The means of expressiveness of speech is the comparison of examples. Basic language means in Russian

Means of expression in Russian can be divided into:

1. Lexical means
2. Syntactic means
3. Phonetic means

Lexical means: trails

Allegory - Themis (woman with scales) - justice.	Replacing an abstract concept with a concrete image.
Hyperbole -Bloomers as wide as the Black Sea(N. Gogol)	Artistic exaggeration.
irony - Where, clever, you're shaking your head. (Fable of I. Krylov).	Subtle mockery, use in a sense opposite to the direct one.
Lexical repetition -Lakes all around, deep lakes.	Repetition in the text of the same word, phrase
Litota -Man with nails.	Artistic understatement of the described object or phenomenon.
Metaphor - Sleepy lake of the city (A. Blok)	Figurative meaning of a word based on similarity
Metonymy - The class was noisy	Replacing one word with another based on the adjacency of two concepts
Occasionalisms -The fruits of education.	Artistic means formed by the author.
personification -It's raining. Nature rejoices.	The endowment of inanimate objects is endowed with the properties of living things.
Paraphrase -Lion = king of beasts.	Substitution of a word with an expression similar in lexical meaning.
Sarcasm -The works of Saltykov-Shchedrin are full of sarcasm.	A caustic subtle mockery, the highest form of irony.
Comparison -He says a word - the nightingale sings.	In comparison, there is what is being compared, and then what is being compared to. Unions are often used: like, like, like.
Synecdoche -Every a penny brings (money) into the house.	Transfer of value by quantitative attribute.
Epithet -"ruddy dawn", "golden hands", "silver voice".	A colorful, expressive definition based on implicit comparison.
Synonyms -1) run - run. 2)Noise (rustling) of leaves.	1) Words that are different in spelling but similar in meaning. 2) Contextual synonyms - words that come close in meaning in the same context
Antonyms - original - fake, stale - responsive	Words that have opposite meanings
Archaism -eyes - eyes, cheeks - cheeks	Obsolete word or phrase

Syntactic means

Anaphora -The storm was not in vain.	The repetition of words or combinations of words at the beginning of sentences or lines of poetry.
Antithesis -The hair is long - the mind is short;​​​​​​​.	Contrasting.
Gradation -I came, I saw, I conquered!	The arrangement of words, expressions in increasing (ascending) or decreasing (descending) significance.
Inversion -There lived a grandfather and a woman.	Reverse word order.
Compositional joint (lexical repetition) -It was a wonderful sound. It was the best voice I have heard in years.	The repetition at the beginning of a new sentence of words from the previous sentence, usually ending it.
Polyunion -The ocean was moving before my eyes, and swaying, and thundering, and sparkling, and fading away.	Intentional use of a repeating conjunction.
oxymoron -Dead Souls.	A combination of incompatible words.
Parceling -He saw me and froze. Surprised. He fell silent.	Intentional division of a sentence into semantic meaningful segments.
Rhetorical question, exclamation, appeal -What a summer, what a summer! Who hasn't cursed the stationmasters, who hasn't scolded them? Citizens, let's make our city green and cozy!	Expression of the statement in interrogative form; to attract attention; increased emotional impact.
Rows, paired connection of homogeneous members -Nature helps to fight loneliness, overcome despair, impotence, forget enmity, envy, deceit of friends.	Using homogeneous members for greater artistic expressiveness of the text
Syntax parallelism -Knowing how to speak is an art. Listening is culture.(D. Likhachev)	Similar, parallel construction of phrases, lines.
Default -But listen: if I owe you... I own a dagger, / I was born near the Caucasus.	The author intentionally does not say something, interrupts the hero’s thoughts so that the reader himself can think about what he wanted to say.
Ellipsis -Men - for axes! (Missed the word "taken")	The omission of some member of the sentence, which is easily recovered from the context
Epiphora -I have been going to you all my life. I have believed in you all my life.	Same ending for multiple sentences.

Phonetic means: sound writing

Solve the exam in the Russian language with answers.

Means of expressiveness give brightness to speech, enhance its emotional impact, attract the attention of the reader and listener to the statement. The means of speech expressiveness are diverse.

Phonetic (sound), lexical (associated with a word-lexeme), syntactic (associated with a phrase and a sentence), phraseological (phraseological units), tropes (figurative figures of speech) pictorial means are distinguished. They are used in various areas of communication: artistic, journalistic, colloquial and even scientific speech. The poorest of them officially

business style of speech.

A special role is played by means of expressiveness in artistic speech. Funds

the reader to enter the world of a work of art, to reveal the author's intention.

Dictionary- minimum

Lexical funds expressiveness

SYNÓ NIMS- words that are close in meaning, but are not the same root, for example: enemy,

enemy, adversary. S. help to express the idea most accurately, allow

detail the description of phenomena or objects. The most important stylistic function

S. - substitution function when it is necessary to avoid repetition of words. S row,

arranged so that each next enhances the previous one, creates a gradation (see): “I was in a hurry, flew, trembled ...” (A.S. Griboedov). S. are used in artistic

text (along with antonyms (see), homonyms (see) and paronyms (see)) as a means of thin .. express:

I'm talking to a friend of my youthful days;

In your features I look for other features;

In the mouth of the living, the mouth has long been mute,

In the eyes of the fire of extinguished eyes.

ANTONYMS- words that are opposite in meaning, helping to better convey, depict contradictions, contrast phenomena: “only a shine is whiter, a shadow is blacker”; “they came together: a wave and a stone / / poetry and prose,

ice and fire... A. may be present in the titles: “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy,

"Fathers and Sons" by I.S. Turgenev. A. are used in a literary text (along with

synonyms (see), homonyms (see) and paronyms (see)) as a lexical means

artistic expression, for example:

You are rich, I am very poor

You are a prose writer, I am a poet,

You are blush, like a poppy color,

I am like death, and thin and pale. A.S. Pushkin

HOMONYMS- words that have the same sound and spelling but different meanings: marriage

(matrimony) - marriage (poor-quality products). In addition to O. proper, they distinguish

homophones (words that sound the same but are spelled differently) and homographs

(words that only match in writing). O. are used in artistic

text (along with synonyms (see), antonyms (see) and paronyms (see)) as

lexical means of artistic expression or language game:

You fed the white swans

Throwing back the weight of black braids...

I swam nearby; the helms came together;

The sunset beam was strangely oblique. (V.Ya. Bryusov)

OCCASIONALISMS- a kind of neologisms (see): individual author's words created

poet or writer in accordance with the laws of word formation of the language, according to

models that exist in it and are used in a literary text

as a lexical means of artistic expression (“... hammered,

crescent soviet passport”, “I don’t give a damn about the many bronzes…” V.

Mayakovsky) or the language game:

smart teacher,

bent over the table

squinting, bespectacled,

vicious pest.

