Buddha's teachings are four spiritual truths. Buddha's Teachings: The Four Noble Truths

Hello dear readers!

Today you will get acquainted with one of the fundamental teachings in Buddhism, which underlies the philosophy of all its schools. The Four Truths of Buddhism is what it is called, but Buddhist adepts prefer a more exalted name: the four noble truth.

Starting point

The five novices first learned them from over 2,500 years ago. It was in the Deer Grove of Benares, in northeastern India.

Siddhartha Gautama shared with the companions with whom he had previously practiced,creedthat was revealed to him after gaining enlightenment. That's how it happenedemergence of Buddhism.

This first sermon, also called the Benares Discourse, is called the Dharmachakra Pravartana Sutra in the anthology of Buddhism, which means the Sutra of the Turning of the Wheel of Teaching.

The canonical source briefly highlights the basic Buddhist principles. Here is what the Buddha said to the monks: “There are two excesses that novices should not allow.

The first of these is a vulgar and low adherence to lust. And the second is a heavy and senseless exhaustion of oneself.

What are the ways to achieve knowledge, calm, understanding, enlightenment? It will only lead to them.

Then he told them the gist chatvari aryasatyani- the four noble truths, and once again reminded of the importance of the eightfold path, which in Buddhism is also called the middle path, since it lies between two extremes.

Four Axioms

Let's take a closer look at the four postulates that, according to Shakyamuni, are at the core of being. He told his fellow believers that only by clearly realizing them did he gain the assurance that he had attained "unsurpassed supreme enlightenment."

The Buddha also noted that the comprehension of this philosophy is difficult to perceive and understand, that simple reasoning cannot come to it, and it will be revealed only to the wise. Pleasure captivated and bewitched everyone in this world, he said. We can say that there is a cult of pleasure.

Those who admire him so much will not be able to understand the conditioning of everything that exists. They will not understand the rejection of the causes of rebirth, and nirvana. But still there are people "whose eyes are only slightly powdered with dust." Here they can understand.

For the first time, these axioms reached the Russian-speaking reader in 1989 in the interpretation of the Russian translator and buddhologist A.V. Parybka.

1) The first postulate is that there is life suffering – dukkha. The difficulty of translating this term lies in the fact that in our mentality suffering is understood as some kind of severe physical illness or powerful negative manifestations at the mental level.

Buddhism, on the other hand, considers suffering more broadly: it is both pain associated with birth, illness, misfortune or death, as well as constant dissatisfaction with life in the pursuit of satisfying constantly changing desires, many of which are almost impossible to fulfill.

Impossible:

• don't get old
• live forever,
• take with you the accumulated wealth after death,
• always be with the one you love,
• don't face bad things.

The list can be continued indefinitely. Such is the imperfection of human existence, which leads to constant dissatisfaction. This word more accurately conveys the meaning of the Pali "dukkha".

2) A person is not able to change the existing state of things, but he is quite capable of changing his attitude towards it.

He can do this only by realizing the cause of dukkha. The second truth that the Buddha revealed to the ascetics was that cause suffering is ignorance, which leads to the emergence of an irrepressible desires have everything at once.

There are three types of thirst:

• Desire to enjoy the five senses.
• The desire to live long or forever.
• Desire for self-destruction.

If everything is clear with the first two, then the third desire requires explanation. It is based on an incorrect materialistic idea of ​​your real "I". Those who are attached to their "I" think that it is irretrievably destroyed after death and is not connected by any reasons with the periods before and after it.

Desire is stimulated:

• visible forms,
• sounds,
• smell,
• taste,
• bodily sensations,
• ideas.

If all this is pleasant, then the person who experiences the above begins to feel attachment to him, which leads to future birth, aging, sorrow, crying, pain, sorrow, despair and death. Everything is interconnected in this world. This describes suffering in its entirety.

Thanks to the second noble truth, it becomes clear that the seeming injustice of our destiny is the result of partly arising in this life, and partly in our previous forms of existence.

The actions of the body, speech and mind determine the formation of the karmic process, which actively influences the formation of destiny.

At the same time, it should be borne in mind that there are no real “I” passing through the raging sea of ​​rebirths, but there is a stream of constantly changing dharmas, which, as a result of their evil or good nature and activity, manifest themselves in different places as faceless creatures, then people, then animals or others. entities.

3) However, there is still hope. In the third truth, the Buddha states that suffering can be ended. To do this, you need to give up a passionate desire, renounce and free yourself from it, stop and leave all thoughts about this thirst.

You just need to correctly realize the nature of what you want as impermanent, unsatisfactory and impersonal, realize your restless desire as a disease. This desire can be quenched by following the aforementioned middle path.

4) When thirst dies away, attachment will also stop, which means that the karmic process will stop, which will no longer lead to birth, therefore, it will relieve aging, all forms of suffering and death.

After that, only the highest peace awaits the person, the end of the karmic process, the lack of grounds for a new birth, detachment, which is called nirvana. The person no longer experiences either physical or mental pain. The attraction is obvious.

The Buddha was able to avoid the two extremes in life, hedonism and asceticism, and achieve enlightenment by following the middle path. He outlined its stages to his followers as the fourth immutable truth.

The Noble Eightfold Path is sometimes misunderstood, thinking that its stages should be taken in turn, practicing the correct ones:

1. understanding,
2. thinking,
3. speech,
4. activity,
5. earning a living,
6. an effort,
7. awareness,
8. concentration.

But in fact, you need to start with the right moral attitudes - sila (3-5). Lay Buddhists generally follow the Buddha's five moral precepts, which are also called virtues, vows, or vows:

• do not harm the living and do not kill;
• do not appropriate what belongs to others;
• refrain from indecent sexual behavior;
• do not lie or abuse someone's trust;
• do not use drugs that cloud the mind.

After that, you should systematically train your mind by practicing right concentration (6-8).

Carefully prepared in this way, a person acquires a mind and character receptive to right understanding and thinking (1-2), that is, becomes wise. However, it is impossible to set off on the path without having at least a minimal understanding of the same suffering, which is why understanding tops this list.

At the same time, it completes it when all of the above successfully completed actions lead a person to an understanding of everything that exists “as is”. Without this, it is impossible to become righteous and plunge into nirvana.

This path is free from suffering, it provides a person with pure vision and you need to go through it yourself, because the buddhas are great teachers, but they cannot do it for someone else.

Conclusion

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The ultimate goal of Buddhism is deliverance from suffering and reincarnation. The Buddha said: "Both in the past and in the present, I say only one thing: suffering and the annihilation of suffering." Despite the negative initial position of this formula, the goal set in it also has a positive aspect, because it is possible to put an end to suffering only by realizing one's human potential for kindness and happiness. One who achieves the state of complete self-realization is said to have attained nirvana. Nirvana is the greatest good in Buddhism, the ultimate and highest good. It is both a concept and a state. As a concept, it reflects a certain vision of the realization of human capabilities, outlines the contours and forms of an ideal life; as a state, over time, it is embodied in a person striving for it.

