably perished in the fires. Pereyaslav and Kyiv lands, especially its southern part, a significant part of the territory of Chernihiv lands, were subjected to the greatest devastation. In ruins lay Kyiv - the largest center of culture of Ancient Russia. The enemy exterminated the inhabitants of cities and villages, drove them into slavery. There was a forced relocation of a significant part of the population to the northern and western, relatively safe areas.
The revival of the culture of Southwestern Russia took place in unfavorable conditions. The heavy gold yoke of the Horde, the rule of Lithuanian, Polish feudal lords and other foreign enslavers hampered the process of revival and further development of the cultural life of Ukrainian lands. Despite this, the culture of the XIII-XVI centuries. the destructive consequences of the invasion of the Batu hordes were overcome, and major successes in development were achieved. This was facilitated by the restoration and further rise of productive forces, the formation of the Ukrainian people, which stimulated the growth of national self-consciousness.
1. Enlightenment and book publishing in Ukrainian culture XIII - perv. floor. XVI centuries
1.1. Enlightenment in the second. floor. XIII-XIV centuries Book writing
The Golden Horde dealt a heavy blow to the cities of Southwestern Russia, especially the largest of them, but they continued to be the most important centers of culture. The role of Kyiv was especially significant, where, in particular, in the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, the rich cultural traditions of Ancient Russia were preserved and developed.
In the period under review, writing was not a monopoly of the clergy. Letter stamps on earthenware and lead seals, inscriptions on relatively inexpensive items (whorls, bone knife handles) indicate that there were literate people among artisans and ordinary warriors. In a number of cities, bronze writings were found for writing on wax tablets, which were used in teaching literacy.
The existence of schools in Volhynia can be inferred from the life of the icon painter, later Metropolitan Peter, a native of Volyn. At the age of seven, he “begins to study books from his parents”. In the life it is noted that the teacher was conscientious, and the boy studied poorly at first and only later surpassed his peers. The concern of parents for the education of their children is also characterized by the inscription of the scribe Iev on the parchment manuscript of the teachings of Ephraim the Syrian, dated 1288. We learn from it that the tiun of Vladimir-Volyn prince Vladimir Vasilkovich Peter had "a son named Lavrenty, he should be taught the holy books." Undoubtedly, “teaching the holy books” is not just literacy, but a higher level of education, which included elements of rhetoric, philosophy, and legal knowledge.
Highly educated people, experts in foreign languages worked in the princely and episcopal offices of the Galicia-Volyn principality. They prepared the texts of letters, conducted diplomatic correspondence. In the Galicia-Volyn chronicle, in addition to a number of references to charters, the text of two charters by Vladimir Vasilkovich and one by Mstislav Daniilovich is given. Information has also been preserved about the letter of Lev Daniilovich. The letters of the Galician-Volyn princes Andrei Yuryevich and Lev Yuryevich, the boyar-ruler Dmitry Dedka, intended for foreign addressees, are known in the originals. They are written in good Latin, in accordance with the rules generally accepted at that time for the preparation of diplomatic documents. The language and style of the Galician-Wolsh letters influenced the diplomatic form of letters written in Ukrainian for the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Moldavia (Tuesday half of the 14th - first half of the 17th centuries).
Of the handwritten books created or distributed in the second half of the 13th-14th centuries, only an insignificant part of them has come down to us. A number of ancient monuments (Christinopol Apostle of the 12th century, the Buchat Gospel of the 12th-13th centuries, etc.) have been preserved in the monastery of the South Volyn village of Gorodishche, one of the cultural centers of the 13th-14th centuries.
At the end of the XIV century in Kyiv, the clerk Spiridonius copied the Kyiv Psalter. In Kholm under Leo Daniilovich, the Kholm Gospel of the 13th century, the Galician Gospel of Gregory the Presbyter and the Gospel of 1283 were copied.
The wide distribution of handwritten books in Volhynia is evidenced by the chronicle story about Prince Vladimir Vasilkovich of Vladimir, who "was a great philosopher." In connection with the death of the prince, the chronicler lists his donations to the churches of his principality in Vladimir, Berestye, Velsk, Kamenets, Lyuboml and the episcopal sees of other principalities - Lutsk, Przemysl, Chernihiv. Of those donated in the annals, 36 books are named and partially described. But these are not all the books donated by Vladimir. So, the books donated to the church in Velsk remained outside the list - they are mentioned without indicating names and numbers. The prince donated 12 volumes to the church in Lyuboml alone. Obviously, of the books sent to other cities, the chronicle names only the most valuable ones. In many cases, it is indicated where the prince received them from: two cathedrals were inherited from his father, a prayer book was bought from the priest in Lyuboml, a number of books were written off at his direction, and two he wrote off himself.
Among the books named in the annals there are not only prayer books and liturgical texts (the gospel-aprakos, the apostle, the service book, triodion, octoich, paremia, 12 menaia, irmologion), but also those intended for secular reading: the prologue of the twelve months, the “collector” and “collector great” (probably collections of moral and didactic texts similar to the Izbornik of 1076). The variety of books at the court of Vladimir draws attention. In addition to those listed in the list of donated books, there were others in his library. This is evidenced by the mention in the annals of the fortune-telling of the prince in the "books of the prophets".
The art of book design and binding reached a high level in the Vladimir principality. Among the books of Vladimir Vasilkovich, many were bound with silver. And the gospel-aprakos sent to the Chernihiv bishopric was “written in gold” and “bound in silver with a zhenchug and among it the Savior with a finip.” The binding of the two gospels ordered for the Lyubomel church is described in particular detail. One of them is bound "everything with gold and we will mark it with expensive women, and the deesis on it is shackled from gold, the tsats are great with finip". Thus, the leather bindings of the most expensive books were decorated with gold-woven materials, metal overlays with images made with enamel (enamels). All these rich bindings were made by local artisans. Some of the books were decorated with beautiful miniatures. Consequently, a large group of scribes and book decorators worked in Vladimir. There is reason to believe that book-writing workshops also existed at episcopal departments and in large monasteries.
The invasion of the Golden Horde did not interrupt the cultural ties between the lands that were previously part of the Old Russian state. A significant contribution to the cultural communication of the southwestern and northeastern Old Russian lands was made by outstanding cultural figures of that time. So, after 1250, Kirill, appointed by Daniil of Galicia to the Kyiv metropolis (previously a princely printer and one of the leaders of the court chronicle), settled in North-Western Russia for many years. It is believed that the life of Alexander Nevsky, in many respects reminiscent in form and style of the chronicle biography of Daniil Galitsky, was created: by Cyril or one of the Galician scribes who arrived with him in North-Western Russia. With the participation of: Cyril, the first East Slavic edition was compiled: The Pilot's Book (code of canon law), which became the basis for both southwestern and northern Russian revisions.
1.2 Enlightenment in the XV - perv. floors. XVI century
Capture in the second half of the XIV century. majority of Ukrainian lands by Polish and Lithuanian feudal lords hindered the development of Ukrainian culture. The national-religious oppression of the indigenous Ukrainian population by the Catholic and feudal lords and the urban elite had an extremely negative impact on the state of education and culture in general. At the same time, protests against Catholicization meant a struggle for the originality of Ukrainian culture, for the preservation of its East Slavic character, due to the common cultural heritage of the three East Slavic peoples and cultural ties between them.
In the XV - early XVI centuries. The main centers of Ukrainian culture were cities, where schools existed at monasteries, episcopal departments, books were copied and collected. In particular, the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery played an important role in the spread of writing. Through it, cultural ties between Ukraine and Russia and the southern Slavs were also carried out.
From ancient times, literacy was taught in monasteries, but monastic education was very limited, and did not have a unified system. Schools also existed in some parishes. So, in the documents of 1550-1551. schools attached to churches in Krasnostav and Sanok, Russian Voivodeship, are mentioned. The testament of the Volyn gentry V. Zagorovsky appointed a constant payment to the deacon, who taught children, and in his spare time rewrote books. The will did not establish anything new in the form of literacy education, but testified to the preservation of a long tradition. In addition to Orthodox schools in some cities of Galicia and Transcarpathia, there were schools attached to Catholic churches. The oldest of them was the school at the Lviv Latin Department, however, until the middle of the 16th century. education in it was scholastic in nature.
Already in the XV - perv. floor. 16th century quite a few immigrants from Ukraine studied at the Krakow, Prague, Padua, Paris universities, as well as at some universities in Germany. In 1549, S. Ozhekhovsky wrote that the Carpathians “enjoy the Latin and Greek sciences” thanks to the connections of the Ukrainian population with the Greeks and trips to study in Italy. Only at the University of Krakow in the XV-first half of the XVI century. at least 1,200 people from Ukraine were trained. Of these, the mathematician and astronomer (founder of the Department of Astronomy at the University of Krakow) Martin Korol from Zhuravitsy, a small village in the western part of the Russian Voivodeship, deserves mention. It is noteworthy that among the students-"Rusyns" a significant part was made up of townspeople. In particular, Yuriy Kotermak from Drogobych, the first domestic author of a printed book, came from a poor urban family. He studied at the Krakow and Bologna universities, in 1478-1482. taught astronomy at the Bologna University of Liberal Sciences, and in 1481-1482. was elected rector of this university - one of the centers of humanistic natural science and philosophy. In 1487-1494. Yuri Kotermak-Drohobych was a professor of astronomy and medicine at the University of Krakow, where Nicolaus Copernicus and the German Latin-speaking humanist poet Konrad Celtis studied these subjects in the same years.
In 1482, the Roman printing house of Eucharius Zilber published a treatise by Yuri Kotermak-Drohobych "Prognostic Assessment of the Current Year 1481", containing the first attempt to determine the geographical longitude of Lvov, Drohobych, Kafa. The works of Yuri Kotermak-Drogobych, which corresponded to the level of European science of that time, also became widespread in handwritten copies (one of them was made by the hand of the famous humanist Hartmann Schedel, author of the World Chronicle).
In 1451-1477. Gregory of Sanok was the Catholic archbishop of Lvov. From a humanistic position, he advocated weakening the subordination of literature and science to theology. Prominent Italian humanists F. Callimachus Buonaccorsi and Pomponio Leto visited Ukraine. A. Tedaldi, a tenant of the Carpathian saltworks, who was connected with the Florentine humanists, lived here. Their stay in Ukraine undoubtedly contributed to the spread of humanistic ideas. Finally, by the first half of the XVI century. includes the literary activity of the poet Pavel Prozeler from Krosno and the publicist Stanislav Ozhechovsky, whose work is imbued with the ideas of the Italian Renaissance. Their works, written from a humanistic standpoint, were a contribution to the liberation of culture from the influence of the church (secularization), without which the further development of education and science was unthinkable.
Pavel Prozeler from Krosno came from German colonists, but called himself a Ruthenian. He commented on the works of ancient Greek poets to students in Krakow, and knew the neo-Latin humanistic poetry well. S. Orzhehovsky proudly emphasized that he was a Ukrainian. Stanislav Orzhechovsky entered the history of Polish and Ukrainian culture as a brilliant publicist, author of political treatises, in which he called for a fight against Turkish rule in the Yugoslav lands, and preached religious tolerance. Although Pavel Rusyn and S. Ozhekhovsky wrote in Latin and their works were distributed mainly among the urban elite and feudal lords, they nevertheless contributed to the further development of Ukrainian culture.
