The specificity of the culture of ancient civilizations. Antiquity and primitiveness: general and special

The life of the primitive peoples of the Archaic era was subject to traditions, permeated with ritualism and was not very suitable for change. The centuries-long constancy of the way of life of the primitive tribes fully corresponded to the relative constancy of the natural and climatic conditions in the territories they mastered. When the conditions of existence worsened - due to the depletion of food resources or climate change - the primitive collectives responded to this challenge of nature by moving to areas with more favorable living conditions.

We do not know how many primitive tribes died, unable to withstand the hardships of migration (migro - Latin. to cross, move) or, conversely, in clashes with aliens driven by hunger, and how many such tribes, having reached new lands, scattered among the local population. But we know at least two places on Earth - in the valley of the Nile River and in the lower reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates - where the challenge of fate was first given a stronger answer: by the end of the 4th millennium BC, a new type of human collectivity began to take shape here , with culture and civilization, which are now commonly referred to as the "era of antiquity".

The main sign of the onset of antiquity is the emergence of states. Let's compare. In the era of the Archaic, any community was based on blood ties (family, clan, tribe, etc.), that is, on an unconditionally biological sign, although meaningful in a human way through myth. In the era of Antiquity, non-biological foundations of human unions began to assert themselves - neighborhood, joint ownership, cooperation. These new principles made it possible to integrate much more extensive and diverse communities capable of solving unprecedentedly laborious economic problems.

The first state formations arose on the banks of the Nile and in the valleys of Mesopotamia in the process of building irrigation systems. The construction of dams and water distribution canals was a new type of activity that required unprecedented organization of all participants in the work - in fact, the entire population. Construction had to be preceded by design, and its course could proceed only under the direction of persons vested with the power of coercion and control. So, in the process of irrigation construction itself, almost simultaneously and independently of each other, models of relations were formed that were characteristic of the early Sumerian and Egyptian statehood.

In general, this new type of community was oriented towards production, and, for the first time, the organization of production was based on relations of power and subordination. Forced labor, accounting for costs and output, its storage and distribution, the creation of a reserve, and to a certain extent, exchange - all this became a special area of ​​activity that required special training, knowledge and a special, imperious, status of people performing it. The state organization also made it possible to sharply increase the scale of military activity and construction. Long-distance military campaigns, as well as the construction of huge structures for the first time - pyramids, palaces, temples and cities, required all the same planning, accounting, control and coercion on the part of society, in whose person the state concentrated knowledge and power. Thus, the ancient state for the first time consolidates the hierarchical structure of society: collective interest and collective will are realized and formalized by the efforts of a relatively small part of it (the “top” of society), while their practical implementation remains with another, much larger part of it (“bottom”).

The transition from consanguineous unions to state forms of collectivity brought to life another fundamental innovation - legislation. The laws proclaimed and implemented on behalf of the head of state, the tsar, put all members of the civil collective in relations that depended on the place of the individual in the social structure, and in no way - on his tribal affiliation.

The revolutionary meaning of this transformation is now difficult to assess: the new approach, in principle, overcame tribal differences within the state and at the same time formulated a new "idea of ​​the world and man's place in this world" (2.3). In fact, therefore, we are talking about a cultural revolution in the transition from Archaic to Antiquity, which was experienced by the peoples who entered into statehood, each in its own time, over a segment of history of 2-3 millennia (it is believed that the era of Antiquity ended approximately in the 5th century of our era with the fall of the Roman Empire).

Expressions such as "to pass (or enter) into a new cultural epoch" do not quite accurately express the essence of the matter, because at first there was still nowhere to "enter". The peoples of Antiquity, the creators of the civilization of the first states and cities, created their culture, while rethinking the inherited ideas about time and space, adapting the established mythological and ritual canon to new needs.

In the culture of Antiquity, as, indeed, in any other culture, TIME is a characteristic of a sequence of events significant for a given culture. The ancients retained a widespread archaic idea of ​​time, identifying significant moments of the present with their corresponding primary events-precedents, as a result of which the "past" and "present" are ritually combined. But, as will be shown below, the ancients develop a meaningful new mythology, which is dedicated to other heroes and other precedents that are essential for a new culture and a new civilization.

What is new in the civilizations of antiquity is also the fact that in them an important place is occupied by temporally significant events, the accounting of which requires a method other than ritual and mythological, to correlate successively alternating events. For example, for the self-consciousness of the state, it is important to take into account the succession of kingdoms and dynasties; streamlining private transactions (exchange, loan, debt recovery, etc.) requires the correlation of the initial and final acts of one operation, between which months and years can lie. This circumstance introduces into use other than the mytho-ritual - astronomical account of time, usually by years, counting from the beginning of the reign of the current monarch.

Writing began in Antiquity in the form of pictorial signs, capable of retaining only that which differs to a small extent from the well-known. Let's continue the "football" example. Suppose you want to record the results of football matches. Since in these cases everyone who is interested in these messages knows what is at stake, it is enough to build a fairly simple picture, the so-called "pictogram", consisting, for example, of the symbols of the teams playing, placed one above the other, assuming that the top is placed the symbol of the winning team (repeated according to the number of goals scored), and at the bottom of the losing team. In this case, the entry in the form "DD / S" may indicate the victory of the Dynamo team over the Spartak team with a score of 2: 1.

The history of writing systems, begun in Antiquity, reflects the historically changing ratio of traditional (repeating) and unique (specific) phenomena of civilization - in favor of the latter.