The desire for nirvana is understandable, but how to achieve it? The answer is partly contained in the previous chapters. We know that a righteous life is highly valued in Buddhism; to live virtuously is a necessary condition. However, some scientists reject this idea. They argue that accumulating merit through doing good deeds actually prevents the attainment of nirvana. Good deeds, in their opinion, create karma, and karma leads to a series of rebirths. Then, they reason, it follows that in order to achieve nirvana it is necessary to transcend karma and all other considerations of ethics. There are two problems with this understanding of the issue. First, why, if a virtuous act is an obstacle to nirvana, do the sacred texts constantly call for the performance of good deeds? Second, why do those who have attained enlightenment, such as the Buddha, continue to live a highly moral life?

The solution of these problems is possible if a highly moral life is only a part of the perfection achieved by a person, which is necessary for immersion in nirvana. Then, if virtue (strength, Skt. - sila) is one of the main elements of this ideal, then it cannot be self-sufficient and needs some kind of addition. This other necessary element is wisdom, the ability to perceive (panya, Skt. prajya). "Wisdom" in Buddhism means a deep philosophical understanding of the human condition. It requires an insight into the nature of reality, achieved through long and deep reflection. This is one type of gnosis, or direct realization of the truth, which deepens over time and eventually culminates in the enlightenment experienced by the Buddha.

1. The truth of suffering (dukkha).

But, monks, what is the Noble Truth of suffering? Birth is suffering, aging is suffering, sickness is suffering, death is suffering. Pain, grief, sorrow, sadness, despair is suffering. Union with the unlovable is suffering, separation from the beloved is suffering. The unattainability of the desired is suffering. Thus, the five states (skandhas) of personality are suffering.

So, nirvana is the unity of virtue and wisdom. The relationship between them in the language of philosophy can be expressed as follows: both virtue and wisdom are “necessary” conditions for nirvana, the presence of only one of them is “not enough”. Only together they make it possible to reach nirvana. In one of the early texts, they are compared with two hands, washing and cleansing each other, a person deprived of one of them is imperfect (D.i.124).

If wisdom is indeed an absolutely necessary companion of virtue, what does a person need to know in order to achieve enlightenment? To know the truth perceived by the Buddha on the night of enlightenment and subsequently set forth in the first sermon, which he delivered in a deer park near Benares. This sermon speaks of four points known as the Four Noble Truths. They state that: 1) life is suffering, 2) suffering is generated by desire or craving for pleasure, 3) suffering can be stopped, 4) there is a way leading to getting rid of suffering. Sometimes, as an illustration of the relationship between them, a comparison is made with medicine, while the Buddha is compared with a healer who found a cure for the ailment of life. Firstly, he diagnoses the disease, secondly, he explains its cause, thirdly, he determines the remedies for it, and fourthly, he proceeds to treatment.

American psychiatrist M. Scott Peck opens his best-selling book The Road Less Traveled with the words: "Life is hard." Speaking of the First Noble Truth, he adds: "This is a great truth, one of the greatest truths." Known in Buddhism as the "Truth of Suffering", it became the cornerstone of the Buddha's teachings. According to this truth, suffering (dukkha, Skt. - duhkha) is an integral part of life, and defines the state of a person as a state of "dissatisfaction". It includes many kinds of suffering, beginning with the physical, such as birth, aging, sickness, and death. Most often they are associated with physical pain, and there is a much more serious problem - the inevitability of repeating this cycle in each subsequent life, both for the person himself and for his loved ones. People are powerless in the face of these realities and, despite the latest discoveries in medicine, are still subject to illness and accidents due to their bodily nature. In addition to physical pain, the truth of suffering points to its emotional and psychological forms: “grief, sorrow, sadness and despair” . They can sometimes present more painful problems than physical suffering: few people have a life without grief and grief, while there are many severe psychological conditions, such as chronic depression, which cannot be completely eliminated.

In addition to these obvious examples, the Truth of Suffering mentions a more subtle form of suffering that can be defined as "existential." This follows from the statement: “The unattainability of what is desired is suffering,” that is, failure, disappointment, the collapse of illusions experienced when hopes do not come true and reality does not correspond to our desires. The Buddha was not a pessimist and, of course, he knew from his own experience when he was a young prince that there can be pleasant moments in life. The problem, however, is that good times don't last forever, sooner or later they go away or one gets bored with what seemed new and promising. In this sense, the word dukkha has a more abstract and deeper meaning: it indicates that even a life devoid of hardships may not bring satisfaction and self-realization. In this and many other contexts, the word "dissatisfaction" expresses the meaning of "duhkha" more accurately than "suffering."

The truth of suffering makes it possible to discover what is the main reason why human life is not fully satisfying. The statement that "the five skandhas of personality are suffering" refers to the teaching given by the Buddha in the second sermon (Vin.i.13). We list them: the body (rupa), sensation (vedana), images of perception (samjna), desires and inclinations (sanskar), consciousness (vijnana). There is no need to consider each in detail, since it is not so much what is included in this list that is important to us, as what is not included. In particular, the doctrine makes no mention of the soul or "I", understood as an eternal and unchanging spiritual entity. This position of the Buddha departs from the orthodox Indian religious tradition of Brahmanism, which claimed that every person has an eternal soul (Atman), which is either part of the metaphysical absolute - Brahman (impersonal deity), or identical to it.

The Buddha said that he did not find evidence of the existence of either the human soul (Atman) or its cosmic counterpart (Brahman). On the contrary, his approach - practical and empirical - is closer to psychology than to theology. His explanation of human nature, which is formed from five states, is much like explaining the structure of a car, consisting of wheels, gearbox, engine, steering, body. Of course, unlike scientists, he believed that the moral essence of a person (which can be called "spiritual DNA") survives death and incarnates again. Claiming that the five states of personality are suffering, the Buddha pointed out that human nature cannot become the basis of permanent happiness. Since the human being is made up of five ever-changing "attributes", sooner or later suffering will inevitably arise, just as a car eventually wears out and breaks down. Suffering is thus woven into the very fabric of our being.

The content of the Truth of Suffering is partly explained by the fact that the Buddha saw the first three signs - the old man, the leper, and the dead - and realized that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. Many, turning to Buddhism, find that its assessment of the human condition is pessimistic, but Buddhists believe that their religion is not pessimistic or optimistic, but realistic, that the Truth of suffering only objectively states the facts. If she seems pessimistic, it is due to the long-standing tendency of people to avoid unpleasant truths and "look for the bright side in everything." That is why the Buddha noted that the Truth of suffering is extremely difficult to understand. It is like a person realizing that he is seriously ill, which no one wants to admit, and that there is no cure.

If life is suffering, how does it arise? The second noble truth, the Truth of Origination (samudaya), explains that suffering arises from craving or "thirst for life" (tanha). Passion ignites suffering like fire fuels firewood. In his sermon (C.iv.19) the Buddha spoke of how all human experience is "blazing" with desires. Fire is an apt metaphor for desire, as it consumes what feeds it without being satisfied. It spreads quickly, moves to new objects and hurts, like unsatisfied desires.