In the difficult conditions for the development of culture in Ukraine, the rich heritage of national culture was of great importance, the maintenance and development of which was served by strong cultural ties with Russia and the southern Slavs. In Ukraine, literary monuments written or translated back in the times of Kievan Rus were still popular, and new works were created in line with the same tradition. Interest in scientific literature deepened.
The seizure of the lands of Southwestern Russia by Polish and Lithuanian feudal lords slowed down the development of book writing, but could not stop it. The book business in Ukraine, as well as in Russia and Belarus, developed on the solid foundation of the achievements of book writing in Kievan Rus during its existence as a single state and in times of feudal fragmentation.
During the XV-XVI centuries. handwritten books were created not only in Kyiv and other large cities, but also in many towns, and often in villages. Their scribes were both clergy and secular people. If in the villages the manuscripts were copied by order of the feudal lords, then the cities turned into centers of book writing, designed for sale. In Ukraine, there were no such large book-writing workshops as in Muscovite Russia, but book-writing centers existed in all Ukrainian lands. So, in Transcarpathia, where there were especially unfavorable conditions for cultural life, such an outstanding monument as the Royal Gospel of 1401 was nevertheless created. Of the northern Bukovina manuscripts, the Menaia, completed in 1504 by priest Ignatius from Kitsman, deserves attention.
Starting from the XV century. books were mostly written on paper. During the XV - perv.pol. 16th century braided was the dominant ornament in the design of books in Ukraine. From the second half of the XVI century. floral patterns take the first place, however, both the wickerwork and the teratological ornament survived until the end of the existence of the handwritten book. The rise of Ukrainian book writing was outlined in the 16th century, especially in its second half. The themes of books and their design become more diverse.
1.3 Distribution of the first printed books
From references in documents of the XV-XVI centuries. it can be seen that already at that time representatives of the clergy and secular people had book collections. So, in 1528, in the council of the city of Lvov, there was a lawsuit about books brought from Moldavia by Mogilnitsky for the city dweller Macarius. Vasko Volynets came home to the latter specifically to read these books.
If liturgical works and patristics (religious and philosophical works of the Church Fathers) prevailed among handwritten books, then secular literature also became widespread in printed form.
Printed books soon after their appearance began to penetrate into Eastern European countries, including Ukraine. Many townspeople had books published in Poland (mainly in Krakow) and Western European cities (Basel, Frankfurt, Nuremberg, Strasbourg, Paris, Venice). They were acquired mainly through the mediation of booksellers in Krakow, Poznan, Gdansk, associated with individual publishers and trading firms in Frankfurt, Leipzig and other cities.
So, in 1477, the Poznan bookseller Peter from Lübeck was trading in Lvov, and at the very end of the 15th century. M. Schmid is a representative of the famous Nuremberg firm Kobergerov. Booksellers and printers from Krakow, Poznan, Gdansk also came to the Lvov January Fair. Book trade was also carried out at fairs in other cities.
The greatest demand was for ancient literature, philological works of Western European humanists, books on medicine and jurisprudence. The influx of foreign Catholic and later Protestant printed books set the task for Orthodox cultural circles to oppose this literature with works that would serve the interests of the original development of Ukrainian culture. Therefore, the publication of the first books in Cyrillic in Church Slavonic (Old Church Slavonic) was of particular importance for the development of culture.
The origin of Slavic Cyrillic printing is connected with the needs of cultural life and ideological struggle in the Ukrainian and Belarusian lands, which were under the rule of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland. However, the first printing house, designed to serve the Orthodox population of Ukraine, appeared in the capital and the largest economic center of the Kingdom of Poland, Krakow.
The choice of Krakow for the first Cyrillic printing house is explained not only by the presence of a material and technical base in this large city, but also by the fact that national-religious oppression here was sometimes less acute. For part of the Catholic clergy and feudal lords of the Polish lands proper, the issue of the struggle against Orthodoxy was less relevant than for the Catholic elite, who sought to establish themselves in the Ukrainian and Belarusian lands. The fact that Germans, Italians, Hungarians, Czechs, Belarusians, Ukrainians and representatives of other nationalities lived in Krakow along with the Poles contributed to the transformation of the city into an important center of international cultural relations. One of the manifestations of these connections was the exit in Krakow at the end of the 15th century. the first four books printed in Cyrillic in Church Slavonic. In two of them, "Hours" and "Oktoikhe"), there is output information: they were printed in 1491 in Krakow by a townsman from Franconia, German Schweipolt Fiohl. The same typeface is used for “Lenten Triode” and “Color Triode”. Manuscripts of East Slavic origin were used as originals for printing books. The afterwords to the books have distinct Ukrainian language features.
The appearance of books printed in Cyrillic created the prerequisites for the further spread of literacy, for the revival of the literary process. AND I. Franko considered this event a "turning point" in the history of Ukrainian writing.
At the end of the XV century. there was a Cyrillic printing house in Montenegro, at the beginning of the 16th century - in Wallachia. Significant centers of Cyrillic Slavic printing also arose in Venice and Transylvania.
However, books from these countries entered Ukraine sporadically. Much more important for Ukraine was the emergence in the first quarter of the 16th century. Belarusian book printing, which immediately reached a high level and became a powerful factor in the rise of culture in the East Slavic lands.
The founder of book printing in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was Francysk Skaryna, a native of Polotsk. His worldview was formed under the influence of experience and knowledge gained at home, as well as as a result of acquaintance with the culture of the Western European Renaissance. Skaryna became the forerunner of the Belarusian-Lithuanian reformation. He consciously set himself the task of contributing to the enlightenment of the "people of the Commonwealth."
During the years 1517-1519. in Prague, Skorina published the Psalter and 22 other Old Testament books (in 19 editions) of the Russian Bible. He continued his publishing activity in Vilnius. Here, around 1522, a small-format "Psalter", "Book of Hours", 17 akathists and canons, "Shestodnovets" with services on the days of the week, calendars with Paschalia, and in 1525 - "Apostle" were printed. Skaryna's prefaces and afterwords to books and their sections are often written from an educational standpoint. Thus, in the general preface to the Bible, he speaks of the need to use the elements of real knowledge available in individual liturgical books for the study of the “liberated sciences,” that is, grammar, rhetoric, and dialectics. arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music.
Skorina introduced so many grammatical and lexical elements of the Belarusian language into some of the published books that these texts became an intermediate link in the transition from Church Slavonic to the Belarusian literary language. The desire to make their publications understandable is one of the striking features of Skaryna's humanism.
Skaryna's editions were widely distributed in Ukraine, and most of the surviving manuscript copies of Skaryna's editions were created in Ukrainian lands.
The successors of Skaryna's work were Simon Budny, who published two books in Belarusian in 1562 in Nesvizh, and Vasily Tyapinsky. It is not known where Tyapinsky's printing house worked - in his native Tyapino in Belarus or elsewhere (in the 70s of the 16th century he had a house in Lutsk). Its only known edition, the Gospel, was probably published in the early 70s of the 16th century. Its text was printed in parallel in the Church Slavonic language and translated into "simple language".
The activities of Skaryna, Budny, Tyapinsky were one of the manifestations of the revival of socio-political and cultural life, which created the prerequisites for a further rise in culture.
2. Literature
2.1. Folklore and Literature
On the second floor. XIII- perv. floor. 16th century oral poetic creativity of the Ukrainian people was born and received wide development. It developed the axis in the struggle against feudal oppression and foreign invaders. New forms of folk poetic creativity arose and spread, generated by the originality of the historical, social, cultural and other conditions of life of our people.
During the time described, calendar-ritual and family-ritual songwriting underwent certain changes, prose genres were replenished with new themes and motifs, the living folk language was enriched with new proverbs, sayings, riddles, winged expressions, etc.
Accompanying the work and life of the people, ritual poetry at this stage already largely loses its magical and cult orientation, becomes an expression of the ideals of a working person, formed in the form of poetic wishes during public and family holidays (meeting the new year, spring, harvest, weddings, etc. .). In the ritual actions themselves, echoes of primitive magical rituals associated with agriculture and peasant life are still preserved (dramatized disguise-games of economic and symbolic significance with a plow, tour, goat, the cult of bread in calendar and family rituals). New Year's ceremonies were especially joyful with mummers and songs, reflecting the joy caused by the approach of spring and field work.
From the middle of the XIV century. in Ukraine, under the influence of the Christian religion, the ancient March reckoning begins to be replaced by January. Together with him, they move to the winter period and New Year's ceremonies, however, their content and poetics, as before, are focused on the spring economic period.
The main motifs of folk carols and schedrovkas of this period are majestic-labor and heroic-military ones. Their style is sublimely monumental. On the other hand, ritual games and disguises are filled with humor, traditional for wandering professional buffoons, fools, gamblers, and dancers known in Ancient Russia.
The Orthodox Church sought to adapt the ancient folk rituals, songs and amusements to Orthodox rituals and holidays. At the same time, the attitude of church hierarchs to deep pagan traditions was quite skeptical, even negative. The descriptions of folk rituals preserved in church documents (for example, the descriptions of the Kupala holiday in the message of Abbot Pamfil in 1505, in the collection of church laws "Stoglav" of 1551, etc.) characterize them as "satanic", "corrupt" games.
The meeting of spring with dances, singing of stoneflies, games, to a certain extent, reflected the pre-Christian deification of nature, the desire to enlist its assistance during the hard agricultural work. Cheerful, full of bright hopes for the future, spring songs and dances are in tune with the awakening of nature. The main theme of stoneflies, as can be seen from later records, is family and everyday life, with the expression of people's views on love, family relationships, etc. They also have pagan-mythological, magic-ritual historical echoes. In stoneflies until the 19th century. memories of the honey tribute, the protection of castles and city gates, the images of Prince Roman and Zhuril, obviously related to the epic Churil, have been preserved. The medieval atmosphere is felt in such surviving records of the 19th century. game freckles, like "Bridges", "Goalkeeper", "King", "Town", "Kostrub", "Zhelman".
Mermaid, petrovka and kupala rites and songs are close to stoneflies in their character and family and everyday themes. The Kupala holiday, full of cheerfulness and praise for fertility, was especially widely and vigorously celebrated. He was accompanied by bonfires and games near rivers and reservoirs, reflecting the beliefs of pagan antiquity.
Ritual song sec. floor. XIII - first. floor. 16th century absorbed the themes, images and ideological trends of that time. The influence of modernity to one degree or another manifested itself in all the cycles of songs that accompanied seasonal (winter, spring and summer-autumn) calendar rites and holidays: in carols and schedrovkas, stoneflies, kupala, petrovka and harvest songs.
Thus, the main fund of ritual poetry, created back in the primitive communal era, long before the emergence of the Old Russian state, was enriched with new elements. Social motives began to appear in folk songwriting, reflecting the anti-feudal moods of the masses.
The protest against the seizure of part of the Ukrainian lands by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was reflected in the wedding song, in which, moreover, traces of the ancient tribal custom of wives' abduction are noticeable.
The struggle against the Turkish-Tatar invaders also replenished ritual poetry with new themes and images. In some carols that have come down to us in the records of the 19th century, the young man is depicted precisely as a defender of the Ukrainian land from enemies.