A. Levin ("The Gray Teacher", 1983-95)

PARONYMS- cognate words that are similar (but not the same) in sound, but differ in individual morphemes (prefixes or suffixes) and do not match in meaning: dress -

put on, signature - painting, spectacular - effective. Items are used in

literary text (along with synonyms (see), homonyms (see) and antonyms (see))

Dark glory bunt,

not empty and not hateful,

but tired and cold

Vocabulary of limited scope

DIALECTISMS- words and expressions inherent in folk speech, local

I speak (chereviki - shoes, base - yard, biryuk - a lonely and gloomy person). D.

are used in a literary text, like other vocabulary that has a limited

scope of use (colloquial elements (see), professionalisms (see), jargon

(see)) as a means of artistic expression (for example, as one of

ways of speech characterization of the character).

ARCHAISMS- obsolete words and expressions,

used, as a rule, in a "high poetic" style and giving

solemnity of artistic speech “Fade away, like a beacon, wondrous genius” (M.Yu.

Lermontov); “Show off, city of Petrov, and stand steadfastly, like Russia ...” (A.S. Pushkin).

However, A. can also introduce an ironic connotation into the text: “I'm in the village again. I go to

hunting, // I write my verses - life is easy ... ”(N.A. Nekrasov); “Once upon a time there was a Beast...//

Ran to the amusement, // Gatherings and gatherings. // Loved the spectacle, // In particular -

disgrace ... "(B. Zakhoder

JARGON(from French jargon) - emotionally and expressively colored speech,

different from the common one; any non-normative conditional language

social group, containing many words and expressions that are not included in the colloquial

language. Varieties of life: high-society or salon, student, army, thieves, sports, youth, family, etc.

to rat - to steal, goof - razin, an ingenuous person, and also - a businessman, a merchant;

PROFESSIONALISMS- words and expressions characteristic of people's speech

various professions and serving various areas of professional

activities, but not in common use. P., unlike the terms,

are considered "semi-official" words (lexemes) that do not have a strict

of a scientific nature, for example: organic - organic chemistry, steering wheel - steering wheel

car. In fiction, P., like other vocabulary that has

limited scope of use (colloquial elements, dialectisms,

jargon), are used as one of the ways to characterize

character, for example: “We are not talking about storms, but about storms” (V. Vysotsky).

NEOLOGISM- a newly formed or innovatively introduced into the language) word or expression that reflects the emergence in people's lives of new concepts, phenomena, objects. N. are formed as on the basis

existing forms, in accordance with the laws of language ("There will be a storm - we will bet

// And we will take courage with her” (N.M. Yazykov); “Oh, laugh, laughers” (V.

Khlebnikov).

Phraseological style

PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS- phrases (expressions) that are stable in composition, the meaning of which is fundamentally

cannot be deduced from the meanings of their constituent words, for example: take water in your mouth -

be silent, the fifth wheel in the cart is superfluous, press all the pedals - apply everything

efforts to achieve a goal or perform some business, etc. For F.

characteristic: constant composition (instead of a cat crying, you can’t say a dog

cried), the inadmissibility of including new words in their structure (one cannot say

instead of seven Fridays this week - seven Fridays this week), sustainability

grammatical structure (it is impossible to say sewed with white threads instead of sewn with white threads)

thread), in most cases a strictly fixed word order (it is impossible instead of a beaten unbeaten lucky unbeaten beaten luck). By origin distinguish F.,

borrowed from the Old Slavonic language and, as a rule, dating back to the Bible

(the voice of one crying in the wilderness, the Babylonian pandemonium, etc.), who came from

ancient mythology (Achilles' heel, Gordian knot, etc.), primordially Russian (in full

Ivanovskaya, pull the gimp, etc.), tracing paper, that is, expressions, literally

translated from source language

Phonetic means of expression

ALLITERATION- one of the types of sound writing (cm): repetition in poetic speech (less often in prose) of the same

consonant sounds in order to enhance its expressiveness.

The hiss of foamy glasses

And punch flame blue.

ASSONANCE(from French assonance - consonance) - 1. One of the types of sound writing (see):

repeated repetition in a poem (less often in prose) of the same vowel sounds,

enhancing the expressiveness of artistic speech.

Do I wander along the noisy streets

I enter a crowded temple,

Am I sitting among the foolish youths,

I surrender to my dreams.

ONOMATOPOEIA- one of the types of sound recording (see): use

phonetic combinations that can convey the sound of the described phenomena (“echo

laughter", "the clatter of hooves").

Trails (words and phrases in a figurative sense)

METAPHOR(from the Greek metaphora - transfer) - type of trail: figurative knowledge of the word,

based on likening one object or phenomenon to another; hidden comparison,

built on the similarity or contrast of phenomena, in which the words "as", "as if",

"as if" are absent, but implied. M.'s varieties are

personification (see) and reification (see).

Nineteenth century, iron,

Truly a cruel age!

You in the darkness of the night, starless

Careless abandoned man!

METONYMY(from the Greek metonymia - renaming) - type of trail: rapprochement,

comparison of concepts based on the replacement of the direct name of the subject with another

adjacency principle (containing - content, thing - material, author - its

work, etc.), for example: “The bows sang frenziedly ...” (A. Blok) - “they sang

bows” - the violinists played their instruments; "You led swords to a plentiful feast ..."

(A.S. Pushkin) - "swords" - warriors. “Porcelain and bronze on the table, // And, pampered feelings

joy, // Perfume in cut crystal...” (A.S. Pushkin) - “porcelain and bronze”, “in crystal”

Products from bronze, porcelain and crystal; “The theater is already full, // The boxes are shining, // The parterre and

armchairs - everything is in full swing ... "(A.S. Pushkin) - "boxes shine" - women's shine (shine)

decorations on the ladies sitting in the boxes, “parterre and armchairs” - the audience in the stalls

(space behind the seats) and seats (seats in front of the auditorium) of the theater.

reification- type of trail: likening an object. For example: "Nails b

make these people: Stronger if there were no nails in the world ”(N.S. Tikhonov). Variety

metaphors (see).

OXYMORON (OXYMORON)- type of trope: a phrase made up of words that are opposite in meaning, based on the paradox: “Look, it’s fun for her to be sad, // Such an elegant

naked” (A. Akhmatova); “Woman, take heart, nothing, // This is life, it happened

after all, it’s even worse ... ”(V. Vishnevsky). O. allows you to give more expressiveness to the image: bitter joy, sweet tears, “The Living Corpse” (L.N. Tolstoy)

PERSONIFICATION- type of trail: image of inanimate objects,

in which they are endowed with the properties of living beings (the gift of speech, the ability to think, feel, experience, act), they become like a living being. For example:

What are you howling about, night wind?

What are you complaining about so much?

PERIPHRASE- type of trope: a descriptive turn of speech used instead of a word or phrase.

In P., the name of an object or phenomenon is replaced for greater expressiveness

indicating its most characteristic features: "Venice of the North" (St.