2. The truth of arising (samudaya).

Here, O monks, is the Truth of the origin of suffering. This lust for life, attachment to illusory earthly values ​​(tanha), which leads to rebirth, is associated with a violent delight in form. 1) sensual pleasures, 2) thirst for "prosperity", being, 3) thirst for "destruction", non-existence.

It is the desire to live, to enjoy life, that is the cause of rebirth. If we continue to compare the five "attributes" of a person with a car, then desire is the fuel that sets it in motion. Although rebirth is generally thought to occur from life to life, it also happens from moment to moment: a person is said to be reborn in seconds if these five elements change and interact, driven by the desire for pleasant experiences. The continuity of man's existence from one life to another is simply the result of the accumulated power of desire.

The truth of arising states that craving manifests itself in three main forms, the first of which is the craving for sensual pleasures. It takes the form of a desire for pleasure through objects of perception, such as pleasant tastes, sensations, smells, sounds. The second is the desire for "prosperity". It is about the deep, instinctive longing for existence that propels us into new lives and new experiences. The third type of manifestation of passionate desire is the desire not for possession, but for “destruction”. This is the reverse side of the thirst for life, embodied in the instinct of denial, the rejection of what is unpleasant and undesirable. The desire for destruction can also lead to self-denial and self-denial.

Low self-esteem and thoughts like “I can’t do anything” or “I’m a failure” are manifestations of such an attitude directed at oneself. In extreme forms, it can lead to physical self-destruction, such as suicide. Physical self-torture, which the Buddha eventually abandoned, can also be seen as a manifestation of self-denial.

So does this mean that any desire is evil? One must be very careful in approaching such conclusions. Although the word tanha is often translated as "desire" (desire), it has a narrower meaning - desire, in a sense perverted by excess or bad purpose. It is usually directed towards sensual arousal and pleasure. However, not all desires are like this, and Buddhist sources often speak of positive desires (chanda). To strive for a positive goal for yourself and for others (for example, to achieve nirvana), to wish happiness to others, to want the world that remains after you to become better - these are examples of positive and beneficial desires that are not defined by the concept of "tanha".

If bad desires restrain and fetter a person, then good ones give him strength and freedom. To see the difference, let's take smoking as an example. The desire of a heavy smoker to smoke another cigarette is tanha, since it is aimed at nothing more than momentary pleasure, obsessive, limited, cyclical, and will lead to nothing but another cigarette (and as a side effect - to poor health). On the other hand, the desire of a heavy smoker to quit smoking will be beneficial, as it will break the vicious circle of an obsessive bad habit, and will serve to promote health and well-being.

In the Truth of Origination, the tanha represents the "three roots of evil" mentioned above - passion, hatred and delusion. In Buddhist art, they are depicted as a rooster, a pig and a snake, rushing in a circle in the center of the "wheel of life", which we spoke about in the third chapter, while they form a circle - the tail of one holds in the mouth of the other. Since the thirst for life generates only another desire, rebirths form a vicious cycle, people are born again and again. How this happens is explained in detail by the theory of causation, which is called patikka-samuppada (Sanskrit - pratitya-samutpada - dependent origination). This theory explains how desire and ignorance lead to a chain of rebirths consisting of 12 stages. But for us now it is more important not to consider these stages in detail, but to understand the main principle underlying them, which applies not only to human psychology, but to reality in general.

3. Truth of cessation (nirodha).

Here, O monks, is the Truth of the cessation of suffering. This is the renunciation of the thirst for life (tanha), the withdrawal from it, the renunciation of it, the liberation from it, the deliverance from attachment to it.

In the most general terms, the essence of this theory is that every effect has a cause, in other words, everything arises in interdependence. According to this, all phenomena are part of a causal chain, nothing exists independently, in and of itself. Therefore, the Universe is not a collection of static objects, but a plexus of causes and effects that is in constant motion. Moreover, just as a person's personality can be completely decomposed into five "attributes", and all phenomena can be reduced to their constituent components without finding any "essence" in them. Everything that arises has three signs of existence, namely: misunderstanding of the frailty of earthly life (dukkha), variability (anigga) and lack of self-existence (anatta). "Deeds and things" are not satisfying, because they are impermanent (and therefore unstable and unreliable), because they do not have their own nature, independent of universal cause-and-effect processes.

It is obvious that the Buddhist universe is characterized primarily by cyclical changes: at the psychological level - the endless process of desire and its satisfaction; on the personal - a chain of deaths and rebirths; on the cosmic one - by the creation and destruction of galaxies. All this is based on the principles of the Patikka Samuppada theory, the provisions of which were later thoroughly developed by Buddhism.

The Third Noble Truth is the Truth of cessation (nirodha). It says that when you get rid of the thirst for life, suffering stops and nirvana comes. As we know from the story of the life of the Buddha, nirvana has two forms: the first occurs during life ("nirvana with a remainder"), and the second after death ("nirvana without a remainder"). Buddha reached nirvana at the age of 35 while sitting under a fig tree. When he was 80, he plunged into the last nirvana, from which there is no return through rebirth.

"Nirvana" literally means "extinguishing" or "blowing out", just like the flame of a candle goes out. But what exactly is "extinguishing"? Maybe this is the soul of a person, his "I", his individuality? It cannot be the soul, since Buddhism generally denies its existence. It is not “I” or self-consciousness, although nirvana certainly involves a radical change in the state of consciousness, freed from attachment to “I” and “mine”. In fact, the flame of the triad is extinguished - passion, hatred and delusion, which leads to reincarnation. Indeed, the simplest definition of "nirvana with a remainder" is "the end of passion, hatred and delusion" (C.38.1). This phenomenon is a psychological and moral, transformed state of a person, which is characterized by peace, deep spiritual joy, compassion, refined and penetrating perception. Negative mental states and emotions, such as doubt, anxiety, restlessness and fear, are absent in an enlightened mind. Some or all of these qualities are inherent in saints in many religions, to some extent, ordinary people may also possess some of them. However, the Enlightened Ones, like the Buddha or the Arhat, are inherent in full.

What happens to a person when he dies? There is no clear answer to this question in the early sources. Difficulties in understanding this arise precisely in connection with the last nirvana, when the flame of the thirst for life goes out, reincarnations stop and a person who has achieved enlightenment is not born again. The Buddha said that asking where the Enlightened One is after death is like asking where the flame goes when it is blown out. The flame, of course, does not "leave" anywhere, the combustion process simply stops. Getting rid of the thirst for life and ignorance is tantamount to cutting off the supply of oxygen necessary for combustion. However, one should not assume that the comparison with the flame means that "nirvana without a trace" is annihilation. The sources clearly indicate that such an understanding is erroneous, as well as the conclusion that nirvana is the eternal existence of the soul.