Data from chronicles and other written sources of the XIV-XVI centuries. (including testimonies of Polish writers), as well as the content of individual folklore works, give an idea of the wide distribution in those days of prose genres of folklore - fairy tales, legends, legends and parables. Their main heroes were bogatyrs and knights, in whose exploits the struggle of the people against external conquerors was sung. This struggle demanded an enormous effort of the forces of the people, and therefore strength became the most important feature of the national hero. The antipode of the hero in fairy tales, legends and traditions is usually the embodiment of hostile evil forces - snakes, a strong man from a hostile camp. The victory of the positive hero over them in a fierce duel expressed the optimism of the people and faith in their own strength. Folklore works with similar content performed an important social function - they brought up patriotism. One of the brightest images of the heroes was created in the legend of the Kiev "knight" Mikhailik. In response to the betrayal of the city elite, who agreed to hand over the bogatyr to the enemies, Mikhailik took the Golden Gate on the army and took them to Constantinople. In general, fairy-tale heroes often go to Turkey and overseas, where they fight fantastic monsters and multi-headed snakes, preventing them from entering their native land. Perhaps the legend of Mikhailik is a retelling of the plot of some epic song or epic from the times of Kievan Rus.
Prose legends and legends about the Mongol-Tatar invasion were also popular during this period. One of the characters in these works was the mangy Bonyaka, who was associated in the popular mind with Batu Khan. Hatred and contempt for the conquerors found expression in Bonyaka's features. He is a disgusting, bloodthirsty cannibal with a liver hanging behind his back and an ugly huge head, with heavy eyelids, which are lifted with special pitchforks with the help of servants.
The Renaissance, which had an impact on the entire medieval world, in Ukraine also caused an increase in interest in living reality. The desire of the people to create heroic-epic works, previously manifested in fantastic and heroic tales, legends and traditions, as well as in epic stories, increased and brought to life new genres that were more closely connected with real life. From the end of the XV century. the historical poetry of the Ukrainian people begins to actively develop - lyrical-epic songs and epic thoughts. Under 1506, the "Chronicle" of the Polish writer S. Sarnitsky already recalls an elegiac song about the heroic death of the Strusov brothers on the battlefield, which was sung by the villagers, accompanied by nozzles. It is also known that in 1546 a Ukrainian singer (kobzar or lyre player) sang dumas at the court of Sigismund II Augustus, for which he received a monetary reward.
Ukrainian epic songs of this period were represented mainly by historical songs and ballads. However, as Ivan Franko wrote, their epic did not appear in its pure form, but was always accompanied by lyrical motives. Historical songs reflected the struggle and suffering of the people, constantly subjected to Turkish-Tatar raids. These works have conveyed deeply truthful and exciting pictures of the life of the people in this difficult period of history to this day.
The devastating raids of the Turkish-Tatar invaders on the Ukrainian lands were accompanied by the destruction of villages and cities, the robbery and theft of thousands of civilians into captivity and sending them to slave markets. All this was truthfully recorded by folk songs, which, thanks to their almost documentary reflection of reality, are still a valuable historical and educational source.
Pictures of the robbery and devastation of the Ukrainian lands by the Tatars were also recorded by the chroniclers. For example, the Nikon Chronicle, describing the campaign of Mengli Giray in 1482 on the Kyiv land, reported that the Tatars completely devastated it, the city of Kyiv was burned, and countless people were captured.
Dramatic events of a historical and social nature were reflected in folk ballads. Among them stands out the historical ballad about Stefan the Governor, which has come down to us in the notes of the Czech scholar Jan Blagoslaw, who included it in his grammar sometime before 1571. The song is composed in the Transcarpathian dialect of the Ukrainian language. Researchers associate its content with the events of the 70s of the 15th century, when the Moldavian ruler Stephen III the Great fought against the Sultan's Turkey and won a number of significant victories. The Ukrainian people, who took part in repulsing the Turkish expansion, responded to one of the episodes of this struggle with the song “Danube, Danube, why are you flowing embarrassed?”.
On the basis of the existing song culture of the Ukrainian people, primarily its lyrical-epic forms, as well as under the influence of the ancient Russian epic tradition and the epic of the southern Slavs in the XV-beginning. 16th century Ukrainian folk epic-dumas arose. Their appearance was facilitated by the formation of the Cossacks, who played an important role in protecting their native land from the Turkish-Tatar conquerors. The creators and bearers of the dumas were talented folk musicians and singers - kobzars, who often came from the Cossack environment, participants in the liberation struggle of the people against foreign invaders and the social struggle against feudal oppression. Dumas performed by kobzars at fairs, bazaars, folk festivals were addressed to a wide range of listeners: Cossack warriors, working people.
A characteristic feature of doom, which distinguishes them from older epics, is the lack of fantasy, proximity to reality. This is largely due to the public purpose of thoughts - to educate the masses in a patriotic spirit, to arouse in them a feeling of hatred for external enemies and feudal serf oppression, to elevate and glorify the heroes of the liberation struggle of the people, their courageous deeds, to uphold the principles of healthy people's morality. Thanks to these qualities, dumas have been an integral and leading part of the kobzar repertoire for centuries.
The oldest layer of people's thoughts is devoted to the themes of the struggle against the invasion of the Crimean hordes and the Sultan's troops. Against the generalized historical background of the era, which is viewed in thoughts through individual characteristic and at the same time strongly typified features, pictures of social and family conflicts unfold: unbearable Turkish-Tatar captivity - torment in a dark prison dungeon and hard labor in galleys, mockery of captives , epic pictures of the duel of the Cossack Golota, ataman Matyash Stary and others with foreign enslavers.
To thoughts XV - perv. floor. 16th century include such as "Escape of three brothers from the city of Azov, from Turkish captivity", "Cry of slaves", "Marusya Boguslavka", "Falcon and falcon", "Ivan Boguslavets".
Anxious life under the constant threat of Turkish-Tatar attacks became the main plot of the most ancient thoughts. They are united by a leading patriotic idea and positive characters - Brave defenders of their native land. She is seen by the slaves as beautiful: in her are “calm waters”, “clear dawns”, “a cheerful land”, “a baptized world”. Contrasting the horrors of Turkish captivity with the charms of the native land strengthened the patriotic and educational orientation of the thoughts.
The function of generalization and transmission of labor experience and social views of the people was performed by small genres of folklore - proverbs and sayings, as well as signs related to housekeeping. The existence of proverbial aphoristic works in the living Ukrainian language is evidenced by the writer of the 16th century. Maxim Grek, we meet some examples of them in a document of that period - “The Speeches of Ivan Meleshko”
Thus, in the second half. XIII - the first half. 16th century in the conditions of the Golden Horde yoke, and then domination of the Ukrainian lands by Polish and Lithuanian feudal lords, folk poetic creativity performed a paramount cultural function. It played an important role in the formation and development of the Ukrainian people.
2.2. chronicle writing
After the invasion of Batu and the weakening of the role of Kyiv as the cultural center of the Russian lands, the cultural and literary traditions of Ancient Russia found their continuation in South-Western, North-Eastern and North-Western Russia, where locals and those who fled from the Horde invasion from others were grouped at princely courts and monasteries. lands "book sages".
On the Galicia-Volyn land in the second. floor. 13th century the famous Galicia-Volyn Chronicle was created. It consists of two parts: Galician, covering 1201-1261, and Volyn, relating to 1262-1292. The authors of the Galicia-Volyn Chronicle, as well as the Kyiv chroniclers of the XI - XII centuries. And the creator of The Tale of Igor's Campaign describes the history of his native land, guided by feelings of patriotism, condemns feudal strife and calls on Russian princes to political unity.
Of particular historical and literary value is the Galician part of the chronicle, written by a person very close to Prince Daniel's entourage. The anonymous author is a great connoisseur of Kievan Rus literature and folklore. To create an annals, he used the Kyiv annals, documents from the prince's archive and office, including materials from diplomatic relations, court annals, stories-reports of the boyars about military campaigns. In addition, the author used excerpts from the Byzantine chronicles of Malala and Amartol, "The Tale of the Devastation of Jerusalem" by Josephus Flavius, and the secular story "Alexandria". The first part of the chronicle was created under the supervision of the “printer” Cyril and Bishop Ivan of Kholmsk, who were close to Daniil of Galicia.
The protagonist of the Galician Chronicle is Prince Daniel Romanovich. The author details the story of his life from childhood to death. He vividly describes Daniel's struggle with "boyar sedition" and campaigns against external enemies - German crusader knights, Hungarian and Polish feudal lords, emphasizes the prince's diplomatic abilities. A secular person, the author of the chronicle is almost not interested in religious issues. Talking about the construction of beautiful architectural structures for religious purposes, he sees in them not a manifestation of the power of God, but the result of human activity, his mind and hands. The author vividly described the construction of the city of Holm, in which the "cunning" Obadiah took part.
The Volyn Chronicle reflects mainly the events connected with the reign of Vladimir Vasilkovich in Volhynia. It can be assumed that this part of the chronicle was written by a person from the clergy. The author focuses on the description of the construction of temples, considers the Tatar invasion "God's punishment". The “praise” itself to Prince Vladimir Vasilkovich is very reminiscent of the “praise” to Vladimir Svyatoslavich in the “Sermon On Law and Grace” by the outstanding ancient Russian preacher Hilarion (XI century). The author of the Volhynian chronicle adheres mainly to the traditions of the Kyiv chronicle of the 11th-12th centuries. The personality of Vladimir Vasilkovich is idealized. The chronicler sees in the prince an intelligent ruler, a brave warrior, a brave hunter, a book lover and a philosopher. Very little has been written about the Galician prince, and in terms far from admiration. This position is due to the political and ideological views of the author and subsequent editors of the manuscript.
The Galician-Volyn chronicle, as an outstanding historical and literary work, had a certain impact on later chronicles - the so-called Short Kyiv Chronicle of the XIV-XV centuries. and Lithuanian-Belarusian chronicles (chronicles of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania).
Since the Ukrainian lands were then part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, in the Lithuanian-Belarusian annals a significant place is given to the story of the events in the Ukrainian lands. The most valuable data on the history of Ukrainian lands is contained in the Suprasl list. Its first part is a compilation of all-Russian annals, the second, dedicated exclusively to the history of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, is original.
A characteristic feature of the Lithuanian-Belarusian chronicles is the presence in them of stories-inserts, which differ in form and style from the annalistic presentation. They acquired the features of works of art. So, “Praise about the Grand Duke Vitovt” extols the power of Prince Vitovt, to whom “not only the whole Russian land obeyed, but everyone from the west and east worshiped him”, because, as the chronicler writes, he is “king over the whole earth”. The story “On the Podolsk Land” stands out among others for its political orientation. The chronicler tells about the Koriatovich princes, trying to justify the right of Lithuania to Podolia, for which there was a struggle between Lithuania and Poland.
2.3. Church literary works
The cultural traditions of Kievan Rus continued not only in the annals, but also in other types of writing, in particular in oratorical, hagiographic and pilgrimage prose. An outstanding representative of oratorical prose of the second half of the thirteenth century. was the archimandrite of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery, and then the Bishop of Vladimir Serapion (died in 1275). His five “Words”, which have come down to us, despite their religious overtones, reflect the real life of the people during the Mongol-Tatar invasion.