Petersburg), "king of beasts" (lion). P. are figurative (wearing a metaphorical

character) and ugly (preserving the direct meaning of the words that form them,

for example: "city on the Neva" - Petersburg). Only figurative

P. In figurative P., some key feature stands out, and all the others, as it were

depicted objects and phenomena that are especially important for him in

artistic attitude. Unimaginative P. only rename objects,

qualities, actions and perform not so much an aesthetic as a semantic function: they help the author to more accurately express a thought, emphasize certain qualities of the described object or phenomenon, avoid repetition of words (for example, instead of A.S. Pushkin - “the author of“ Eugene Onegin ”“, "great Russian poet"). In the poem "The Death of a Poet" M.Yu. Lermontov the same A.S. Pushkin is called a "slave of honor", "a wondrous genius", and in a well-known obituary - "the sun of Russian poetry" - these are figurative P., tropes. P. - one of the leading tropes in the symbolist poetry of the early twentieth century.

SYNÉ ODOHA- type of trail: a kind of metonymy (see). The trope consists in replacing the plural

number singular; the use of the name of the part instead of the whole or general, and vice versa. For example:

From here we will threaten the Swede,

Here the city will be founded

To spite the arrogant neighbor ...

EPITHET(from Greek eritheton - application) - type of trail: figurative

a definition emphasizing some property of an object or phenomenon,

with a special artistic expression. For example: iron

since they are used in a figurative sense and carry a special semantic and

expressive-emotional load, while the same adjectives,

used in the direct meaning (iron bed, silver coin),

are not epithets. Distinguish E. "decorating" - denoting permanent

sign (see PERMANENT EPITHET) and E. individual, author's, important

to create a specific image in a given text (for example, in a poem by M.Yu.

Lermontov's "Cliff": "golden cloud", "giant cliff", stands alone", "quietly

crying"). E. is usually expressed by an adjective, participle, adverb, or

noun as an application.

HYPERBOLA- type of trope: excessive exaggeration of feelings, meaning, size, beauty, etc.

the same extraction of radium.

In a gram booty,

labor per year.

harassing

for one word

Thousand tons

verbal ore.

LITOTES(from the Greek litotes - simplicity, smallness, moderation) - a kind of trail,

opposite of hyperbole (see): artistic understatement of magnitude, strength,

the meaning of a phenomenon or object (“a boy with a finger”, “a man with a fingernail”). For example:

the same extraction of radium.

In a gram booty,

labor per year.

harassing

for one word

Thousand tons

verbal ore.

V. Mayakovsky

IRONY(from the Greek. eir?neia - pretense, mockery) - 1. Kind of comic:

subtle, hidden sneer. The comic effect is achieved by the fact that

says exactly the opposite of what is meant:

He [Onegin] sat down with a laudable purpose

Assign someone else's mind to yourself;

He set up a shelf with a detachment of books ... A.S. Pushkin

Syntactic figurative means (figures of speech )

PARALLELISM(from the Greek parall?los - walking beside) - 1. Identical or

a similar arrangement of speech elements in adjacent parts of the text, which, when correlated, create a single poetic image:

Waves crash in the blue sea.

The stars are shining in the blue sky.

A.S. Pushkin

ANAPHORA(from the Greek anaphora - bringing up) - a stylistic figure:

monotony, repetition of a word or group of words at the beginning of poetic lines or

prose phrases; one of the varieties of parallel syntactic constructions

I love you, Petra creation,

I love your strict, slim look. A.S. Pushkin

EPIPHORA(from the Greek epophora - additive) - a stylistic figure: the repetition of a word or group of words at the end of lines of poetry or prose

phrases; one of the varieties of parallel syntactic constructions (cf.

PARALLELISM).

I won't deceive myself

Concern lay in the misty heart.

Why did I become known as a charlatan,

Why am I known as a brawler?

……………………………………….

And now I won't get sick.

The slough in the heart cleared up like a mist.

That's why I was known as a charlatan,

That's why I was known as a brawler. (Yesenin)

GRADATION(from Latin gradatio - gradual elevation) - a stylistic device: such an arrangement of words (phrases, parts of a complex sentence), in which each subsequent one strengthens (or weakens) the meaning of the previous one, which allows you to recreate events, actions, thoughts and feelings in

process, in development - from small to large (direct G.) or from large to small (reverse G.). Thanks to G., there is an increase in intonation and the emotionality of speech increases:

Thank you with heart and hand

Because you me - not knowing yourself! -

So love: for my peace of the night,

For the rarity of meetings at sunset,

For our non-walking under the moon,

For the sun is not over our heads ... (Tsvetaeva)

PARCELLATION(from French parcelle - particle) - intonation-

stylistic figure: syntactic highlighting of individual parts or words

phrases (most often homogeneous members) or parts of a compound

(complex) sentences as independent sentences with

in order to enhance their semantic weight and emotional load in the text:

And his shadow dances in the window

Along the embankment. In the autumn night.

There. For Araks. In that country.

P. Antokolsky

“And here Latyshev, if he is a scientist, an intellectual, had to push the harpooner under the elbow and scold the captain for thoughtlessness. And protect the white whale from fools, and let the handsome sail further into legends.

rhetorical exclamationÁ NIE

figure: an exclamatory sentence that enhances the emotionality of the statement:

"Troika! Three bird! (N.V. Gogol). R. in. may be accompanied by hyperbolization, for example: “Magnificent! It has no equal river in the world!” (about the Dnieper) (N.V. Gogol).

Rhetorical questionÓ FROM(from Greek rhetor - speaker) - stylistic

figure: an interrogative sentence containing an affirmation (or negation),

formatted as a question that does not require an answer:

Didn't you at first so viciously persecuted

His free, bold gift

And for fun inflated

Slightly lurking fire? ...

M.Yu. Lermontov

R. in. is put not in order to get an answer, but in order to draw the attention of the reader (listener) to a particular phenomenon. R. in. used in poetic and oratorical speech, in journalistic and scientific texts, in artistic prose, as well as in colloquial speech.

rhetorical addressÉ NIE(from the Greek rhetor - speaker) - a stylistic figure: an underlined, but conditional appeal to someone (something). In form, being an appeal, R. o. serves not so much to name the addressee of the speech, but to express the attitude towards this or that object or phenomenon: to give it an emotional assessment, to give the speech the intonation necessary for the author

(solemnity, cordiality, irony, etc.).

Flowers, love, village, idleness,

Fields! I am devoted to you in soul. (A.S. Pushkin)

INVERSION(from lat. inversio - rearrangement) - stylistic figure: violation

common word order in the language. Rearranging words or parts of a phrase

gives speech a special expressiveness, for example:

He ascended higher as the head of the rebellious

Pillar of Alexandria... A.S. Pushkin

ASYNDETON- stylistic figure: such a construction of speech in which conjunctions connecting words are omitted. Gives the statement swiftness, dynamism, helps to convey a quick change of pictures, impressions, actions.