The Buddha was against various interpretations of nirvana, attaching primary importance to the desire to achieve it. He compared those who asked about nirvana to a person wounded by a poisoned arrow, who, instead of taking out the arrow, persistently asks meaningless questions in this situation about who released it, what was his name, what kind of family he was, how far he stood etc. (M.i.426). In full accordance with the Buddha's reluctance to develop this theme, early sources define nirvana primarily in terms of negation, i.e., as "the absence of desire," "suppression of thirst," "extinguishing," "extinguishing." Fewer positive definitions can be found, including such as "auspiciousness", "good", "purity", "peace", "truth", "distant shore". Some texts indicate that nirvana is transcendent, as "unborn, unarisen, uncreated and unformed" (Udana, 80), but it is not known how this should be interpreted. As a result, the nature of "nirvana without a trace" remains a mystery to all who have not experienced it. However, what we can be sure of is that it means the end of suffering and rebirth.

4. Truth of the path (magga).

Here, O monks, is the Truth of the path (magga), which leads to the cessation of suffering. This is the noble "eightfold path", which consists of 1) right view, 2) right thinking, 3) right speech, 4) right behavior, 5) right way of sustaining life, 6) right application of strength, 7) right memory, 8) correct concentration.

The Fourth Noble Truth - the Truth of the Path (magga, Skt. - marga) - explains how the transition from samsara to nirvana should take place. In the hustle and bustle of everyday life, few people stop to think about the most fulfilling way of life. These questions worried the Greek philosophers, and the Buddha also contributed to their understanding. He believed that the highest form of life is a life that leads to the improvement of virtue and knowledge, and the "eightfold path" defines a way of life with which this can be put into practice. It is also called the "middle way" because it passes between two extremes: a life of excess and strict asceticism. It includes eight steps, divided into three categories - morality, concentration (meditation) and wisdom. They define the parameters of human good and indicate where the sphere of human prosperity lies. In the category of "morality" (sila), moral qualities are improved, and in the category of "wisdom" (panya), intellectual qualities are developed. The role of meditation will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.

Although the "path" consists of eight parts, one should not think of them as stages that a person goes through, approaching nirvana, leaving them behind. On the contrary, the eight steps represent the paths of continual improvement in "morality", "meditation" and "wisdom". "Correct views" means first the recognition of the Buddhist teachings, and then their empirical confirmation; "correct thinking" - commitment to the formation of correct attitudes; “correct speech” is speaking the truth, showing thoughtfulness and interest in conversation, and “correct behavior” is refraining from bad deeds such as killing, stealing or bad behavior (sensual pleasures). "The right way of sustaining life" means refraining from doing things that harm others; "correct application of forces" - gaining control over your thoughts and developing positive mindsets; “correct memory” is the development of constant understanding, “correct concentration” is the achievement of a state of the deepest peace of mind, which is the aim of various methods of concentration of consciousness and integration of the personality.

1. Right View Wisdom

2. Right thinking (panya)

3. Correct speech Morality

4. Right Conduct (Sila)

5. The right way to sustain life

6. Proper application of forces Meditation

7. Correct memory (samadhi)

8. Correct concentration

The Eightfold Path and its Three Parts

In this respect, the practice of the Eightfold Path is a kind of modeling process: these eight principles show how a Buddha will live, and by living like a Buddha, one can gradually become one. The Eightfold Path is thus a path of self-transformation, an intellectual, emotional and moral restructuring in which a person is reoriented from narrow, selfish goals to the development of self-realization possibilities. Through the pursuit of knowledge (panya) and moral virtue (sila), ignorance and selfish desires are overcome, the causes that give rise to suffering are eliminated, and nirvana sets in.

Said by Gautama Buddha in his first sermon in the city of Benares. This teaching was recorded in a separate sutra and gave not only a written creed, but also a visual one. The sermon was delivered by the Buddha in a deer park, so after that a deer or a pair of deer became one of the symbols of Buddhism.

The middle path is defined as the path of consciousness that remains far from two extremes: one extreme is the exaltation of sensual pleasures, and the other is complete asceticism, voluntary self-destruction. The view of the middle path leading to enlightenment and nirvana expresses the universal religious idea of ​​the golden mean and the observance of the measure in everything. So consider these truths spoken in the deer park.

The truth about suffering

“Birth is suffering, just like sickness, death, old age, separation (from someone you like) what you want, but do not achieve. In general, there are five groups of attachments that involve the being in the cycle of rebirth and cause the accumulation of so-called samskaras (impressions and consequences of experience). This truth states the presence of suffering as an essential attribute of this world.

The truth about the origin of suffering

Suffering arises from aspirations, thirst for existence and leads to rebirth. It is the need to ensure certain aspirations that ensures the accumulation of karma (positive or negative) and always leads to the cycle of samsara. The reason for this is the ignorance of man. He allows himself to cling to the earth, lust and lust, anger, vanity, stupidity. This again pushes him to existence, therefore - to a new rebirth, and so on without stopping, always ending up in suffering.

The Truth about the End of Suffering

Suffering can be ended by eliminating the passions; if a person does not contact them, he eliminates his aspirations. Since suffering comes from a person's desire for existence and the provision of passions, the victory of his own desires can lead to the cessation of this suffering. If he manages to achieve impartiality, he will deprive suffering of support, that is, his consciousness will not be attached to the cycle of rebirth and the suffering of this world. In Buddhism, no one relies on grace or expects help from above. Therefore, everyone must concentrate his strength in order to achieve personal liberation from suffering.

The truth about the way to end suffering

This is the eightfold path and climbing it requires mastery in each of the stages. The eight stages are: right view (view), right intention (or thinking), right speech, action (behavior), way of life, effort, right mindfulness (in the sense of awareness, that is, you remember what everything really is including yourself), right concentration or concentration.

1) Right view means accepting the four noble truths. Of course, the acceptance of the basic postulates of the doctrine should be added here. At the very least, it is often necessary to read and meditate on quite a few commentaries on the Four Noble Truths in order to actually gain, or at least approach, the correct view.

2) Right thinking (intention) involves a conscious desire to live in accordance with these truths. In essence, it is about the determination to follow the Buddhist path. In addition, the development of friendliness to others is essential here, part of which is the acceptance of the so-called ahimsa - such a person cannot harm living beings (not only people). When noble truths and the Buddhist path are accepted in the mind, friendliness is actually cultivated quite naturally, without additional effort.

3) Correct speech means that a person should refrain from meaningless words and words of vanity, not to speak rudely, not to lie, not to use speech to quarrel people or mislead people.

4) Right action is a norm according to which a person must refrain from unjustified negative actions - from theft, from murder, etc. In fact, this part of the eightfold path is a kind of analogue of the precepts of behavior from other religions.

5) The right way of life does not speak about behavior as such, but about the choice of profession and main activity. A Buddhist should not choose professions that directly or indirectly harm others. For example, to make or sell alcohol, to cheat. There are actually many such examples. In order to understand what it is about, you just need to analyze whether the activity is actually harmful to some people, in the modern world, this rule is associated with the environment. Accordingly, behavior and, moreover, work that harms the ecology of the planet should be avoided.