Like all contemporary preachers, Serapion considered the Mongol-Tatar yoke God's punishment for sins, for observing pagan customs, for the insatiability of princes and boyars and their civil strife, for bullying the poor and orphans. He paints a terrible picture of hard times: “... blood and father and our brothers, like water is much, water the land; the princes of our governors are looking for a fortress; our courage was filled with fear, running away; our many brethren and children are in captivity of the knowledge of the former; our village was overgrown with wood (i.e., a young forest), and our majesty laughed; our beauty will perish; our wealth was dumb and dull; our filthy labor is inherited; our land of a foreign tribe into the property was; as a reproach to the living, raise our land; in the laughter of our enemy ... ". Separate fragments of Serapion's speeches are reminiscent of the lines of the "Words About the Destruction of the Russian Land", written by an unknown author in North-Eastern Russia in the 20-30s of the XIII century.
An outstanding literary monument is the "Kiev-Pechersk Paterikon". Its first edition (beginning of the 13th century) contains stories about the construction of the Pechersk Assumption Church and the first Pechersk Chernorytsy. Over time, the "Paterik" turned into a collection of monks' lives and stories about various miracles in the monastery, but it retained many facts characterizing the social and political history of Russia, as well as the life of monasteries that became large landowners.
From a literary point of view, Arsenievskaya (1406) and two later Kasyanovskaya (second half of the 15th century) editions of Paterik are very interesting.
The influence of the living Ukrainian language is felt in the new edition of the collection of lives "Cheti-Minei" (1489), the original of which was obviously created in the Western Ukrainian lands, and then rewritten in Belarus. Therefore, this edition combines elements of the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages.
2.4. secular literature
Along with the church-moralizing works of the times of Kievan Rus XIV - XV centuries. appear in the Ukrainian edition of such interesting literary collections as "Izmaragd", translated "spiritual stories" about the three sorcerer kings. about Taudal the knight, new versions of the secular story "Alexandria", "Trojan history" by the Italian poet of the 13th century. Guido de Columna, The Legend of the Indian Kingdom.
About a hundred different “words” are placed in the collection “Izmaragd”, most of them on moral and everyday topics: “About book WISDOM”, “Book veneration”, about respect for teachers, “Keys of those who gave bookish mind”, about virtues and sins, “On good and evil wives”, “on the punishment of children”, on the rich and the poor, etc. The “Sermon On the Desire for Wealth” condemns the passion for enrichment, ridicules the miserly gold-lovers. Other "Words" warn the poor not to make friends with the rich, not to sue them, for the one who has gold will win. At the same time, the “Word” contains appeals to the rich with a call to stop “robbing the poor”, treat the servants well, and the household members to be submissive to the heads of families. Thus, the program of the official morality of feudal society appeared before the reader.
In the XV century. A Ukrainian translation of the story about Taudal the Knight, Irish in origin, appeared. Here is a summary. When, after another drunken orgy, Taudal lay unconscious for three days, an angel took his soul and showed her the other world. Waking up, Taudal tells what his soul saw: a luxurious life in the next world of the righteous and hellish torments of sinners. The story gained popularity not so much because of its moralizing, but because of the adventurous nature of the plot. In general, this literary monument is close to secular stories and medieval chivalric romances with their love affairs, chivalrous gallantry, the cult of honor and ladies, all kinds of adventures. It is in this plan in the XIV-XV centuries. the novels "Alexandria" and "The Parable of the Treasures" (about the Trojan War), known since the time of Kievan Rus, were reworked. Both were translated and revised in the South Slavic lands, in particular in Serbia. "Alexandria" in the new edition gained considerable popularity and is known in many Ukrainian copies of the 15th-19th centuries, supplemented by various details borrowed from literary sources, fictions of scribes and editors. In these lists, the invincible conqueror Alexander the Great appears before the reader as a Christian hero. The historical background recedes before the fabulous and folklore elements, in particular, in the story about the war with the Indian king, about the "unclean peoples" and various miracles that Alexander had to face during his military campaigns. If in the first translations of the times of Kievan Rus the conquering policy of Alexander was condemned, then in the lists of the XV-XVII centuries. the admiration of the co-authors for the heroic deeds, courage and bravery of the hero of the work is noticeable.
Literature sec. floor. XIII - the first half. 16th century largely recreated the real reality of that time, reflected the views of different strata of society on socio-political phenomena and events, their way of life, customs and aesthetic tastes. Literature was an important element of Ukrainian culture.
Slavic education Ukrainian folk literature
3. Artistic culture of Ukrainian lands
3.1. art
The fine arts of that time retained the characteristic features that had developed in it in the previous period: monumentality, sophisticated coloring, harmonious proportions, confident drawing and high professional skill, at the same time the direction in which a realistic outlook on life was manifested, faith in man, and the desire for cheerfulness developed. figurative system, craving for patterns and colorfulness, due to folk aesthetic ideals. Religious images gradually lose their former immobility, and the faces of saints acquire the features of ordinary people. The virtuosity of composition and reverse perspective allowed the artists to give space a certain depth, and endow images with bright features, grandeur and human dignity.
Of the monuments of Kyiv painting of this time, the icon of the Mother of God of the Caves-Svenskaya (about 1288) has been preserved. The prototype for it was the image of the Mother of God of Cyprus on the throne, but the Kyiv master replaced the figures of angels with images of domestic saints, the founders of the Kiev Caves Monastery - Anthony and Theodosius. Their images attract sincerity and spontaneity. Juicy, saturated colors, an exquisite range of shades are in perfect harmony with the soft sheen of the golden background.
The Kyiv school also owns the icon "Nicholas with Life" (late 13th - early 14th century) from a church in the Kievets tract in Moscow. The image of Nicholas is largely devoid of asceticism. The soft oval of the ocher face of Nicholas is shaded by the delicate color of the pink-blue riza, glowing against a golden background. Pale pink and pale blue folds of clothes give the figure lightness and airiness.
Among the Kyiv monuments are also outstanding works of the end of the 13th century. - icons "Igor's Mother of God" and "Maximov's Mother of God". The latter was probably executed by order of Metropolitan Maxim. The face of the Mother of God is painted softly, without convention and geometrization or stylization of form. With great skill written out clothes, folds on it. Much attention is paid to color transitions. These paintings testify to the high level of artistic culture of Kyiv in the period after the Mongol-Tatar invasion.
In the Galicia-Volyn principality, art developed under the influence of Kyiv, from where, as chronicles indicate, numerous icons were brought, which served as models for many generations of artists. The icon of the "Protection" (XIII century) from Galicia is the work of a folk master who did not receive special professional training, but on the other hand had a good sense of the decorative possibilities of color. Warm green color subtly harmonizes with the crimson background, azure tones - with brown-black and cherry-red, against which cinnabar occasionally flames.
The brightest work of the late XIII - early. 14th century is the icon of the Mother of God of Volyn. The majestic silhouette of the Mother of God in a dark red omophorion is outlined by a confident hand. The proud landing of the head, slightly bowed to the baby, huge mournful eyes, looking reproachfully, as if demanding from the viewer a readiness for self-sacrifice. The refined painting and moral and ethical pathos of the icon leave an indelible impression and put it among the most outstanding works of Ukrainian medieval painting.
Fine arts from the end of the XIV century. developed with the intensive penetration of the folk stream into it. The Ukrainian people, oppressed by foreign invaders, needed unity that could strengthen them and rally them to repulse the enemy. This idea of unity was vividly embodied in the frescoes of the Church of Onuphry in Lavrov (end of the 15th century), in scenes on the theme of the “Ecumenical Council” and “Akathist to the Mother of God”.
Ukrainian artists were invited to paint Catholic churches, appreciating their high painting skills. They made, for example, frescoes in the church of the Wislice Collegium (end of the 14th century). In the style of paintings, the traditions of ancient Russian art of the 12th-13th centuries are connected. with characteristic gothic features. Such a connection can be traced in the depiction of architectural scenes, as well as in the faces of the characters of the gospel legend, where the vigorous modeling of volumes with a wide brush gives a special constructiveness to the forms. This trend was deepened by Ukrainian masters, led by the Volyn artist Andrey, who painted the chapel of St. Trinity in Lublin Castle (1418). In the paintings, there is a deep interest in the inner world of the characters depicted. In the style of frescoes, elements of ancient Russian, Gothic and proto-Renaissance art were indissolubly combined. The frescoes in the chapel of St. Cross on Wawel in Krakow (1470). The characters of the murals, endowed with the faces of people from the people, are painted energetically and confidently, full of inner drama.
Along with fresco painting from the 15th century. Iconography is becoming more and more popular. It preserves the traditions of ancient Russian art of the 12th-13th centuries, much in common with the iconography of Novgorod and Pskov. From the 15th century In churches, instead of a low pre-altar barrier, iconostases are installed, in which all the icons are placed in a certain order.
Ukrainian icon painting is characterized by juicy color, lapidary silhouette and energetic drawing, well-balanced composition. The images of victorious warriors were especially popular. The image of such a warrior is embodied in the icon "Yuri Zmeeborets" from the village. Stanyl, Lviv region (late 14th century). A warrior piercing a monster with a spear is depicted in knightly armor on a black horse trampling a snake. The hero's red cloak flutters victoriously in the wind. An unusually dynamic silhouette and bright colors are the characteristic features of this outstanding work of Ukrainian fine art. With the rise of the liberation struggle and the formation of the Zaporizhzhya Sich, the hope for liberation settled in the soul of the people, which was immediately reflected in art. In the icon “The Miracle of George about the Serpent” (mid-16th century) of the Kyiv school, the image of George is more elevated and major than that of Stanyl. A dazzling white horse, George's scarlet cloak and a golden background create a solemn color symphony.
The strengthening of the influence of the church, which sought to instill in the masses a sense of fear of the torments of the afterlife, was manifested in icons on the theme of the Last Judgment. But under the influence of a significant number of customers from the people - peasants and artisans - these icons soon acquired not only satirical, but also anti-feudal and anti-Catholic coloring. Many of them depict popes, kings, noble pans, customs officers, drunkards and harlots with cropped heads and cropped hemlines in characteristic clothes. Hellish torments await them all. Under the influence of folk artistic and poetic creativity, the ascetic stream in the depiction of saints weakens, their appearances acquire special warmth, and the palette becomes bright. Not only the compositions become more refined, but also the silhouettes of figures, architectural backgrounds, the image of clothes and various accessories.
Popular tastes were also reflected in the selection of saints. Increasingly, the icons depict Yuri - a warrior and protector, Nikolai - the patron saint of sailors, travelers and carpenters, Paraskeva Pyatnitsa - the patroness of trade and women's crafts, unmercenary doctors Kozma and Demyan and, of course, the Mother of God with a baby - intercessor of the captives and destitute. Icon "Our Lady" from the village. Krasiv, Lviv region (XV century) - evidence of the appearance in painting of the emotional image of a woman - a mother.