Flickering past the booth, women,

Boys, benches, lanterns,

Palaces, gardens, monasteries,

Bukharians, sleighs, vegetable gardens,

Merchants, shacks, men,

Boulevards, towers, Cossacks,

Pharmacies, fashion stores,

Balconies, lions on the gates

And flocks of jackdaws on crosses.

A.S. Pushkin

POLYUNION- stylistic figure: intentional repetition of unions,

which is used for intonational and logical underlining

And flowers, and bumblebees, and grass, and ears of corn,

And azure, and midday heat ...

Means of expressiveness are special artistic and rhetorical devices, lexical and grammatical means of the language that draw attention to the statement. They are used to make speech expressive, emotional, visual, make it more interesting and convincing. The means of expression have long been regarded as an important component rhetorical canon(see ch. 4).

The means of expression are trails and figures.

trails- these are turns of speech based on the use of a word or expression in a figurative sense (epithet, comparison, metaphor, etc.). figures of speech, or rhetorical figures are special forms of syntactic constructions that enhance the expressiveness of speech, the degree of its impact on the addressee (repetition, antithesis, rhetorical question, etc.). Tropes are based on verbal figurativeness, figures are based on syntactic figurativeness.

There are several main types of trails.

I. Comparison- a figurative expression built on a comparison of two objects or states that have a common feature. Comparison presupposes the presence of three components: firstly, what is being compared, secondly, what is being compared with, and thirdly, on the basis of which one is compared with another. As an example, one can cite the statement of the famous physiologist I.P. Pavlov: “As perfect as the wing of a bird, it could never lift it up without relying on air. Facts are the air of a scientist. Without them, you will never be able to take off. Without your "theories" are empty attempts."

II. Epithet - artistic definition, which makes it possible to more clearly characterize the qualities of an object or phenomenon and thereby enriches the content of the statement. For example, the geologist A.E. Fersman uses epithets to describe precious stones: a brightly colored emerald, sometimes thick, almost dark, cut with cracks, sometimes sparkling with bright dazzling green; bright golden "chrysolite" of the Urals, beautiful sparkling demantoid stone; a whole gamut of tones connects slightly greenish or bluish beryls with dense green dark aquamarines.

III. Metaphor - this is the use of a word in a figurative sense based on the similarity of two objects or phenomena (in form, color, function, etc.): "golden autumn", "dead silence", "iron will", "sea of ​​flowers". A metaphor is also called a figurative designation in artistic, poetic speech or in journalism of an object or phenomenon based on its similarity with another object or phenomenon: sharks of capitalism, political games, score points, nationalist card, paralysis of power, dollar injection. Metaphor should be distinguished from comparison, which is usually formed with the help of unions "like", "as if", "as if" or can be expressed in the form of the instrumental case of a noun. A successful metaphor activates perception, is well remembered:

Two steps away rises the dome of the museum, below boils[Zanlavskaya Square - I made a rather big circle (L. Kabakov. Everything is fixable).

“And in general,” Perkhushkov said, choking on longing, “how scary and difficult it is to live in the world, friends! speaking of longjenfyn, they happen at every step in our spiritual life!" (T. Tolstaya. Limpopo).

The Shcherbinsky case has become the "uranium rod" that, being lowered into our Russian political reactor, will start the process of fission of the civilian nucleus ("Results". 2006. M 13).

In fiction and journalistic texts, a detailed metaphor can be used, which is based on several similarity associations:

Your health ship has run aground. It must be taken in tow, refloated, and then, when it has free water under the keel, it will float itself. Medicines are the tugboat, free water is time, and the ability to swim on your own is restored adaptive capacity (advertising).

Metaphors play a significant role in shaping the picture of the world. A well-known researcher of political rhetoric A.P. Chudinov proceeds from the fact that the system of metaphors is a kind of key to understanding the spirit of the times. He studied the following basic metaphors of modern Russian reality: criminal ("political showdowns"), militaristic ("opposition camp", "show a united front"), medical ("paralysis of power", "separatism syndrome"), game ("nationalist card" , "score points"), sports ("come to the finish line", "gain speed").

The notion that the type of politician can be determined by the nature of his speech behavior, in particular by the metaphorical models that he chooses, has firmly established itself in the public mind. For example, the persistence of the militaristic model "Russia is a military camp" is explained by the fact that numerous wars have influenced all generations of Russians. This model provokes the speech deployment of the "War and its varieties" scenario: informational, psychological warfare, election campaign, ideological, pre-election front, go on the offensive, all-round defense, smoke screen, take revenge, state of siege, economic blockade, ordinary soldiers of the party. The militaristic metaphor is dangerous because it simplifies reality by imposing alternatives: either enemy or friend, or black or white.

IV. Metonymy based on adjacency. If, when creating a metaphor, two objects, phenomena, actions must be somewhat similar to each other, then with metonymy, two objects or phenomena that have received the same name must be adjacent, closely related to each other. Examples of metonymy are the use of the names of capitals in the meaning of "government of the country", the words "audience", "class", "school", "apartment", "house", "factory", "collective farm" to refer to people, naming a product made of material like this the same as the material itself (gold, silver, bronze, porcelain, cast iron, clay), for example: Moscow is preparing a return visit; London has not yet made a final decision; Negotiations between Moscow and Washington; Five houses in our area have changed management companies; Gold and silver went to our athletes, bronze went to the French.

v. Paraphrase - replacing a word with a descriptive expression that allows you to characterize any signs of what is being said. Often, paraphrases are based on metaphorical transfer. Paraphrases are often found in the media. Successful, fresh paraphrases help to enliven speech, help to avoid repetitions, enhance emotional assessment: earthquake - "underground storm", forest - "green wealth", forest (forests) - "lungs of the planet", journalists - "fourth estate", AIDS - " plague of the 20th century", chess - "mind gymnastics", Sweden - "land of the Vikings", St. Petersburg - "Northern Venice", Japan - "land of the rising sun".

VI. Hyperbole - this is a figurative expression that exaggerates any action, phenomenon, object or its properties; it is used to enhance the artistic impression, emotional impact ("He raced faster than lightning"; "The berries this year grew like a fist"; "He is so thin, just a skeleton"). The subject of speech due to hyperbole appears exceptional, often unbelievable: "From the Urals to the Danube, To the big river, Swaying and sparkling, The regiments are moving" (M. Lermontov). Hyperbole is actively used both in commercial advertising to exaggerate the functional qualities and aesthetic properties of goods and services ("Bounty - heavenly delight"), and in propaganda ("fateful decisions", "the only guarantor of the Constitution", "evil empire").

VII. Litota - a trope that is the opposite of hyperbole and consists in deliberately weakening, downplaying the property or sign that is being spoken about (“a man with a fingernail”, “two steps away”, “wait a second”).

VIII. irony - the use of a name or even a whole statement in the opposite literal sense, the deliberate statement of the opposite of what the speaker actually thinks. The highest degree of manifestation of irony - sarcasm. Irony is usually revealed not formally, but on the basis of background knowledge or context ("Listen to this intellectual: now he will dot all the i" - about a poorly educated, narrow-minded person; "Well, how could this man of honor break the law" - about a swindler).