6) Right effort requires the full mobilization of the will and human thought in order not to create negative thoughts, words and actions. Also, a Buddhist makes an effort to produce various aspects of goodness in this world. Also, this effort is directed to the cultivation of positive qualities in oneself. There are more specific and detailed explanations in the literature, here it is said in simple words.

7) Right mindfulness actually involves complete self-control and self-observation. One should continuously maintain awareness, clearly observe the phenomena of the external and internal world, and this is actually not as easy as it might seem.

8) Right concentration - this ultimate degree implies the achievement of deep meditation, full concentration and self-sufficiency. This is similar to, but also different from, the mystical states of other religions. Comprehension of samadhi - the highest stage of meditation leads to nirvana, that is, liberation.

The eight stages of the path are usually divided into three levels: adherence to ethical standards (correct speech, behavior and lifestyle); level of wisdom (view and intention); level of concentration and meditation (remaining stages of the path).

The Four Noble Truths are the Foundation of Buddhism

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The teachings of the Buddha were given the form of the Four Noble Truths.

"First Noble Truth states that the basic characteristic of human existence is duhkha, i.e. suffering and frustration. Disappointment is rooted in our unwillingness to recognize the obvious fact that everything around us is not eternal, everything is transient. "All things come and go" - said the Buddha, and the idea that fluidity and variability are the basic properties of nature is the foundation of his teaching. According to Buddhists, suffering arises if we resist the flow of life and try to keep some stable forms, which, whether they are things, phenomena, people or thoughts, are still maya. The principle of impermanence is also embodied in the notion that there is no special ego, no special "I", which would be the constant subject of our changing impressions. Buddhists believe that our belief in the existence of a separate individual self is another illusion, another form of maya, an intellectual concept devoid of connection with reality. If we adhere to such views, as well as any other stable categories of thinking, we will inevitably experience disappointment.

Second Noble Truth explains the cause of suffering, calling it trishna, that is, “clinging”, “attachment”. It is a mindless attachment to life that springs from ignorance, called avidya by the Buddhists. Due to our ignorance, we try to divide the world we perceive into separate independent parts and thus embody the fluid forms of reality in fixed categories of thought. As long as we think like this, we will be disappointed after disappointment. By trying to establish relationships with things that seem solid and permanent to us, but are actually transient and changeable, we fall into a vicious circle in which any action creates further action, and the answer to any question raises new questions. In Buddhism, this vicious circle is known as samsara, the cycle of birth and death driven by karma, the unceasing chain of cause and effect.

According to the Third Noble Truth, you can stop suffering and disappointment. You can leave the vicious cycle of samsara, free yourself from the bonds of karma and reach the state of complete liberation - nirvana. In this state, there are no longer false ideas about a separate "I" and the constant and only sensation is the experience of the unity of all that exists. Nirvana corresponds to Hindu moksha and cannot be described in more detail, since this state of consciousness lies outside the realm of intellectual concepts. To achieve nirvana means to awaken, that is, to become a Buddha.

Fourth Noble Truth indicates a means of getting rid of suffering, calling to follow the Eightfold Path of self-improvement, which leads to Buddhahood. As already mentioned, the first two steps on this path have to do with right vision and true knowledge, that is, with a right understanding of human life. Four more steps have to do with right action. They contain a description of the rules that a Buddhist must follow - the rules of the Middle Way, which lies at an equal distance from opposite extremes. The last two steps lead to right awareness and right meditation, to the direct mystical perception of reality, which is the ultimate and highest goal of the Path.

The Buddha viewed his teachings not as a coherent philosophical system, but as a means to achieve enlightenment.

His statements about this world have one purpose - to emphasize the impermanence of everything that exists. He warned his followers against blindly honoring any authority, including himself, saying that he could only show the path to Buddhahood and that it was up to each one to tread that path with their own efforts.

The last words of the Buddha on his deathbed characterize his entire worldview and teaching. Before leaving this world, he said: “Decomposition is the lot of all things that are composed. Be persistent."

For several centuries after the death of the Buddha, the leading figures of the Buddhist church gathered several times at the Great Councils, where the provisions of the Buddha's teaching were read aloud and discrepancies in their interpretation were eliminated. At the fourth council, held in the 1st century. n. e. on the island of Ceylon (Sri Lanka), the teaching, which had been orally transmitted for five centuries, was first written down. It was called the Pali Canon because the Buddhists then used the Pali language and became the mainstay of orthodox Hinayana Buddhism. On the other hand, the Mahayana is based on a number of so-called sutras, a considerable amount of writings written in Sanskrit one or two centuries later, which set out the teachings of the Buddha in more detail and detail than the Pali canon.

The Mahayana school calls itself the Great Vehicle of Buddhism, as it offers its followers a wide variety of methods, perfect means, to achieve Buddhahood - Buddhahood. These means include, on the one hand, religious faith in the teachings of the founder of Buddhism and, on the other hand, highly developed philosophical systems, the ideas of which are very close to the categories of modern scientific knowledge.

Fridtjof Capra, The Tao of Physics: Common Roots of Modern Physics and Eastern Mysticism, M., Sofia, 2008, p. 109-111.

What noble truths were revealed to the Buddha?

1. Life is suffering. Suffering is birth, illness, contact with the unpleasant, separation from those you love and coexistence with people alien to you, constant disappointment and dissatisfaction. The life of any person (rich or poor, fortunate or not) is reduced to suffering. Spinning in the wheel of rebirth, a person is doomed to eternal, reproducing suffering. 2. The cause of suffering is desire, the thirst for life, power and pleasure, which lead to the continuation of life and new suffering. Desires and the actions they cause give rise to karma (lit. - "retribution") - a chain of causality that determines the subsequent birth and destiny. From good deeds, a person is reborn in the realm of gods, demigods or people. From the evil ones - in the lower worlds, among animals and evil spirits. In any case, one thing is inevitable: involvement in a new cycle of births and deaths, in new suffering. This cycle is called "samsara" - "the wheel of life." 3. The cessation of desire leads to the cessation of suffering. 4. There is a way to get rid of desires - the eightfold path. He avoids the extremes of asceticism, but also rejects hedonism, the desire for pleasure. From a person self-improvement is required.