Painting media are also changing. The face of the Mother of God is not dark, but light pink, with long arched black eyebrows, a small mouth, slightly sad and thoughtful eyes. Hagiographic icons, “holidays” and “passions” were especially popular, which gave scope to the creative imagination of artists. People, examining them, seemed to be reading short parables-novels. These icons depict a specific situation, many everyday details - furniture, clothes, fabrics. This was a progressive process of the secularization of art, in which, however, the everyday, the mundane was exalted and poeticized.
High level in the XIV-XV centuries. reached the art of illustrating manuscripts. It not only preserved traditions, but also multiplied them. Teratological ornaments and geometric weaving became widespread, and at the beginning of the 16th century. and floral ornaments of the Gothic-Renaissance style. The gospels and psalters were especially richly decorated with miniatures. The true masterpiece is the Kyiv Psalter, copied in 1397 in Kyiv by Spiridonius and decorated with numerous miniatures. On white parchment stands out a colorful scattering of elegant miniatures, made in blue, bright red, cherry-purple, green, angry ocher colors, richly covered with the finest net of golden assist strokes, due to which they sparkle and shimmer, making an extraordinary impression. There are many genre scenes in the miniatures: building a tower, potters painting dishes, roasting meat on fires. Warriors are also depicted during the siege of the city, horsemen in battle. Refined coloring, expressive gestures executed with calligraphic refinement, graceful figures are evidence of the high skill of the artists. The abundance of golden strokes - assists evokes the color richness of Kyiv mosaics of the 11th-12th centuries.
A special place in the arts and crafts is occupied by works of jewelry and gold embroidery. An example of highly artistic products of Ukrainian jewelers is an altar cross with Gothic details (mid-16th century), kept in the Kiev State Historical Museum. A genuine masterpiece of painting with a needle is the Zolochiv phelonion (end of the 13th - beginning of the 14th century), striking with the grace of figures, the sophistication of their poses, the subtlety of color and the artistry of the drawing. The Zolochiv phelonion style is close to the miniatures of the Galician Gospel and the Kyiv Psalter. The images of the shroud (1545), kept in the Kiev Museum of Ukrainian Art, are interpreted in an epic spirit.
3.2. Architecture
Throughout the second floor. XIII-XIV centuries the number of cities and castles-fortresses increased. If in the pre-Mongol era on the territory of the principalities where the Ukrainian nationality was formed, 87 cities were known, then at the end of the 14th century - 143. Along with the growth of the urban population, the economic and political significance of cities increased. In European history, the 15th-16th centuries were marked by the most important phenomena - the emergence of new social relations in the depths of the feudal formation, and with them the emergence of sprouts of humanism and the art of the Pre-Renaissance associated with them, the formation of national cultures. Similar trends are observed in all countries where there were appropriate historical conditions for this, although in different countries this process did not take place in the same way and at the same time. New stylistic features in architecture and fine arts were a direct reflection of the aesthetic tastes of the broad masses of the people - the craft and merchant strata of the cities and the peasantry.
The restoration of the normal life of the country was accompanied by the construction of a huge number of buildings - residential, economic, industrial and defensive. In town planning, the ancient Russian (X-XII centuries) traditions of irregular planning and building remained decisive. By the end of the XIV century. the methods of Western European regular planning are also beginning to be applied.
Changes in the strategy and tactics of warfare and the development of military equipment had a decisive influence on the architecture of defensive structures. In the previous era, the tactics of a long siege of a city or castle played an important role. After the Mongol-Tatar invasion, the tactics of capturing them by a decisive assault with the widespread use of various weapons to destroy the walls prevailed. Therefore, the number of towers in the fortification system increases. This, in turn, significantly affected not only the design of the fortifications, but also their external architectural and artistic appearance, their style.
For more effective counteraction to the enemy during the assault, as well as in case he captures part of the fortifications from the middle of the 13th century. In construction, corresponding types of fortifications are developed, the main supporting units of which are donjon towers. Their appearance in the South Russian fortification architecture (castles in Ostrog, Czartorysk and Kamenets near Brest) testifies to the familiarity of both customers and builders with the achievements of European military engineering. There were no structures of this kind in the architecture of Ancient Russia in the 11th-12th centuries. Towers, as a rule, were erected inside the fortifications near the defensive walls, in the most vulnerable places. The bypass walls of the fortifications, which were often constructed of wood, were coated with clay and whitewashed from the outside. In appearance, they were no different from stone ones.
But over time, significant shortcomings of such fortifications were revealed - they did not provide sufficient flank defense. Therefore, the builders were faced with the task of arranging the towers in such a way and creating such a configuration of fortifications that would make it possible to reliably cover the approaches to the fortress from the flanks. An example of a new type of fortification is the castles in Lutsk, Kremenets, Kamyanets-Podilsky, whose construction dates back to the 13th century.
New methods of warfare urgently required the construction of fortifications, not only reinforced with stone towers, but also completely built of stone or brick.
During this period, two architectural and construction schools were formed: Galician and Volyn. Galician is characterized by masonry on lime mortar with an admixture of crushed limestone and charcoal, and occasionally brick, slightly lancet, Gothic-shaped framing of loopholes, window and door openings, entrance arches with a simple decor. Such are the stone fortresses in Belavino, Stolpye, Cherneev, Ugrus, Khotyn, Nevitsky, Kremenets, Kamenets-Podolsky, Belgorod-Dnestrovsky. Their main feature is the presence of powerful stone walls and several towers.
In religious construction, new trends also appeared: along with buildings of the old type, temples of an emphasized solemn appearance were erected. For example, tower-like churches of John the Baptist, Kozma and Demyan were built in the Hill, "the majesty and beauty of no less existing ancient ones." The temples of John the Evangelist and Dmitry in Lutsk (end of the 13th century) belong to the same direction. In addition to the cross-domed churches, small rotundas were erected with one apse - (Przemysl, XIII century), with six (Goryany, Transcarpathian region; Galich, XIII century) and eight apses or with supporting pillars (the Church of Basil and the rotunda on the territory of the Mikhailovsky Monastery in Vladimir -Volynsky, end of the 13th century). The architecture of the cross church of St. Nicholas in Lvov (XIII century) is original.
So, a hundred years after the invasion of the hordes of Batu, architecture took a big step forward. The political tasks of the time - the strengthening of princely power, capable of putting an end to feudal anarchy and the self-will of the boyars - found expression in architecture, in which the sweat of solemnity sounded louder and louder.
Architecture and painting of the late XIV - perv. floor. 16th century developed in the context of the growing struggle of the Ukrainian people against social and national oppression. The feudal lords erected castles and fortifications in their residences - the strongholds of domination over the dependent population. At the same time, their construction was caused by the need to protect against the frequent devastating raids of the Tatar hordes, and eventually the invasions of the Turkish invaders. Defense construction occupied a leading position and absorbed huge material and human resources. An important role in the construction of castles was played by local builders and engineers, as evidenced by the peculiarities of the architectural style of the defensive structures of this period, the layout, arrangement, construction and decoration of towers, gates and other parts of the castle.
Wood remained the main building material, although the share of stone and brick in construction increased. The vast majority of armaments were built from wood - from simple residential, economic and industrial buildings to large castles and luxurious palaces. In wooden construction, due to its mass character, engineering and construction and architectural and artistic experience was accumulated, new norms of folk architectural aesthetics crystallized, which had an impact on the development of architecture as a whole.
First of all, changes manifested themselves in the architecture of defensive structures. The walls and towers of old castles were adjusted and reinforced with thickenings - butts. In the newly erected castles, the towers sought to be located almost evenly along the perimeter of the courtyard. Loopholes of the lower (foot) and middle battle were arranged in the walls (Buchach, Ternopil region, late XIV century; Klevan, Rivne region, 1495). Sometimes the castles were strengthened by a new row of walls brought forward, or by fortifications covering the citadel (Lutsk, Ostrog, Belgorod-Dnestrovsky). Both new castles and city fortifications often had an irregular plan, determined by the conditions of the terrain. With these features, Ukrainian defense architecture is close to Russian.
An example of the modernization of old fortifications is the castle in Lutsk. Its three-tiered towers and walls, ending with merlon battlements with narrow slit-like loopholes for shooting from bows and crossbows, were redone: the merlon battlements were laid and built on top, arranging new loopholes in two, and in some places even three tiers of such a shape that could provide shelling from firearms of both distant and near approaches to the castle. An additional tier was erected on the towers in Lutsk, thanks to which its silhouette became more expressive, which further emphasized its military-defensive power. The restructuring affected almost all the old stone fortifications of the 12th-14th centuries, including those in Kamyanets-Podolsky, Belgorod-Dpestrovsky, Kremenets, Khotyn, Nevitsky, and Mukachevo.
The mitigation of the severity of military fortifications testifies to the development and change in the norms of architectural aesthetics under the strong influence of popular tastes. The appearance of the Khotyn Castle whimsically combines the traditions of defensive architecture, elements of Gothic, motifs of Ukrainian and Moldovan folk art. Severity and folk brilliance are presented here in an indissoluble unity.
Changes are also noticeable in the types of fortifications of boyar estates, gradually turning into magnate castles. This is reminiscent of the architecture of castles in Olesko, Klevan, Ostrog. The Ostrozh castle is close to the castle in Czartorysk or Kamenets near Brest in terms of fortification scheme. In Ostrog, closer to the eastern side of the wooden defensive walls, they built the so-called Tower, or Murovanny House, modeled on Western European and Volyn donjon towers. The walls were surrounded by a moat, through which a drawbridge was also thrown, thanks to which the castle could withstand a long siege.
The appearance of firearms had a particularly great influence on the structure of castles. In the XV century. the towers were built so that they protruded beyond the field of the wall and had a square or irregular pentagonal shape, with an acute angle to the front, which significantly increased their resistance to artillery fire. In addition, this created favorable conditions for flank shelling. The increase in the number of loopholes in the walls and towers made it possible to increase the density of the fire defense of the approaches to the castle. For example, in the well-preserved castle in Klevan (1495), the loopholes are arranged in three tiers, they have large fighting chambers for artillery and servants. The impression of the special power of the castle in Klevan is achieved by the fact that the walls of the towers have an inward slope.
The historical situation demanded that not only monasteries, but also other religious buildings be adapted for defense. Such ancient fortified complexes as the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, the monasteries of Mikhailovsky Golden-domed, Kirillovsky in Kyiv, Yeletsky in Chernigov, Spassky in Novgorod-Seversky, were surrounded by powerful defensive walls. The architecture of the monastery-fortress almost did not differ from other types of fortifications. Only the set of buildings, the internal layout and the location of the main monastic monastic church created certain differences from an ordinary castle. Often temples were included in the system of defensive structures, such as the Church of the Assumption in the Zimno-Volyn region (1495), the Church of the Epiphany in Ostroh (XV century).
In the religious architecture of the late XIV century. there is an intensive search for new forms that can more fully embody popular tastes and artistic ideals. The temples of this period bear the stamp of the architecture of a harsh transitional era. Their creators did not yet dare to break completely with the traditions of the 12th-13th centuries, to abandon the temples with three naves with supporting pillars, did not dare to apply the planned-spatial structure and constructive techniques developed in wooden folk construction in stone architecture, to interpret in relation to stone acquired by folk craftsmen rich experience, translate it into stone structures.