IX. Among the rhetorical figures stands out repeat, designed primarily to demonstrate a strong feeling. Often this is just a repetition of a particular word. Here is an example of using the repetition technique in a speech by D. S. Likhachev:

Russian culture, by the mere fact that it includes the cultures of a dozen other peoples and has long been associated with the neighboring cultures of Scandinavia, Byzantium, the southern and western Slavs, Germany, Italy, the peoples of the East and the Caucasus, is a universal culture and tolerant of the cultures of others peoples. This last feature was clearly characterized by Dostoevsky in his famous speech at the Pushkin celebrations. But Russian culture is also European because it has always been at its deepest foundation devoted to the idea of ​​individual freedom ... ("On

There are several types of repetition.

1. Anaphora - repetition of words at the beginning of adjacent segments of speech. For example: "give yourself a unique elegance of French makeup, give yourself a piece of French charm." The famous speech of Martin Luther King Jr., a fighter for the rights of the black population in the United States, is built on the anaphora "I have a dream." Another example of an anaphora is a fragment of an article by the famous poet V.I. Ivanov "Thoughts on Symbolism":

So, I am not a symbolist, if I do not wake up with an elusive hint or influence in the heart of the listener of sensations inexpressible, sometimes similar to the original memory ... sometimes to a distant, vague premonition, sometimes to the thrill of someone familiar and desired approach ...

I am not a symbolist... if my words do not convince him directly of the existence of a hidden life where his mind did not suspect life; if my words do not move in him the energy of love for that which until then he did not know how to love, because his love did not know how many abodes it had.

I am not a symbolist, if my words are equal to themselves ...

2. Epiphora - is the repetition of words at the ends of adjacent segments of speech. An example is a fragment of the speech of the American President F. D. Roosevelt "On the Four Freedoms":

In the future... a world will open before us, built on the basis of the four inalienable freedoms of man. The first of these is freedom of speech anywhere in the world. The second is the freedom of religious cultures everywhere and everywhere in the world. The third is freedom from want, which ... means mutual understanding in the sphere of economic relations, ensuring for each state a peaceful, prosperous life for its citizens everywhere in the world. The fourth freedom is freedom from fear, which ... means the worldwide reduction of armaments to such an extent that no state will be able to commit an act of aggression against any of its neighbors anywhere in the world.

• 3. Joint - this is the repetition of words at the boundaries of adjacent segments within a sentence or at the boundary of sentences. For example: "Only with us, with us and nowhere else"; "It's impossible not to call it a crime. Other actions of the authorities should also be called a crime."
• 4. Syntax parallelism - this is a repetition of the same type of syntactic units in the same type of syntactic positions. Let us give an example of the use of this figure by Academician D.S. Likhachev:

May we have heroes of the spirit, ascetics who give themselves to the service of the sick, children, the poor, other peoples, saints, finally. Let our country again be the birthplace of Oriental studies, the country of "small peoples", their preservation in the "red book of mankind". Let the unaccountable desire to give all of oneself to some holy cause, which has so distinguished Russians at all times, again take its rightful place ("Oh Russian national character").

Syntactic parallelism is also used in advertising: Children build for fun, you build for them.

Syntactic parallelism can be accompanied by an antithesis: "A strong governor - great rights, a weak governor - no rights; a public politician - the republic is known in the country, a non-public politician - no one knows about it."

x. Antithesis - a figure built on the opposition of compared concepts, for example, in proverbs and sayings: "The smart one will teach, the fool will get bored"; "Easy to make friends, hard to leave." The antithesis was used by Cicero in his famous speech against Senator Catiline:

On our side fighting a sense of honor, on the other - impudence; here - modesty, there - depravity; here - fidelity, there - deceit; here - valor, there - crime; here - steadfastness, there - fury; here - an honest name, there - shame; here - restraint, there - licentiousness; in a word, all virtues struggle with injustice, depravity, laziness, recklessness, all sorts of vices; finally, abundance fights poverty, decency - with meanness, reason - with madness, finally, good hopes - with complete hopelessness.

XI. Inversion - rearranging parts of a sentence, breaking the usual word order to highlight certain words. Often this is due to cases when the predicate comes before the subject in order to highlight new information in the sentence. For example: "Good spring evenings"; "History is made by people, not some objective laws of history"; "The hero of the day was honored by the whole team"; "As difficult as it is, we must do it." Inversion can also be used for stylization: "We sit at tables long, oak, uncovered. Servants serve rusk kvass, daily cabbage soup, rye bread, boiled beef with onions and buckwheat porridge" (V. Sorokin. Oprichnik's Day).

XII. Parceling - this is the division of the original statement into two or more independent, intonationally isolated segments, for example: "They know. They remember. They believe"; "A person has always been handsome if his name sounded proud. When he was a fighter. When he was a discoverer. When he dared. When he did not succumb to difficulties and did not fall on his knees before trouble"; "He also went. To the store. Buy apples."

Parceling usually serves to convey in a written text the features of lively oral speech and is actively used in fiction and journalism: “But she didn’t get sick. She lied. But there is a lie, and there is a lie. And only a strong opponent should lie, and then a lie is an event "You can lie - and die. Or kill. But nothing changes in you from lying. It doesn't decrease, it increases..." (A. Gosteva. The daughter of a samurai).

Parceling is impossible in official business and scientific speech.

XIII. Rhetorical question- an exclamation question that does not require an answer, but conveys a message about something: "Do you think that I do not know this?"; "Is there another city like ours!"; "What does this mean?... The well-known reformer, the 'architect of reforms', could not do anything against the adoption of the law. How can one trust such a country now?"

D. S. Likhachev uses a whole range of rhetorical exclamations and rhetorical questions in his speech "On the National Character of the Russians":

There was legislation, Russkaya Pravda. "Code of Laws", "Ulozhenie", which defended the morals and dignity of the individual. Is this not enough? Is it not enough for us to have a people's movement to the East in search of freedom from the state and a happy Belovodsky kingdom? ... Do not the constant revolts and such leaders of these revolts as Razin, Bulavin, Pugachev and many others testify to the ineradicable desire for individual freedom? And the northern burns, in which hundreds and thousands of people burned themselves in the name of loyalty to their beliefs! What other uprising can we oppose to the Decembrist uprising, in which the leaders of the uprising acted against their property, estate and class interests, but on the other hand in the name of social and political justice? And the village gatherings, with which the authorities were constantly forced to reckon! And all Russian literature, which has been striving for social justice for a thousand years!

Traditional, centuries-old means of expressiveness are still the most important means of creating effective, influencing speech, but only their skillful, proportionate and appropriate use will avoid artificiality and false pathos.

The expressiveness of Russian speech. means of expression.