The idea that life is full of suffering is not new in the Indian religious worldview. But it was taken to the extreme by the Buddha, when nothing other than suffering is recognized in life. Buddhism preaches complete renunciation of the world, of all spiritual movements. "The sage does not mourn in his heart neither the living nor those who have died." The person following the Buddha is called: “Do not strive for joys neither earthly nor heavenly”, be calm, do not be surprised at anything, do not admire anything, do not strive for anything, do not desire anything. The feeling of love for persons is not compatible with Buddhism, one should wrest from oneself “any attraction to a species and a name”, that is, to an individual; a Buddhist should become deeply indifferent whether his brother is standing near him or a complete stranger whom he sees for the first time - because all attachment is pain, because personality is an illusion. one

The idea that the person, the “I”, and the corporality, in fact, do not exist is one of the most important in Buddhism. It is believed that everything in the world is a stream of ever-changing tiny particles-elements - dharm (“dharma” in Sanskrit means “holder”, “carrier”). The whole world is composed of them, any living being and what we call a person, his soul and consciousness. In fact (this is knowledge that ordinary ignorant people are deprived of) there is nothing stable and permanent in this world. There is no matter as a permanent substance, there is no what man calls "I"; today you have some thoughts, feelings and moods, and tomorrow - completely different; a new combination of dharmas changes both the body and the psyche. Dharmas can be called carriers of the psychophysical state, their combinations form a given individuality. Therefore, when reincarnating into another body, it is not the same unchanging soul that is infused, but some initial states, so that as a result a new complex of dharmas is formed. The well-known researcher of Buddhism O. Rosenberg likens this to a ribbon made up of different threads: you can weave a different pattern from the same threads, and although the base will be the same, the pattern (and hence the thing) is different 1 . The question is legitimate: “What then reincarnates if there is no stable personality? After all, neither the character traits characteristic of a given person, nor his memory, on which self-identification is based, i.e., a person’s self-consciousness, are preserved? There is no intelligible answer to it in Buddhism.

Initially, dharmas are passive, but they receive energy and are set in motion by thoughts, words, and volitional actions of a person. The Buddha discovered the method of "calming the dharmas", the result of which is the cessation of the chain of rebirths. The most important thing is the cessation of desires, the absence of aspirations in life. Of course, to achieve such a state is not easy, or rather impossible, if you live an ordinary worldly life.

The Eightfold Path of Salvation

The Eightfold Path discovered by the Buddha includes:

Correct views, that is, based on "noble truths."

Right determination, that is, the readiness to change one's life in accordance with Buddhist truths, to embark on the path leading to liberation. The first thing that is necessary for this is moral perfection. It further includes:

Correct speech, that is, benevolent, sincere, truthful. You can not conduct obscene conversations, use swear words.

Correct behavior, that is, the fulfillment of the five commandments: not causing harm to living things (including animals), the prohibition of false testimony and slander, the prohibition of theft, the prohibition of adultery, the prohibition of the use of intoxicating drinks.

The right way of life, i.e. peaceful, honest, clean. Refrain from "dishonest" (in the broad sense of the word) sources of income, such as trafficking in living beings, alcoholic beverages, weapons, drugs, etc.

Right effort (zeal), that is, self-education and self-control, the struggle against temptations and bad thoughts.

Correct attention or direction of thought, i.e. getting rid of passions through awareness of the transient nature of everything that binds a person to life. Ideally - calming the mind, cessation of mental unrest.

Correct concentration, that is, correct methods of contemplation and meditation, which lead to detachment from the world; a feeling of inseparability of the subject of contemplation (the person himself), the object of contemplation (what his consciousness is directed to) and the process of contemplation itself. As a result, the world and man are perceived as a single whole.

Having reached perfection in the eightfold path, a person will be able to get rid of suffering and death, he will not incarnate again. This state is called "nirvana" (in Sanskrit it means "slow fading of fire", "extinguishing").

Nirvana

What exactly is nirvana? The immortality of the soul (although the eternal soul does not exist separately from the body, according to the theory of Buddhism) or the cessation of all existence, dispersion in the Universe? The Buddha himself never gave an answer to this question.

Based on the reflections of philosophers, culturologists, religious scholars on the essence of nirvana, it seems to make sense to consider two forms of nirvana. The first is nirvana, which a person can achieve during his lifetime. Then we can definitely say that it is other existence, as it were, existence in a special dimension. A person is freed from selfishness, pride and pride are alien to him, nothing can upset him, he feels peace and love for the whole world. Nirvana is the liberation from one's own "I", overcoming any worldly ties. This is a state of enduring spiritual freedom, joy and harmony; the imperfections of the earthly world cease to influence man. Nirvana is a state of intense spiritual activity, renunciation of action and desire, absolute calmness. "Nirvana is the destruction of the flame of lust, hatred and ignorance" 1 .

The second form - nirvana after death, exit from the chain of reincarnations - remains inexplicable. The Buddhists themselves at the 3rd Council (middle of the 3rd century BC) spoke in the sense that nirvana is incomprehensible to those who have not reached it. Our earthly concepts, our words cannot express the essence of this posthumous state. However, S. Radhakrishnan writes: “Nirvana or deliverance is not the dissolution of the soul, but its entry into a state of bliss that has no end. It is liberation from the body, but not from existence.” But what kind of existence can there be if there is no memory, no feelings, no own "I"? Who is blissful, and in what does such bliss consist? Another definition, given by S. Radhakrishnan, rather speaks of the transformation of a person into nothing: “This is the extinction of a star in a brilliant sunrise or the melting of a white cloud in the summer air…” 2 .

Religious practice of Buddhism

There was originally no place for God in the Buddha's teaching. From his statements, we can conclude that he did not deny the presence of gods in the world, but they did not play any role in the matter of salvation (getting rid of death). The gods are also subject to the law of reincarnation and karma, including a person who has reached nirvana is higher than the gods. It is legitimate to conclude that a Buddhist is not obliged to thank God, since he did not call on him during the struggle. The gods bow before him, not he before the gods.

Even a superficial analysis of the eightfold path of salvation proposed by the Buddha shows that only a few can follow it, since one must devote one's whole life to this.

Indeed, even during the life of the Buddha, the first monastic community, the sangha (literally, “society”), formed from his disciples. The monks were called bhikshus ("beggar"), they were ascetics. They renounced property, took a vow of celibacy, devoted all their time to spiritual work, and lived on alms from the laity. They could only eat vegetarian food until noon. They shaved their heads, wore a yellow cassock, their personal belongings: a mug for collecting alms, a bowl for water, a razor, a needle and a staff. It was not allowed to save food - it had to be taken so much that it was enough for only one meal. At first, the bhikkhus roamed the country, hiding in caves during the rains, where they devoted time to contemplation and meditation. They were buried near their habitats and erected domed crypts. Gradually, residential buildings began to be erected around these monuments, they became monasteries. In Buddhism there is no priestly caste, no church organization. Monasteries became centers of Buddhism, libraries appeared in them, they became original universities.

The ethics of Buddhist monks is based on the following commandments: 1) not to kill; 2) do not steal; 3) not commit adultery; 4) do not lie; 5) do not drink alcohol; 6) do not eat after noon; 7) not to dance, not to sing, not to attend spectacles; 8) not to wear jewelry; 9) not to use luxury seats; 10) do not take gold and silver.

Denying attachment to specific people, Buddhism calls for an all-encompassing love for all living things, for suffering humanity. The benevolent spirit of a Buddhist embraces all the worlds, calls on everyone not to harm others either with lies, anger, or malice. Buddhism preaches tolerance and equality for all people.

Only a monk can achieve nirvana, while ordinary people should improve their karma by helping ascetic bhikkhus and hope to become a bhikkhu in future incarnations.