But new types of churches are already appearing, the structure of which was formed under the influence of methods and forms of wooden architecture - tripartite in plan (nave, altar, babinets) churches of Pyatnitsa in Lviv (XIV century) and the Assumption in Luzhany, Chernivtsi region. (1453). They have a babinets of the same width as the nave, and the ceiling is vaulted. In some churches, a defensive tower was built above the Babinets (the Church of Onuphry in the settlement of Rybotitskaya, the end of the 14th - the beginning of the 15th centuries), or one light top of a pyramidal shape, as in the church of Nikolai in the village. Zbruchany, Ternopil region (XIV century), or three domes, as in the Church of Michael in the village. Chesniki, Ivano-Frankivsk region (XV century).
In the XV - early. 16th century in the architecture of small temples, features appear that are directly related to the people's understanding of beauty. In this regard, of interest is the small church of the Trinity in the village. Zimno Volyn region (1465), because in this miniature temple, which has only a nave and an apse, for the first time in stone architecture a new architectural and constructive technique was used - the domes covering the nave and apse do not rest on girth arches and sails, but on a closed, as if cut off on thirds of the height of the vault. In other words, an unknown master first applied the construction of a crease, well and long known in wooden architecture. The dome-top (bath) with a hall fell in love, probably because this design opened up wide opportunities for creating solemn temples with a high-rise interior space.
The monuments of wooden architecture known to us testify to their high perfection. However, most of them did not survive. Wooden folk construction preserved centuries-old experience, creating an uninterrupted chain of traditions, did not allow successfully found engineering and constructive solutions and artistically perfect forms to disappear without a trace. They materialized people's ideas about beauty, they were an inexhaustible source of creativity for subsequent generations.
3.3. Music
On the second floor. XIII - first. floor. 16th century music was in close connection with folk life and customs, with the activities of buffoons, whose art combined singing, dancing, and theatrical performance. Singers and musicians, as before, were grouped at monasteries and episcopal sees. Some singers composed special "songs of glory" (praise) in honor of the military exploits of princes and combatants. They occupied a rather independent position in society, and they were forced to reckon with them in feudal circles. So, the singer Mitus mentioned in the Galicia-Volyn chronicle even dared to refuse to serve the prince.
Professional Music sec. floor. XIII - first. floor. 14th century remained (with a few exceptions) church. Even at the end of the XI century. an original melodic style of znamenny singing, or znamenny chant, was formed, which developed in church music over many centuries. The recording of church hymns was carried out with the help of special signs called hooks, or banners. Hence the name of the Kyiv Znamenny chant. Each sign denoted one tone of a certain duration and served to memorize tunes that were passed down from one generation of singers to another. Znamenny chant is based on eight melodic groups, which were freely used as canonized melodic material. The recording of church singing was also carried out with the help of a system of notes, which was very complex. The surviving samples of kontakia melodies (short laudatory chants in honor of individual saints) have not yet been deciphered, since the key to reading them has been lost.
Musical culture was constantly enriched by folk art. During the XIII - XVI centuries. folk song genres continued to develop, associated with the original traditions of the Eastern Slavs of pagan times, in particular songs (playing, labor, ritual and majestic), which accompanied the East Slavic folk holidays of the agricultural circle. The winter cycle of songs consisted of carols and carols, the spring one consisted of stoneflies, haivkas, mermaid songs, spring dances and games, reflecting various labor processes. For example, millet sowing is presented in the round dance game “And we sowed millet”, poppy - in stonefly “Poppy”. The summer-autumn cycle included Kupala songs and games, as well as harvest songs, in which labor and harvest were exalted as a result of this labor.
Along with calendar songs, various genres of family ritual and everyday songs developed: wedding, lamentations, laments, lullabies, etc. In them, as in the songs of the agricultural calendar cycle, features characteristic of Ukrainian music arose and developed. In addition, new genres appeared that reflected the life and way of life of the Ukrainian people, in particular the Cossacks. First of all, these are thoughts and historical songs, which are monuments of literature and musical art, depicting the heroic liberation struggle of the Ukrainian masses.
The style of performing the dooms was distinguished by its diversity, emotional richness, and expressiveness. Improvisational melody recitation was accompanied by playing the kobze-bandura or lyre. Characteristic for the poetic text of dooms is the free metro-rhythmic structure of the melodic tune, the recitative warehouse. The free compositional form of dooms is based on peculiar periods or tirades of various sizes (popularly known as “ledges”). They are formed in connection with the semantic articulation of the text. Many dramatic thoughts are characterized by melodious and richly ornamented tunes - "lamentations", usually beginning with the exclamation "Gay" or "OH".
Kobzars, bandurists and other musicians enjoyed great respect and honor not only among the working people. They were invited to the manors' estates and to the palaces of large feudal lords. They popularized Ukrainian music outside Ukraine as well. So, at the end of the XIV-XVI centuries. many Ukrainian musicians were at the court of the Polish kings in Krakow.
The formation of a historical song dates back to the 15th-16th centuries, but we know later versions of this type of songs. Historical songs in their content and ideological orientation have much in common with thoughts. However, the forms of artistic expression here are somewhat different - they have a strophic structure with a melody, often melodious, drawn out, repeating with minor variant changes in all couplets.
The vast majority of song genres belongs to choral music, in which the traditions of polyphonic folk singing have been formed and developed for centuries. He is characterized by the free conduct of voices, a change in their number, merging at certain moments into a single sound (unison) with a subsequent divergence, etc.
Comic, humorous and comic-dance songs have their roots in the work of buffoons. They testify to a healthy, optimistic perception of the world by the working people of Ukraine. At the same time, they reflect social inequality and injustice, ridicule representatives of the ruling class, the clergy, and secular authorities. Comic songs, often performed with dancing, are distinguished by the clarity of rhythm and structure. Their melodies are simple and mobile, characterized by a variant change in the main tune motifs, especially in vocal and instrumental performance.
The development of various types of instrumental music is associated with the art of buffoons. Especially common at that time were the whistle (a three-stringed bowed instrument), psaltery, lutes, flutes, tambourines with bells, and bagpipes. In the Cossack environment, preference was given to such musical instruments as surmas, tambourines, timpani (tulumbas), lyres, banduras, kobza, cymbals.
Dance genres of instrumental music have become widespread in folk life. The most popular of them were hopak and kazachok. They became known to many peoples, their melodies were included in a number of Western European collections of organ and lute music of that time, for example, in the organ tablature of Jan from Lublin (1540), the Italian lute tablature of Santino Garey da Parma, etc. There is evidence that these dances were performed even at the wedding of the Polish king Sigismund 1 with the Duchess of Milan, Bona Sforza. There are other facts that confirm the close contacts and interconnections between Ukrainian and Polish musical cultures. So, an outstanding theorist and composer of the XV-beginning. 16th century Sebastian from Felshtyn (near Przemysl), considered the father of Polish music, is Ukrainian by origin. He constantly called himself "roxolianus".
Folk games, known in Russia since ancient times, during the ХIП - perv. floor. 16th century enriched with new means of stage expression and gradually acquired more developed forms of theatrical spectacle. If the rituals (weddings, funerals, the feast of Ivan Kupala, etc.) had only the beginnings of theatricality, then in folk games, in particular in labor songs, round dances, stoneflies, haivkas, elements of folk drama, pantomime, ballet are already more noticeable. This contributed to the transformation of games into dramatic everyday scenes, into farce or comedy.
In folk games, labor processes (plowing, sowing, harvesting) and the behavior of animals, animals, and birds were widely imitated. At the same time, such expressive stage means as the word, movement, facial expressions were used. Masks and primitive make-up were also used: face paint, mustaches and beards made of tow and wool. Concepts were also conveyed by conventional signs, images: a colorfully dressed girl symbolized spring, a gray-haired grandfather - frost, a man in a white mask, in a women's white shirt, with a scythe in his hand - death.
The dramatic action of folk games, combined with dialogue, singing, plastic movements, dance, gestures, facial expressions, disguise, carried elements of the theater, which, however, did not develop into independent stage art, as was the case, for example, in Ancient Greece.
Representation of folk games sec. floor. XIII - perv. floor. 16th century give those samples that were preserved in folk life until recently and were described in the XIX - early. 20th century
On the second floor. XIII- perv. floor. 16th century such a phenomenon in the history of the theater of the Eastern Slavs as the performance of buffoons - folk actors, singers, musicians, dancers, clowns, magicians, acrobats, wrestlers, animal trainers was further developed. Buffoonery arose and developed along with folk festive games and some rituals long before the unification of the East Slavic tribes into the Old Russian state. Old Russian writers and chroniclers defined folk actors with the words igrets, gudets, svirets, sopelnik, dancer, fool, mocker, laugher, charmer, etc. From the second half of the 13th century. in the written monuments of ancient Russian authors, the word buffoon is used to designate them. The etymology of this word has not yet been established, although there are many scientific hypotheses.
The existence of buffoonery in Ancient Russia is evidenced by references to it in the epics of the Kyiv cycle, images on the frescoes of St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv (XI century), on lamellar bracelets from Kyiv and other cities, on a silver bowl from Chernigov (XII century), on miniatures Radziwill chronicle (XV century).
Buffoons were divided into sedentary and vagrant. The settled people performed mainly at merrymaking during holidays, at weddings, etc. The wanderers united in gangs and moved from place to place, visiting even distant countries. For example, the great Italian poet L. Ariosto, in his poem "Furious Orlando", which he wrote during 1507-1532, mentions that "Russians and Litvins" (i.e., Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians) led bears by fairs.
Comic scenes, sometimes improvised, were played by buffoons in the open air, in squares, in the middle of streets, at fairs, making do with ordinary screens, behind which they changed clothes and made up.
The source of the art of buffoons was oral folk art. They were not only performers, but also creators of oral poetry, musical and dance folklore. The people loved buffoons for the fact that they received aesthetic pleasure from their entertaining performances, for the democratic content of their art.
Often, in a sharp, satirical form, buffoons ridiculed churchmen and secular nobility. And the very appearance of buffoons, their short-brimmed clothes (which was then considered a sin), masks during performances (the church fought against “Moscow lust” already from the 11th century), “demonic” behavior caused displeasure of spiritual and secular feudal lords.
By the end of the XVII century. due to social and domestic changes that have taken place in the cities and villages of Ukraine, buffoons have lost their former meaning, and as a cultural phenomenon, buffoonery disappears. However, the traditions of the syncretic art of buffoons survived in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus until the beginning of the 20th century.
With the adoption of Christianity, elements of the church theater appear in the culture of Ukraine. Of the few examples of religious drama available in the Byzantine Orthodox cult, in Kievan Rus, and later in Ukraine, was known until the very beginning of the 20th century. one is "washing the feet". The content of this action was based on the gospel story about the sacramental supper, during which Christ washed the feet of his disciples. This scene was played out on Passover Thursday in the middle of the church. The role of Christ was played by the bishop, the role of the apostles - by twelve priests.
The Orthodox cult, distinguished by conservatism, did not allow oversaturation with spectacular elements characteristic of Catholic rituals, and a fairly free interpretation of religious subjects, inherent in the Protestant Church.
Thus, in Ukraine during the second. floor. XIII perv. floor. 16th century there were various initial forms of theatrical spectacles, which were included as constituent elements in the theatrical art of the subsequent period.