Figurative and expressive means of language

TRAILS -use of the word in a figurative sense. Lexical argument

List of trails	Term meaning	Example
Allegory	Allegory. Trope, which consists in the allegorical depiction of an abstract concept with the help of a concrete, life image.	In fables and fairy tales, cunning is shown in the form of a fox, greed - a wolf.
Hyperbola	Artistic medium based on exaggeration	The eyes are huge, like searchlights (V. Mayakovsky)
Grotesque	Extreme exaggeration, giving the image a fantastic character	Mayor with a stuffed head at Saltykov-Shchedrin.
Irony	Ridicule, which contains an assessment of what is ridiculed. A sign of irony is a double meaning, where the true will not be directly stated, but the opposite, implied.	Where, smart, are you delirious head? (I. Krylov).
Litotes	Artistic medium based on understatement (as opposed to hyperbole)	The waist is no thicker than the neck of a bottle (N. Gogol).
Metaphor, extended metaphor	Hidden comparison. A type of trope in which individual words or expressions come together in terms of the similarity of their meanings or in contrast. Sometimes the whole poem is an extended poetic image.	With a sheaf of your oatmeal hair You touched me forever. (S. Yesenin.)
Metonymy	A type of path in which words come together according to the contiguity of the concepts they denote. A phenomenon or object is depicted using other words or concepts. For example, the name of the profession is replaced by the name of the instrument of activity. There are many examples: transferring from a vessel to contents, from a person to his clothes, from a locality to residents, from an organization to participants, from an author to works	When the shore of hell Will take me forever, When the Feather will fall asleep forever, my joy ... (A. Pushkin.) On silver, on gold ate. Well, eat another plate, son.
personification	Such an image of inanimate objects, in which they are endowed with the properties of living beings with the gift of speech, the ability to think and feel	What are you howling about, wind night, What are you complaining about so much? (F. Tyutchev.)
Paraphrase (or paraphrase)	One of the tropes in which the name of an object, person, phenomenon is replaced by an indication of its features, the most characteristic, enhancing the figurativeness of speech	King of beasts (instead of lion)
Synecdoche	A type of metonymy, consisting in transferring the meaning of one object to another on the basis of a quantitative relationship between them: a part instead of a whole; the whole in the meaning of the part; singular in the meaning of general; replacing a number with a set; replacement of a specific concept by a generic one	All flags will visit us. (A. Pushkin.); Swede, Russian stabs, cuts, cuts. We all look to Nap oleones.
Epithet	figurative definition; a word that defines an object and emphasizes its properties	dissuaded by the grove golden birch cheerful language.
Comparison	A technique based on comparing a phenomenon or concept with another phenomenon	The ice is not strong on the icy river, as if it lies like melting sugar. (N. Nekrasov.)

FIGURES OF SPEECH

A generalized name for stylistic devices in which the word, unlike tropes, does not necessarily appear in a figurative sense. grammatical argument.

Figure	Term meaning	Example
Anaphora (or monogamy)	The repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of sentences, poetic lines, stanzas.	I love you, Peter's creation, I love your strict, slender appearance ...
Antithesis	Stylistic device of contrast, opposition of phenomena and concepts. Often based on the use of antonyms	And the new so denies the old!.. It grows old before our eyes! Already shorter skirts. It's already longer! Leaders are younger. That's already old! Better manners.
gradation	(graduality) - a stylistic means that allows you to recreate events and actions, thoughts and feelings in the process, in development, in increasing or decreasing significance	I do not regret, do not call, do not cry, Everything will pass like smoke from white apple trees.
Inversion	permutation; stylistic figure, consisting in violation of the general grammatical sequence of speech	He shot past the doorman like an arrow up the marble steps.
Lexical repetition	Intentional repetition of the same word in the text	I'm sorry, I'm sorry, I'm sorry! And I forgive you, and I forgive you. I do not hold evil, I promise you this, But only you, too, forgive me!
Pleonasm	The repetition of similar words and turns, the injection of which creates one or another stylistic effect.	My friend, my friend, I am very, very sick.
Oxymoron	A combination of opposite words that don't go together.	Dead souls, bitter joy, sweet sorrow, ringing silence.
Rhetorical question, exclamation, appeal	Techniques used to enhance the expressiveness of speech. A rhetorical question is asked not with the aim of getting an answer to it, but for an emotional impact on the reader. Exclamations and appeals enhance emotional perception	Where are you galloping, proud horse, And where will you lower your hooves? (A. Pushkin.) What a summer! What a summer! Yes, it's just witchcraft. (F. Tyutchev.)
Syntax parallelism	Reception, which consists in a similar construction of sentences, lines or stanzas.	I lookI look at the future with fear, I look at the past with longing...
Default	A figure that allows the listener to guess and think for himself what will be discussed in a suddenly interrupted statement.	You'll go home soon: Look... Well, what? my fate, To tell the truth, very Nobody is concerned.
Ellipsis	A figure of poetic syntax based on the omission of one of the members of the sentence, easily restored in meaning	We villages - in ashes, hailstones - in dust, In swords - sickles and plows. (V. Zhukovsky.)
Epiphora	A stylistic figure opposite to anaphora; repetition at the end of lines of poetry of a word or phrase	Dear friend, and in this quiet Home. The fever hits me. Can't find me a quiet place HouseNear a peaceful fire. (A. Blok.)

DESIGN POSSIBILITIES OF VOCABULARY

Lexical argument

Terms	Meaning	Examples
Antonyms, contextual antonyms	Words that are opposite in meaning. Contextual antonyms - it is in the context that they are opposites. Outside the context, this opposition is lost.	Wave and stone, poetry and prose, ice and fire... (A. Pushkin.)
Synonyms contextual synonyms	Words that are close in meaning. Contextual synonyms - it is in the context that they are close. Out of context, intimacy is lost.	To desire - to want, to have a hunt, to strive, to dream, to crave, to hunger
Homonyms	Words that sound the same but have different meanings.	Knee - a joint connecting the thigh and lower leg; passage in birdsong
homographs	Different words that match in spelling but not in pronunciation.	Castle (palace) - lock (on the door), Flour (torment) - flour (product)
Paronyms	Words that are similar in sound but different in meaning	Heroic - heroic, double - dual, effective - real
Words in a figurative sense	In contrast to the direct meaning of the word, stylistically neutral, devoid of figurativeness, figurative - figurative, stylistically colored.	Sword of justice, sea of ​​light
Dialectisms	A word or phrase that exists in a certain area and is used in speech by the inhabitants of this area	Draniki, shanezhki, beetroots
jargon	Words and expressions that are outside the literary norm, belonging to some kind of jargon - a type of speech used by people united by a common interest, habits, occupations.	Head - watermelon, globe, saucepan, basket, pumpkin...
Profession-isms	Words used by people of the same profession	Caboose, boatswain, watercolor, easel
Terms	Words intended to denote special concepts of science, technology, and others.	Grammar, surgical, optics
Book vocabulary	Words characteristic of written speech and having a special stylistic coloring.	Immortality, incentive, prevail...
colloquial vocabulary	Words, colloquial use, characterized by some roughness, reduced character.	dummy, flirtatious, wobble
Neologisms (new words)	New words emerging to denote new concepts that have just emerged. There are also individual author's neologisms.	There will be a storm - we'll bet And let's have fun with her.
Obsolete words (archaisms)	Words ousted from the modern language others denoting the same concepts.	Fair - excellent, diligent - caring, foreigner - foreigner
Borrowed	Words transferred from words in other languages.	Parliament, Senate, MP, consensus
Phraseologisms	Stable combinations of words, constant in their meaning, composition and structure, reproduced in speech as whole lexical units.	To prevaricate - to be hypocritical, to beat baklu-shi - to mess around, in a hurry - quickly