Development and spread of Buddhism

After the death of the Buddha, the most orthodox school of Buddhists, Theravada (“school of the old wisdom”), developed from his disciples. Buddhism began to spread successfully in India from the 4th century BC. BC e. It was especially popular in the 3rd century. BC e. under King Ashoka, when it became a kind of national religion. After the death of King Ashoka, the Shung dynasty reigned, which patronized Brahmanism. Then the center of Buddhism moved to Sri Lanka (Ceylon). The second after Ashoka, the patron of Buddhism in India was the king Kanishka (I - II centuries); at this time, Buddhism begins to spread from the northern borders of India to Central Asia, penetrates into China.

In the first centuries A.D. e. in Buddhism, a new direction is emerging, the supporters of which called it "Mahayana", which means "big (or great) chariot." This name is associated with the universality and availability of salvation, which is proclaimed in this version of Buddhism. Classical Theravada Buddhism they pejoratively called "Hinayana" ("small, insignificant vehicle").

The peculiarity of the Mahayana is that it promises salvation not only to bhikkhus, but also to ordinary lay people. Anyone in principle can achieve nirvana - so says Mahayana Buddhism. If in classical Buddhism salvation is the result of a person’s own efforts, his tireless work on himself (“Do not seek protection from others, be your own protection”), then in the Mahayana a person has helpers - bodhisattvas. A bodhisattva is a person who has attained nirvana but has given up personal liberation in order to save people. Bodhisattvas have wisdom and compassion for others. This is how altruism appears in Buddhism, a person receives support on his path to salvation, and chilling loneliness recedes. But this means that a person must ask the enlightened bodhisattvas for help, turning to them with prayers. There is a cult (prayers and rituals) that had no place in the original Buddhism, which did not recognize God.

The image of the Buddha also becomes different. From a person who has achieved enlightenment, he turns into an eternal divine essence. The concept of the "cosmic body of the Buddha" has been developed - a creative substance that is able to take on various earthly forms in order to help humanity in the matter of salvation from suffering. One of these manifestations is the incarnation into a person. The Buddha appeared on Earth, taking on a human form, choosing a place of birth and the Shakya royal family. His birth is miraculous and resembles an immaculate conception - his mother dreamed of a white elephant (another option - the elephant actually descended from a cloud to her), which entered her right side, after which the queen became pregnant. The Buddha was born, emerging from the right side of the queen, who was in the garden, and immediately took seven steps. White lotuses bloomed in the place of his footprints.

In addition to Buddha Shakyamuni, other Buddhas were also worshiped, the number of which is very large. The second most important of the most revered is the Buddha Amitabha, the creator and lord of paradise. There is also hell as a punishment for sins. The image of paradise - a place of bliss - is much more understandable to ordinary believers than the abstract and obscure concept of nirvana. But it is not discarded, it is argued that from paradise, this magical land, people pass into nirvana. The third most important Buddha is Maitreya (Friendly). He will come to earth to save the whole world, to save people from suffering. This is the Messiah, the Savior (like J. Christ in Christianity).

So, in the numerous pantheon of deities of Buddhism, the highest rank is buddhas. A Buddha is anyone who has attained nirvana. Buddha properties: omnipotence, the ability to work miracles, influence events, appear in the world in different guises.

The second rank - bodhisattvas - those who voluntarily abandoned nirvana in order to help people come to nirvana here on earth. They are distinguished by generosity, morality, courage, patience, wisdom and the ability to contemplate. The most revered bodhisattvas: Avalokiteshvara (personifies compassion), Manjushri (bearer of wisdom), Vajrapani (fighter against delusions and stupidity).

The third rank of the pantheon - arhats ("worthy") - those who have reached the highest level in spiritual development (closest disciples and followers of Buddha Shakyamuni), as well as pratyeka-buddhas ("buddhas for themselves") - those who have reached nirvana, but don't save other people.

In Indian religions, there was no developed concept of heaven and hell (or even these concepts themselves) - this is something new that Mahayana Buddhism brought. Interestingly, heavenly bliss and hellish torment equally await both people and gods, subject to the law of karma. Staying in hell is considered temporary, and then people incarnate in earthly life.

Spread of Buddhism

Buddhism became the first religion that became attractive to peoples of other cultures, managed to spread in many countries adjacent to India. At the same time, Buddhism changed, adjusted to the mentality of other nations, and enriched them with its ideas and spiritual practice. From the 3rd century BC e. Buddhism appeared on the territory of Central Asia (present-day Tajikistan and Uzbekistan), from the 1st century BC. - in China, from the II century. - on the Indochina peninsula, from the 4th century BC. - in Korea, from the VI century. - in Japan, from the 7th century. - in Tibet, from the XII century. - in Mongolia.

It is important to note that classical orthodox Buddhism (Theravada or Hinayana) has spread in Sri Lanka (Ceylon), Nyama (former Burma), Thailand, Laos and Cambodia.

Mahayana Buddhism established itself in China, from where it spread to Japan, Korea, Tibet, Mongolia and Russia.

The time of the unprecedented rise of Buddhism can be considered II - VIII centuries. Many Buddhist monasteries appeared - centers of education, learning and art. Some monasteries became a kind of university, where Buddhists of various directions from all over Asia came to study. In the 5th century in Northern Bihar (India), a famous monastery was opened - Nalanda University.

However, in India from the 8th century. Buddhism began to decline, giving way to traditional Hinduism. Hinduism has managed to include in its teaching both religious practice and many elements of Buddhism. Buddha in Hinduism became the incarnation of the god Brahma. By the XIII century. Buddhism as an independent confession in India has completely disappeared.

In other countries, national forms of Buddhism have developed, the most famous being Chan Buddhism in China (a combination of Buddhism and Taoism) and Zen Buddhism in Japan (a combination of Buddhism and Shintoism) 1 .

Questions for self-examination:

When Buddhism appears, how does it differ from Brahmanism?

Who is Buddha?

Is the existence of God(s) recognized in classical Theravada (Hinayana) Buddhism?

What are the Four Noble Truths of Buddhism?

What are the most important features of the Buddhist doctrine of the world and man?

Who can achieve salvation (nirvana) according to the theory of classical Buddhism (hinayana)?

What is a sangha?

What are the rules of conduct for a bhikkhu?

Where did classical Hinayana Buddhism spread?

What is the history of the development and spread of Buddhism?

What is the difference between Mahayana Buddhism and original (Hinayana) Buddhism?

Mahayana interpretation of the Buddha.

Who are bodhisattvas, arhats?

What is nirvana - during life and after death?

What are the reasons for the decline of Buddhism in India?

Literature:

Main:

Zelenkov M. Yu. World religions: history and modernity: a textbook for students, graduate students and university teachers - Rostov n / D .: Phoenix, 2008.

Ilyin V.V., Karmin A.S., Nosovich N.V. Religious Studies - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2008.

History of religion. In 2 volumes: a textbook for universities / under the general. ed. prof. I. N. Yablokova, vol. 2. - M .: Higher School, 2007.

Quran / trans. I. Yu. Krachkovsky - Rostov n / D .: Phoenix, 2009.