Conclusion
As you can see, in all genres of artistic creativity, the Ukrainian people in the late XIV - early XVI century. achieved great success. The triumph of folk ideals of beauty, their highly spiritualized expression determined the enchanting charm, beauty and enduring value of architectural monuments and all types of fine arts created during this period. They are a worthy contribution to the treasury of world art.
Despite the grave consequences of the invasion of the hordes of Batu, the complexity and inconsistency of the conditions for the historical development of Ukrainian lands, in the 13th - first. floor. 16th century began the process of formation of the culture of the Ukrainian people. The cultural heritage of Ancient Russia was of great importance for the formation of the character of culture. The influence of ancient Russian cultural and educational traditions affected the level and nature of education, in literature, painting, and architecture. Literary monuments created in Ancient Russia (chronicles, oratorical and preaching works) were copied on the Ukrainian lands, translated literature was common.
In art and literature, along with traditional elements, new ones are also found, associated with the Renaissance humanism common at that time in Europe. In the XV - perv. floor. 16th century ideas of humanism penetrate the Ukrainian lands. The carriers of these ideas were subsequently world-famous poets, publicists, scientists - immigrants from Ukraine.
In painting, there is a noticeable desire to establish a realistic view of nature, of man's place in it. Aesthetic principles are being established that contribute to the strengthening of secular tendencies in culture. In painting, interest in the spiritual world of man deepens. Significantly improved architectural techniques.
Of great importance for the further development of the culture of Ukraine was book printing, which was started in the East Slavic lands by the Belarusian educator Francis Skorina.
The distinctive features of the culture of the Ukrainian people are most clearly manifested in oral folk art. Under the influence of the liberation struggle against foreign domination, against the Turkish-Tatar invasions, the people create folklore works filled with high patriotism and love for their homeland - thoughts, historical songs. Music and theater developed on a folk basis.
1. Humanistic ideas of the Renaissance in Little Russian (Ukrainian) culture.
2. Education. Typography.
3. The development of artistic culture in Ukraine in the XIV-XVI centuries.
The development of Little Russian (Ukrainian) culture in the XIV-XVI centuries. took place under difficult conditions. The socio-political situation was determined by the final loss of the remnants of statehood and self-government of Kievan Rus - Little Russian (Ukrainian) lands became part of the Lithuanian-Polish state. After the Union of Krevo (1385), Poland launched a total attack on the culture, faith, customs, and traditions of the Little Russian (Ukrainian) people. During the XV-XVI centuries. the unequal struggle with the Tatar horde was still going on, which devastated the region, taking people into captivity.
The spiritual and cultural life of society has changed.
On the one hand, these changes were determined by a decisive reorientation towards interaction with the cultural achievements of Western Europe. In the XIV-XVI centuries. cities are being built, guild production is growing, various types of artistic creativity, crafts, trade are developing, international contacts are being revived, including creative contacts. On the other hand, the expansion of Catholicism, the strengthening of social and national oppression caused an aggravation of the socio-political, spiritual and educational confrontation of the people. The Cossacks become the defender of faith and traditions, the period of formation of which falls in the middle of the 16th century.
The awakening of national self-consciousness was supplemented by the spread of the ideas of humanism of the Renaissance. The growing interest in nature and man laid the ground for the appearance in the circle of European cultures of a galaxy of representatives of the Little Russian (Ukrainian) intellectual elite, who not only mastered the humanistic ideas of their time, but also made a certain contribution to the development of Western European culture.
Having received a proper education in European universities, immigrants from the territory of Little Russia became famous scientists, teachers, doctors, and artists.
Yuri Drogobych (Yuri Kotermak, 1450-1494) became a doctor of philosophy and medicine at the University of Bologna, lectured there on mathematics, and served as rector of the Faculty of Medicine. In Rome, the first published work in our history by a Little Russian naturalist, "A Prognostic Assessment of the Current Year 1483," was published.
Lukasz of Nowy Hrad (died ca. 1542) was a master and professor at the University of Cracow. In this university in the XV century. 13 professors worked - Little Russians.
Pavel Rusin from Krosno (c. 1470-1517), taught a university course in Roman literature in Krakow, wrote poetry, and also taught in Hungary. He is the first humanistic poet of Little Russia and also one of the founders of Polish humanistic poetry.
Stanislav Orekhovsky-Roksolan (1513-1566) realized his multifaceted talent as an orator, publicist, philosopher, historian in many works that were read in Italy, Spain, France, Germany. It is no coincidence that in Western Europe he was called "Ruthenian (Russian) Demosthenes", "modern Cicero".
The work of the early humanists is characterized by a deep knowledge of ancient philosophy, attention to the problems of studying nature, affirmation of the dignity of the individual, his freedom, and the ideals of social justice. They had a positive impact on education and literature, and became the ideological inspirers of Renaissance art.
A sharp aggravation in the XVI century. religious conflicts associated with attempts to convert the population of Little Russia to the Catholic faith, caused the spread of ideas consonant with the ideology of the Reformation.
The system of scientific knowledge in the Ukrainian culture of that time consisted , from theological disciplines, grammar, poetics, arithmetic, ethics, history, law, medicine, music. Translated works on the problems of metaphysics, logic, astrology, astronomy were distributed: "Logic of Aviasaf", "Cosmography", etc. Of undoubted interest is the medical reference book "Aristotle's Gates or the Secret Secret".
Theoretical comprehension and development of ideas consonant with the new era were carried out in con. XVI-beginning 17th century Ukrainian scribes who united around cultural and educational centers created by tycoons-philanthropists or representatives of the urban population to preserve the national culture.
Such a cultural center in con. 16th century became the Ostroh Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy (collegium), which was opened in 1576 in the city of Ostrog (now - in the Rivne region) Prince Konstantin Ostrozhsky. Over time, this school has risen to the level of European educational institutions. The best Ukrainian and foreign scientists taught there.
The Ostroh school united around itself well-known cultural figures of that time. Writer Gerasim Smo tricky th (first half of the 16th century - 1594) became its rector. He edited and wrote the preface to the well-known Ostrov Bible, the first complete edition of the Bible in Slavonic, published in 1581 by Ivan Fedorov. One of the brightest examples of polemical literature is the work of G. Smotrytsky "The Key of the Kingdom of Heaven" (1587).
Many foreign scientists collaborated with the Ostroh Academy: Doctor of Philosophy and Medicine, Professor of Krakow University Jan Liatosch, Greek Kirill Lukaris, who later became Patriarch of Constantinople, and others.
In the last quarter of the XVI - early. 17th century brotherhoods are created in the cities - organizations that, under the growing influence of Catholicism, have become ideological centers for the protection of faith, language, culture, and other spiritual values of the Ukrainian people.
The first of these was the Lviv Brotherhood, which arose back in 1439. It financed a school, a hospital, a printing house, and a library.
At the beginning of the XVII century. brotherhoods appeared in many cities of Ukraine. Each of them opened a school. Leading among them was the school of the Lvov Assumption Brotherhood, organized in 1586. Education in it was regulated by the charter - "School Order".
Education in fraternal schools "began with the study of Slavic grammar, mastery of reading and writing skills, the study of Greek and Latin, knowledge of which enabled students to get acquainted with the achievements of Western European science and literature. The program of fraternal schools also included poetics, rhetoric, and music.
School graduates traveled around Ukraine, spread knowledge, called on the people to repulse the Polish-Catholic influence.
Secularism played a great role in the development of a new culture. literature, associated with the traditions of chronicle writing, the development of Russian (Ukrainian) law: Casimir's "Sudebnik" (1468), Lithuanian Charter (1529, 1566), Lithuanian-Russian chronicles and a short Kievan chronicle XIV - early. 16th century As signs of their era, they reflected the historical offensive of the Lithuanian statehood in its interaction with the cultural tradition of the Ukrainian people.
In 1574, Ivan Fedorov's first book in Ukraine, The Apostle, was published in Lvov, and a little later, The Primer. After moving to Ostrog, he founded a second printing house at the expense of K. Ostrogsky, in which he published a number of books, including the already mentioned Ostroh Bible. It became widespread in Ukraine and abroad, entered the library of Oxford University, the Swedish royal court.
ХV-ХVI - the heyday of folk culture.
Special place in literature that time is occupied by the Ukrainian epic- thoughts, ballads, historical songs. The deep figurativeness of thoughts delighted T. Shevchenko, who put them above Homer's "Iliad" and "Odyssey". The ethnographer M. Maksimovich drew attention to the organic connection of thoughts with the history of the people, he singled them out as a separate
literary genre. .
The cycle of thoughts "Marusya Boguslavka", "Samiylo Kishka" and others are imbued with liberating moods and fidelity to the Orthodox faith. Thoughts about the death of a Cossack in the steppe are permeated with high poetics, emotionality, and the spiritual power of invincibility: "The Death of Fyodor Bezrodny", "Three Brothers of Samara". A separate group is made up of an epic glorifying the heroism of the Cossacks: "Cossack Golota", "Ataman Matyash", "Ivas Konovchenko". The heroes of thoughts embodied the best features of the Ukrainian people, their indomitable desire for life, freedom, broad nature, nobility.
AT architecture and fine arts features of the Ukrainian style are formed. They are manifested, first of all, in the stone construction of Western Ukraine, where the Renaissance style organically merged with the Ukrainian folk style, transferred from wooden architecture to stone structures of churches, castles, and city buildings.
At that time, extensive construction of castles-fortresses and castles-palaces was underway, the cities of Lvov, Lutsk, Kamenetz-Podolsky, Przemysl, Brody were replanned and expanded.
There were two architectural and construction schools:
- Galician, which is characterized by masonry with strong walls and several towers (castles in Khotyn, Kremenets, Belgorod-Dnestrovsky, etc.);
- Volyn, whose representatives used large-sized bricks for construction. The brick towers of this school look like cylinders, which played a particularly important role in the fortification system.
AT temple building new trends are also observed. More solemn buildings were erected next to the buildings of the old type: in the Hills, a tower-like church of John the Baptist, Cosmas and Domiyan was built, in Lviv - the Church of St. Onufry (XV century), in which fragments (one of the few) frescoes of that time, Petropavlovskaya church on Podol in Kiev (XVI century).
The leading positions in architecture belonged to Lvov, whose Renaissance buildings occupy an outstanding place not only in the history of Ukrainian, but also in Western European art. Thus, the Church of the Assumption, the Kornyakt tower and the chapel of the Three Saints make up a unique architectural ensemble. XVI - beginning. 17th century
On facades, portals, in the interiors of Renaissance houses, palaces, churches, iconostases, sculptural reliefs and rich wood carvings appear. The sculptural portrait, which became widespread in the form of tombstones, is closely connected with the traditions of the Renaissance: monuments to the Kiev governor A. Kisel, K. Ostrozhsky, and others.
Masters of Ukrainian monumental fresco art, were known far beyond the borders of Ukraine. But unlike the fresco painting of the 13th century, which was dominated by the mood of asceticism, renunciation of the worldly, in the 15th century. lyrical, bright, joyful motives prevail: kindness, self-sacrifice, heroism, love. Unfortunately, these fresco masterpieces have almost not been preserved in Ukraine.