EXPRESSIVE-EMOTIONAL VOCABULARY

Conversational.	Words that have a slightly reduced stylistic coloring compared to neutral vocabulary, which are characteristic of the spoken language, are emotionally colored.	Dirty, screamer, bearded man
Emotionally colored words	Estimatedcharacter, both positive and negative.	Adorable, wonderful, disgusting, villain
	Words with suffixes of emotional evaluation.	Cute little hare, little mind, brainchild

ARTISTIC POSSIBILITIES OF MORPHOLOGY

grammatical argument

1. Expressive usage case, gender, animation, etc.	Something air it is not enough for me, I drink the wind, I swallow the fog... (V. Vysotsky.) We rest in Sochah. How Plushkins divorced!
2. Direct and figurative use of tense forms of the verb	I'm comingI went to school yesterday and see announcement: "Quarantine". Oh and rejoiced I!
3. Expressive use of words of different parts of speech.	happened to me most amazing story! I got unpleasant message. I was visiting at her. The cup will not pass you by this.
4. Use of interjections, onomatopoeic words.	Here is closer! They jump ... and into the yard Yevgeny! "Oh!"- and lighter shade Tatiana jump into other canopies. (A. Pushkin.)

AUDIO EXPRESSION

Means	Term meaning	Example
Alliteration	Reception of figurative amplification by repetition of consonant sounds	hissfoamy glasses And punch flame blue ..
Alternation	Sound alternation. The change of sounds occupying the same place in a morpheme in different cases of its use.	Tangent - touch, shine - flash.
Assonance	Reception of figurative amplification by repetition of vowel sounds	The thaw is boring to me: the stink, the dirt, in the spring I am sick. (A. Pushkin.)
sound recording	The technique of enhancing the figurativeness of the text by constructing phrases, lines in such a way that would correspond to the reproduced picture	For three days it was heard how on the road a boring, long The joints were tapping: to the east, east, east ... (P. Antokolsky reproduces the sound of carriage wheels.)
Onomatopoeia	Imitation with the help of the sounds of the language of the sounds of living and inanimate nature	When the mazurka thundered... (A. Pushkin.)

ARTISTIC SYNTAX CAPABILITIES

grammatical argument

1. Rows of homogeneous members of the proposal.	When empty and weak a person hears a flattering review about his dubious merits, he revels with your vanity, arrogant and quite loses his tiny ability to be critical of his deeds and to your person.(D. Pisarev.)
2. Offers with introductory words, appeals, isolated members.	Probably,there, in native places just like in my childhood and youth, kupava blooms in the marsh backwaters and the reeds rustle, who made me with their rustle, with their prophetic whispers, that poet, who I have become, who I was, who I will be when I die. (K. Balmont.)
3. Expressive use of sentences of various types (complex, compound, unionless, one-part, incomplete, etc.).	They speak Russian everywhere; it is the language of my father and my mother, it is the language of my babysitter, my childhood, my first love, almost every moment of my life, which entered my past as an integral property, as the basis of my personality. (K. Balmont.)
4. Dialogical presentation.	- Well? Is it true that he is so handsome? - Surprisingly good, handsome, one might say. Slender, tall, blush all over the cheek ... - Right? And I thought he had a pale face. What? What did he look like to you? Sad, thoughtful? - What do you? Yes, I have never seen such a rabid one. He took it into his head to run into the burners with us. - Run into the burners with you! Impossible!(A. Pushkin.)
5. Parceling - a stylistic device for dividing a phrase into parts or even separate words in order to give speech an intonational expression by means of its jerky pronunciation. Parceled words are separated from each other by dots or exclamation marks, while observing the remaining syntactic and grammatical rules.	Freedom and brotherhood. There will be no equality. Nobody. Nobody. Not equal. Never.(A. Volodin.) He saw me and frozen. Numb. He fell silent.
6. Non-union or asyndeton - the intentional omission of unions, which gives the text dynamism, swiftness.	Swede, Russian stabs, cuts, cuts. People knew that somewhere, very far from them, there was a war going on. To be afraid of wolves - do not go into the forest.
7. Polyunion or polysyndeton - repeating unions serve to logically and intonationally emphasize the members of the sentence connected by the unions.	The ocean was moving before my eyes, and it swayed, and thundered, and sparkled, and faded away, and shone, and went somewhere to infinity. I will either sob, or scream, or faint.

Tests.

1. Choose the correct answer:

1) On that white April night Petersburg I saw Blok for the last time... (E. Zamyatin).

a) metaphorab) hyperbolav) metonymy

2.Then you get cold in the shine of moonlight,

You moan, doused with foam of wounds.

(V. Mayakovsky)

a) alliteration b) assonance c) anaphora

3. I drag myself in the dust - and I soar in the sky;

Alien to everyone in the world - and the world is ready to embrace. (F. Petrarch).

a) oxymoron b) antonym c) antithesis

4. Let it fill with years

life quota,

costs

only

remember this wonder

tears apart

mouth

yawn

wider than the Gulf of Mexico.

(V. Mayakovsky)

a) hyperbolab) litotave) personification

5. Choose the correct answer:

1) It was drizzling with beady rain, so airy that it seemed that it did not reach the ground and haze of water dust floated in the air. (V. Pasternak).

a) epithet b) comparison c) metaphor

6.And in autumn days the flame flowing with life in the blood is not extinguished. (K. Batyushkov)

a) metaphorab) personification) hyperbole

7. Sometimes he falls passionately in love

In my elegant sadness.

(M. Yu. Lermontov)

a) antithesab) oxymoron c) epithet

8. Diamond is polished with a diamond,

The string is dictated by the string.

a) anaphora b) comparison c) parallelism

9. On one assumption of such a case, you would have to pull out the hair from your head and emit streams... what am I saying! rivers, lakes, seas, oceans tears!

(F.M. Dostoevsky)

a) metonymy b) gradation c) allegory

10. Choose the correct answer:

1) Black tailcoats rushed apart and in heaps here and there. (N. Gogol)

a) metaphorab) metonymy c) personification

11. The idler sits at the gate,

mouth wide open,

And no one will understand

Where is the gate, and where is the mouth.

a) hyperbolab) litotave) comparison

12. C impudent modesty looks into the eyes. (A. Blok).

a) epithetb) metaphorav) oxymoron

Option	Answer

The means of artistic expression are so numerous and varied that one cannot do without dry mathematical calculations.