Matetskaya A. V. Religious studies. Short course. - Rostov n / D .: Phoenix, 2008.

Religions of the world: a dictionary-reference book./ed. A. Yu. Grigorenko. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2009.

Religious studies for students of pedagogical universities / ed. A. Yu. Grigorenko. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2008.

Additional:

Alov A. A., Vladimirov N. G., Ovsienko F. G. World religions. - M., 1998.

A. Men. Sermon of Gautama Buddha / Science and Religion, 1991, No. 11; 1992, Nos. 1, 2.

Elchaninov A., Florensky P., Ern V. History of Religion. - M .: Russian way; Paris: YMCA-Press, 2005.

Ilyin V.V., Karmin A.S., Nosovich N.V. Religious studies. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2008.

Oldenburg S. F. Life of the Buddha, the Indian Teacher of Life. - Pg., 1919.

Radhakrishnan S. Indian Philosophy. M., 1956.

Religious studies: Textbook and minimum educational dictionary on religious studies. – M.: Gardariki, 2002.

Rozenberg O. Proceedings on Buddhism. M .: Nauka, 1991

Encyclopedia for children. T. 6, part 1. Religions of the world. - M., 1996.

Topics for abstracts

The role of religion in human life.

Difference between theistic and pantheistic religions.

Is the core of religion a faith or a cult?

The problem of the reliability of spiritual experience.

Understanding God in Theistic Religions.

Features of mystical knowledge.

Rationale for creationism.

Classical evidence for the existence of God in European theology and philosophy.

Modern Evidence for the Existence of God.

I. Kant on the role of religion.

Marxism about the essence of religion.

The most important ideas of the book by W. James "The Varieties of Religious Experience".

Religion as a justification for absolute values.

Causes and results of the anti-religious policy in the Soviet state.

The value of totemism in the life of the clan (tribe).

The manifestation of fetishism in our days.

D. Fraser on the difference between magic and religion.

Religion of the ancient Greeks.

Religion of the ancient Romans.

Religion of the ancient Celts.

Voodoo religion.

Religion of the ancient Slavs.

Z. Freud's theory of the origin of religion - "for" and "against".

Modern sectarianism - the essence, varieties.

Thinkers of antiquity on the origin of religion.

Types of magical practice.

Magic through the eyes of scientists and mystics.

Rites and holidays in Judaism.

Mysticism in Judaism is Hasidism.

Interpretation of the myths of the book "Genesis" (Bible, Old Testament).

Tanakh and the Bible - similarities and differences.

Kabbalah is the mystical teaching of Judaism.

Talmud - Tradition in Judaism. Structure, content.

Rites and holidays in Islam.

Fasting in Christianity - their essence and meaning.

Rites and holidays in Orthodoxy (Catholicism).

The difference between Orthodoxy and Catholicism.

Features of Protestantism, difference from Catholicism and Orthodoxy.

The essence and role of the Reformation in the culture of Europe.

The meaning of the idea of ​​predestination in Protestantism.

Luther and Calvin are prominent figures of the Reformation.

Features of mysticism in the Eastern and Western churches.

The role of the Sunnah in Islam.

Features of mysticism in Islam (Sufism).

The Bible and the Quran - similarities and differences.

Judaism, Christianity, Islam - similarities and differences.

The role of prophets in the Abrahamic religions.

The future of religion

Causes of anti-Semitism.

Essence and meaning of asceticism.

Saints of the Orthodox Church.

Saints of the Western (Catholic) Church.

True (false) spiritism.

Buddhism is a religion without God.

The teachings of Buddhism.

Nirvana is the interpretation of salvation in Buddhism.

Tripitaka is the sacred book of Buddhism.

Similarities between Christianity and Mahayana Buddhism.

The difference between Mahayana Buddhism and classical Theravada (Hinayana) Buddhism.

The role of Buddhist monasteries in the culture of India.

1See: Brief Philosophical Dictionary. Ed. A. P. Alekseeva. 2nd edition, revised. and supplementary - PBOYuL M. A. Zakharov, 2001, p. 323.

1See: Encyclopedic Dictionary of Cultural Studies. - M., Publishing House "Center", 1997, p.322.

1See: Yu.M. – M.: Nauka, 1972, p. 189 - 190, 192.

2 See: Yu. M. Borodai, op. work., p. 198.

1See: Fraser J. The Golden Bough. - M., 1986.

1 The word "shaman" comes from the language of the Evenks (peoples of Siberia), it is widely used to refer to people of non-Western cultures, who were previously called "healer", "sorcerer", "magician", "witch", "sorcerer".

1 Cited. by: Harner M. The way of the shaman / Magic crystal: Magic through the eyes of scientists and sorcerers. - M.: Respublika, 1992, p. 429.

2 See: Ibid., p. 413..

1See: Encyclopedia for children. - M .: Publishing house Avanta +, vol. 6, part 1, Religions of the world. 363.

1. Encyclopedia for children. T. 6. Part 1. Religions of the world - M .: Avanta +, 1996, p. 350.

1 "Promised" means "promised."

1 See: Ex.: 20, 2-17 - Bible. - Russian Bible Society, M., 2004

1P. Florensky, A. Elchaninov, S. Ern. History of religion. S. 107.

1Eccl 9; 7 - Bible. - M., 2004.

1 Alov A. A., Vladimirov N. G., Ovsienko F. G. World religions. - M.: Publishing house PRIOR, 1998. - p. 407.

1 Encyclopedia for children. T. 6, part 1. Religions of the world. With. 429.

1 Elchaninov A., Florensky P., Ern V. History of religion., p. 122.

2 Job 14:10.

4 Eccl. 3:21

1 Sventsitskaya I. S. Early Christianity: pages of history. - M.: Politizdat, 1989, p.73.

2 Compare: Matt. 1:21 "And you will call his name Jesus, for he will save his people from their sins."

2 See: Christianity. Encyclopedic Dictionary in 3 volumes: T. 3 - M .: Great Russian Encyclopedia, 1995.p.395.

1 It is called so because it is celebrated on the fiftieth day after Easter, which is a moving holiday.

1 Rashkova R. T. Catholicism - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2007, p. 19.

1See: Philokalia. In 5 vols. - Repr. ed. Holy Trinity Sergius Lavra, 1993.

1See: Michel Malherbe. Religions of mankind. M-Spb., 1997, p. 306.

1See: Christianity. Encyclopedic Dictionary in 3 volumes - T 2, 1995, p.514 - 519.

1Rashkova R. T. Catholicism, p. 203.

1See: M. Luther. 95 theses - St. Petersburg: Rose of the World, 2002.

1 See: Elchaninov A., Florensky P., Ern V. History of Religion –p. 92.

1See: Rozenberg O. Proceedings on Buddhism. - M .: Nauka, 1991, p. 24-25.

1Radhakrishnan S. Indian Philosophy. M., 1956. S. 381.

2Ibid. S. 383.

1On this, see: N. V. Vetkasova. A guide to religious studies. Part II. History of the Religions of the East.