Ukrainian painting of the XIV-XVI centuries. developed under the life-giving influence of the iconography of Kievan Rus. Masters strove for expressiveness, brevity, simplicity. The centers of painting were the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra. Lviv, Przemysl.
The manifestation of humanistic ideas was the appearance on the paintings and icons of the painters' signatures: "Vladyka", "Jacob", "Matthew", etc.
The most common images were: Yuri (George) Zmeeborets, Mother of God, Archangel Michael; plots: The crucifixion of Jesus, the Last Supper, Christmas, the Last Judgment, the Expulsion from Paradise. The saints on the icons are more and more reminiscent of ordinary people, peasants, rather than ascetic martyrs, acquiring certain individual features. A striking example of painting con. XIII - beginning. 14th century is the icon of the Volyn Mother of God, the majestic silhouette of which makes a deep impression and conveys the understanding of female beauty characteristic of that era.
In con. XVI - beginning. 17th century portrait painting is widely developed. Under the influence of the ideas of humanism, artists began to pay special attention to the face of a person, sought to convey the character of the individual, his mind, willpower, self-esteem. These features are characteristic of the portraits of Jan Geburgt, the Polish King Stefan Batory, Prince Konstantin Ostrozhsky and others, made by such masters of the famous Lviv school as the artist V. Stefanovich.
Graphic artists worked fruitfully in Ukraine. They masterfully designed books - first handwritten and then printed. Unique in this respect is the design of the Kyiv Psalter (1397), which contains more than 200 miniatures.
In the XIV - XVI centuries. developed musical culture and theatrical art. Musicians, singers, dancers, as before, united around monasteries and episcopal sees.
In instrumental music, such instruments as a whistle, a harp, a tambourine, a bagpipe, etc. were used. The Cossacks preferred the trumpet, timpani, bandura, kobza, lyre.
The development of culture of the XIV-XVI centuries
Despite the fact that historical conditions had a detrimental effect on the state and development of Ukrainian culture, art and science continued to gain strength. In painting, along with religious, secular motifs and images are becoming more and more noticeable, architecture is developing: wooden and stone town halls, castles and cities are being built. Ukraine has reached a certain development in science (philosophy, linguistics, mathematics, astronomy, medicine). An outstanding event for Ukrainian linguistics of the XVI-XVII centuries is the first grammar of Ivan Uzhevich - "Slovenian Grammar". In 1447, a talented Ukrainian mathematician, Doctor of Philosophy Martin s Zhuravytsya (a village near Przemysl) wrote the first textbook on geometry and the treatise "New Comparison of Fractions Counting". He taught at the universities of Padua, Bologna, Prague and Lipska. Unfortunately, none of the works of this scientist was ever published.
In 1483, the first book of the Ukrainian scientist Yuriy Drohobych, “Prognostic Considerations”, written in Latin, was published in Rome. It is known that Yuri Drogobych graduated from the University of Krakow, taught medicine and astronomy at the University of Bologna, where he later became rector.
The turning point in the development of Ukrainian culture was the emergence of printing. In 1491, in Krakow, the first books printed in Cyrillic type (“Psalter”, “Chasoslovets”, etc.) were printed by Ukrainian Svyatopolk Fіolєm. Also in Ukraine, books published by the Belarusian pioneer Francis Korka, who founded his own printing house in Vilna, were distributed. The progressive activity of Ivan Fedorov had a great influence on the development of Ukrainian book printing. In 1574, in Lviv, he published the "Apostle", and later in Ostrog - the Bible.
Literature
Despite the fact that Kyiv lost its political importance, it remained a major trading center, and trade relations were established with Moldova, Serbia, the Czech Republic and Bulgaria. Therefore, translated works appear in Ukraine (for example, the Serbian story "Alexandria"), translated from Serbian, Bulgarian and Greek.
Original Ukrainian literature is also developing: new editions of the Kiev-Pechersk Patericon appear, lists of Daniil the Pilgrim's Journey are being distributed.
Unfortunately, very few monuments of that time have survived to our time, because most of them were destroyed during the Tatar-Mongol invasion.
In the development of literature of the XIV-XVI centuries, it remains the leading chronicle. The “Lithuanian Chronicle” has come down to our times, in which a story is told about the times when Ukraine was part of the Lithuanian principality. In this chronicle, inserted stories and novellas attract attention, the most interesting of which is "The Tale of the Podolsk Land". Another chronicle of those times is the “short Kievan chronicle”, which describes the events that took place in the Ukrainian lands in the 14th-15th centuries and glorifies the educational activities of Prince Ostrozhsky.
During this period, the birth of the Ukrainian literary language begins in oral folk art. The book language was Old Church Slavonic with admixtures of Polish, Latin, etc., but folk speech more and more penetrated book writing.
In the 16th century, on the basis of folk dialects, "Russian speech" was born, it became state on the territory of Ukraine during the reign of the Lithuanian principality. Russian speech became the basis for the further formation of the Ukrainian literary language.
The development of culture of the XVI-XVIII centuries
In the first half of the 15th century, brotherhoods, church-educational societies of the philistines began to appear in the Western Ukrainian lands, which then spread to the whole of Ukraine. The most active were brotherhoods based in Lvov, Lutsk, Ostrog and Kyiv. The activities of the fraternities included the organization of educational institutions, public libraries, and printing. The brotherhoods also searched for old chronicles and were engaged in the storage of historical and cultural monuments, the ransom of Ukrainian captives from the Tatar-Turkish captivity. But the brotherhood saw its main task in opposing the Polonization and Catholicism of the Ukrainian people.
The largest center of culture is the Kiev Brotherhood, which was founded at the Epiphany Monastery in Podil. The most famous scientists, writers, publishers, public and political figures rallied around him, such as: Elisey Pletenetsky, Leonty Karpovich, Job Boretsky, Melety Smotrytsky, Lavrenty Zizania, Isaiah Kopinsky, Spiridon Sobol, Hetman Petro Sahaydachny (joined the brotherhood along with all Zaporizhzhya kosh). The Brotherhood founded a school at the Lavra, subsequently, with the assistance of Peter Mohyla, it acquires the rank of a collegium. A highly educated man, the son of a Moldavian ruler, a former military man, Peter Mogila becomes the Metropolitan of Kyiv. His connections in the ruling circles are used by the brotherhood for various cultural events. The Metropolitan himself conducts an active polemical activity directed against the Uniates. It was Peter Mohyla who became the first rector of the Kyiv Collegium.
At the beginning of the 17th century, the Kyiv Collegium grew into the Academy, which became the first educational and scientific center in Ukraine. More than 1000 students from all South Slavic countries, from Russia study at the Academy. Graduates of the Kiev-Mohyla Academy were famous scientists and writers, such as Mikhail Lomonosov, Grigory Skovoroda, Samoilo Velichko, Klimenty Zinoviev, Alexander Shumlyansky, musicians Maxim Berezovsky and Dmitry Bortnyansky, military figures Ivan Samoylovich, Samuil Muzhilovsky, Semyon Paliy, Ivan Mazepa and many others. other.
The Kiev-Mohyla Academy opened its colleges in Volyn, Kremenets and Vinnitsa. in 1661 Lviv University was opened.
Thanks to the brotherhoods, schools were founded not only in Lvov, Kyiv, but also in Przemysl, Lutsk, Kremenets, Kamenetz-Podolsky, Vinnitsa, Nemyriv, where students studied philosophy (theology), astronomy, history, geography, mathematics, rhetoric, poetry (poetics ) and speech: the then bookish Ukrainian, Greek, French, Polish, German. Subsequently, natural science and medicine were added to the composition of subjects. Printing houses appear at schools.
Talented students gather around schools and printing houses, who write books and prepare textbooks for printing. For example, at the Ostroh school, the Ostroh Bible and the Slovenian Grammar were printed. The general level of education of Ukrainians at this time is very high.
Lavra becomes the center of Ukrainian book printing. The books printed here were famous for their high quality: deep content, clear type, rich design. Only in the 70s of the 17th century more than 1000 different books arrived from Kyiv to Moscow.
The development of science and art in the XVI-XVIII centuries
In the 16th-18th centuries, linguistics, philosophy, and history were actively developing. Pamva Berinda's "Lexicon" (more than 8 thousand words translated into the then Ukrainian language) and "Slovenian Grammar" by Meletiy Smotrytsky (1619), which for 150 years was the main textbook in Ukrainian, Russian, and for some time and in Serbian and Bulgarian schools. Innokenty Gizel, with his treatise "Work from General Philosophy", greatly influenced the development of philosophical science, and his historical review "Synopsis" went through more than 20 editions and was included in Mikhail Lomonosov's textbook on the history of Russia.
Among the famous philosophers of that time are Lazar Baranovich, Georgy Konissky (author of the textbook "Ethics"), Stefan Yavorsky, Simeon Polotsky, Arseniy Satanovsky and Epiphany Slavinetsky.
Ukrainian musical art has reached great development. The music of that time was predominantly religious in content. The register of the Lviv Brotherhood alone mentions 267 works by Ukrainian composers of the 18th century. their music was known far beyond the borders of their native land. Among the most famous Ukrainian composers in the world, we should mention Artem Vedel, Maxim Berezovsky and Dmitry Bortnyansky.
From the creative heritage of Artem Vedel, only 12 concerts have come down to us. This composer was the leader of choirs in Moscow, Kyiv and Kharkov, but his fate was very tragic - madness from bullying and death in prison.
The name of Maxim Berezovsky went down in history as the name of the first representative of the Eastern Slavs, who received the title of Academician of Music within the walls of the Bologna Academy. Maxim Berezovsky became the author of several operas and many concerts. Driven to despair by the intrigues of the Petersburg nobility, he committed suicide.
Dmitry Bortnyansky is the author of the famous operas Falcon, Creon, Alcides, Quintus Fabius (three of them staged on the Italian stage), instrumental works and more than a hundred choral concerts, which brought him worldwide recognition.
Painting and architecture are also intensively developing. At that time, such masters of church painting as Iov Kondzelevich, Ivan Rutkovich, portrait painters Vladimir Borovikovsky, Dmitry Levitsky, engravers brothers Alexander and Leonty Tarasovichi, Grigory Levitsky worked.
Literature
Shortly before the announcement of the Union of Brest, an active controversy began between Catholic and Orthodox church leaders, which only escalated after the union of 1596. The first significant polemical work was Gerasim Smotrytsky's treatise "The Key of the Kingdom of Heaven" (1587), which was a response to the Jesuit Peter Skarga's book "On the Unity of the Church of God." Polemized with the Roman Catholic priests and Vasily Ostrozhsky in his "Book" (1588) and Stefan Zizaniyu "Kazan St. Cyril ... "(1596). The "Apocrisis" (1598) by Christopher Philaletes reveals the true reasons for the emergence of the union, which was both politically and economically beneficial to the Vatican, the Polish king and the gentry. The author demonstrated rhetorical and journalistic skills.
Although religion was the basis of the controversy, the authors also violated important social issues. A striking example of this is the polemical treatise of Zakhary Kopistensky "Palinodiya, or the Book of Defense" (1622), in which the author defended Ukraine's right to independence. Among the outstanding Ukrainian polemicists, one should also mention Petro Mohyla, Meletiy Smotrytsky, Ivan Galyatovsky and Ivan Vishensky.
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