Wandering through the back streets of the metropolis of literary theory, it is not surprising to get lost and not reach the most important and interesting. So, remember the number 2. Two sections need to be studied: the first is paths, and the second is stylistic figures. In turn, each of them branches into many lanes, and we don’t have the opportunity to go through all of them now. Trope - a derivative of the Greek word "turn", denotes those words or phrases that have a different, "allegorical" meaning. And thirteen paths-lanes (the most basic). Or rather, almost fourteen, because here, too, art bypassed mathematics.

First section: trails

1. Metaphor. Find similarities and transfer the name of one object to another. For example: tram-worm, trolleybus-bug. Metaphors are often monosyllabic.

2. Metonymy. Also transfer of the name, but according to the principle of adjacency, for example: I read Pushkin(instead of the name "book" we have "author", although the body of the poet was also read by many young ladies).

2a. Synecdoche. Suddenly - 2a. This is a kind of metonymy. Concept substitution. And plural. " Save your penny"(Gogol) and" Sit down, light"(Mayakovsky) - this is according to concepts, instead of money and the sun." Retraining as a manager"(Ilf and Petrov) - this is by numbers, when the singular is replaced by the plural (and vice versa).

3. Epithet. Figurative definition of an object or phenomenon. Examples of a wagon (already an example - instead of "a lot"). It is expressed by almost any part of speech or phrase: leisurely spring, beautiful spring, smiled like spring etc. The means of artistic expression of many writers are completely exhausted by this path - varied, canal.

4. Comparison. Always binomial: the object of comparison is the image of similarity. The most commonly used conjunctions are "like", "as if", "as if", "exactly", as well as prepositions and other lexical means. Shout beluga; like lightning; silent like a fish.

5. Personification. When inanimate objects are endowed with a soul, when violins - sing, trees - whisper; Moreover, completely abstract concepts can also come to life: calm down, melancholy; even talk to me, seven-string guitar.

6. Hyperbole. Exaggeration. Forty thousand brothers.

7. Litota. Understatement. A drop in the sea.

8. Allegory. Through specifics - into abstraction. The train left It means that the past cannot be returned. Sometimes there are very, very long texts with one detailed allegory.

9. Paraphrase. Beating around the bush, describing the unnamed word. " Our everything", for example, or " Sun of Russian poetry". And just say - Pushkin, not everyone will be able to do it with such success.

10. Irony. Subtle mockery when words with the opposite meaning are used .

11. Antithesis. Contrast, opposition. Rich and poor. Winter and summer.

12. Oxymoron. A combination of incompatibilities: living corpse, hot snow, silver bast shoes.

13. Antonomasia. Similar to metonymy. Only here a proper name necessarily appears instead of a common noun. Croesus instead of "rich".

Second section: Stylistic figures, or Turns of speech, enhancing the expressiveness of the utterance

Here we memorize 12 branches from the main avenue:

1. Gradation. The arrangement of words is step by step - in importance, in ascending or descending order. Crescendo or diminuendo. Remember how Koreiko and Bender smiled at each other.

2. Inversion. A phrase that breaks the normal word order. Especially often adjacent to irony. " Where, smart, are you wandering your head"(Krylov) - there is also irony.

3. Ellipsis. From his inherent expressiveness, he "swallows" some words. For example: " I am going home instead of "I'm going home".

4. Parallelism. The same construction of two or more sentences. For example: " Now I go and sing, then I stand on the edge".

5. Anaphora. Monogamy. That is, each new construction begins with the same words. Remember Pushkin's "Green oak near the seashore", there is a lot of this goodness.

6. Epiphora. Repeating the same words already at the end of each construction, and not at the beginning. " If you go to the left, you will die, if you go to the right, you will die, and if you go straight, you will definitely die, but there is no turning back."

7. Non-union or asyndeton. Swede, Russian, it goes without saying that he cuts, stabs, cuts.

8. Polyunion or polysyndeton. Yes, it's also clear: and boring, you know, and sad, and no one.

9. Rhetorical question. A question that does not expect an answer, on the contrary, implies one. Have you heard?

10. Rhetorical exclamation. It greatly increases the emotional intensity of even written speech. The poet is dead!

11. Rhetorical appeal. Conversation not only with inanimate objects, but also with abstract concepts: " What are you standing, swinging...", "Hello joy!"

12. Parceling. Also very expressive syntax: Well, everything. I'm done, yes! This article.

Now about the topic

The theme of a work of art, as the basis of the subject of knowledge, directly lives on the means of artistic expression, since anything can be the subject of creativity.

telescope of intuition

The main thing is that the artist must consider thoroughly, looking through the telescope of intuition, what he is going to tell the reader about. All phenomena of human life and the life of nature, the animal and plant world, as well as material culture, lend themselves to the image. Fantasy is also a great subject for research, from there gnomes, elves and hobbits fly to the pages of the text. But the main theme is still a characteristic of the peculiarities of human life in its social essence, no matter what terminators and other monsters frolic in the vastness of the work. And no matter how the artist runs away from actual public interests, he will not be able to break ties with his time. The idea, for example, of "pure art" is also an idea, right? All changes throughout the life of society are necessarily reflected in the themes of the works. The rest depends on the author's intuition and dexterity - what means of artistic expression he chooses for the most complete disclosure of the chosen topic.

The concept of the Grand style and the style of the individual

Style is, first of all, a system that incorporates creative style, features of the verbal system, plus subject representation and composition (plot composition).

big style

The totality and unity of all pictorial and figurative means, the unity of content and form is the formula of style. Eclecticism does not convince to the end. Great style is the norm, expediency, traditions, it is the hit of the author's feeling during the Great Time. Such as the Middle Ages, Renaissance, Classicism.

According to Hegel: three types of Grand style

1. Strict - from harsh - with the highest functionality.

2. Ideal - from harmony - filled with balance.

3. Pleasant - from household - light and flirtatious. Hegel, by the way, wrote four thick volumes only about style. In a nutshell, it is simply impossible to describe such a topic.

Individual style

It is much easier to acquire an individual style. This is both a literary norm and deviations from it. The style of fiction is especially clearly visible in its attention to detail, where all components are poured into a system of images, and a poetic synthesis takes place (again, a silver bast shoe on the table of Pavel Petrovich Kirsanov).

According to Aristotle: Three steps to style

1. Imitation of nature (discipleship).

2. Manner (we sacrifice truthfulness for the sake of artistry).

3. Style (fidelity to reality while maintaining all individual qualities). Perfection and completeness of style are distinguished by works that have historical truthfulness, ideological orientation, depth and clarity of problems. To create a perfect form, corresponding to the content, the writer needs talent, ingenuity, skill. He must rely on the achievements of his predecessors, choose forms that correspond to the originality of his artistic ideas, and for this he needs both literary and general cultural horizons. The classical criterion and the spiritual context are the best way and the main problem in acquiring style in current Russian literature.