New relations of collectivity, the embodiment of which we find in the states of the Ancient World, were formed on the basis of new mythologies of the Antiquity - new collective "ideas about the world and the place of man in this world." The myths of the Ancient World directly inherited the archaic myths, but their figurative-symbolic system became incomparably more developed; even today it amazes with a generous variety of events, plots and characters.

The transformation of archaic mythology into ancient one was expressed in the change of significant first events-precedents. If in archaic myths the primary events were mainly those that led to the creation of the Universe, people and animals, then the new (often updated) myths of Antiquity shift the focus to primary events, the meaning of which is to give people the basic skills and values ​​of Ancient civilization. According to the myths of Antiquity, the HEROES OF CULTURE brought people fire, the technique of cultivating the land and making products, the possession of crafts, the principles of public life (laws), etc. For example, among the ancient Greeks, Triptolem, traveling around the world, sowed the earth and taught people to do this, and Prometheus stole the fire symbol of civilization from the god of craft Hephaestus. The Sumerian god Enki, also revered by the Hittites and Hurrians as the creator of people, livestock and grain, created, according to myths, a plow, a hoe, a brick mold, in addition, he was considered the inventor of gardening, gardening, flax growing, and herbal medicine. In ancient Chinese mythology, a number of ancestor characters, represented in myths as ancient rulers, are mentioned in connection with the production of fire (Sui-zhen), the invention of the fishing net (Fu-si), vehicles - boats and chariots (Huang-di). The merits of other mythical characters of Ancient China consisted in teaching people about agriculture, digging the first wells, introducing clay vessels and musical instruments into Chinese civilization, writing and other innovations, including the introduction of barter.

In the movement of peoples from the culture of the Archaic to the culture of Antiquity, mythical ideas about the first ancestors also underwent a significant rethinking. In general terms, its essence is that the first ancestors-rulers, the gods, come to the place of the first ancestors-creators of the world. The process of this transition is reflected in mythologies as the era of the struggle of new generations of gods with older deities. In ancient Greek mythology, the gods from the younger generation of Olympians, led by their ancestor and head Zeus, the son of Kronos, who belonged to the older generation of titan gods born by the earth Gaia and the sky Uranus, defeat the titan ancestors in a gigantic battle, personifying the elements of nature with all its catastrophes , and establish a reasonable and orderly world. In ancient Chinese mythology, the many-armed and many-legged Chii-yu (an image of the plurality and disorder of natural forces) was defeated in battle by the sovereign Huang-di, who established harmony and order. In Hurrian mythology there is an epic "On the reign in heaven", which tells about the struggle and violent change of three generations of gods. In Sumero-Akkadian mythology, the plots of "theomachy" (the struggle of the gods) are partly replaced by the voluntary election of all the gods to the role of their leader, the main god of the city of Babylon, Marduk, who defeated the creator of the first gods, the goddess Tiamat, in a cosmic battle.

The myths transformed in this way corresponded more to the realities of the Antiquity. The gods - the rulers of the world, the establishers and guarantors of order in nature and among people, were often identified through myth with earthly rulers - rulers, kings. Among the ancient Jews, before the first king Saul, the god Yahweh had royal titles. Egyptian pharaohs were considered deities, direct descendants of the supreme deity of the Egyptians. They were deified, that is, they were revered as deities, and the ancient Sumerian kings. In other cases, the lords of the ancient states were considered divinely appointed to the kingdom. In the Neo-Babylonian kingdom at the beginning of the first millennium BC. e. there was a ritual of the annual "election" of the king during the celebration of the New Year (March-April of the Gregorian calendar). “On the New Year,” a modern researcher describes this ceremony, “the idol of the god Nabu, the main god of Barsippa, was delivered from Barsippa to Babylon along the Nar-Barsippa canal. Nabu was transferred to the temple of Esagila, the dwelling of the god Bel, whose son the god Nabu was considered to be. The king appeared in Esagila, laid down royal insignia and, having performed a series of ceremonies, "took the hand of the god Bel" in the presence of the god Nabu. After that, he was considered elected again and received back the signs of royal dignity. This ritual was repeated annually, but always with the presence of the idol of the god Bel, the idol of the god Nabu and with the participation of the king. Without these three characters, the New Year's holiday could not take place. "

So. The culture of the Antiquity era is a mythoorganized culture. Myths and rituals also serve here as an integrating language, the focus of the main images and ideas that organize the life of people and peoples, now united in large - state - communities with corresponding, state, myths and rituals. The hero of this culture becomes a lord - a king or a deity (the king of the gods or an earthly deity, "the lord of the four corners of the world"), which combines the signs of the first creator-giver (Hammurabi "gives" his laws) and the ruler of the world and the country. In the space of the myths of Antiquity, the vertical image of the alignment of world forces begins to prevail, and in temporal representations, the image of eternity begins to take shape as a property, the possession of which distinguishes the rulers of the world (for example, the pharaohs).

The complex and lengthy history of the Ancient World ends with the existence of the Roman Empire (until the 5th century AD), in which the basic properties of the culture of Antiquity reached the limit of development. The Romans were aware of this, and this consciousness nourished their pride and their traditionalism. In the culture of the "Roman world" ("Pax Romana"), we will find both the complex mythology of the Roman state, and its pantheon, embodied even in a real building with the same name, and deified after the death of the emperor, and the idea of ​​Rome as the "Eternal City". At the same time, in Roman life, more than anywhere else in Antiquity, a non-mytho-ritual, practical, legally regulated space of private life unfolded. In comparison with other cultures of the Antiquity, Roman practicality is one of the most noticeable features of this culture for us, features of the "Roman spirit".

At a time when Rome was the strongest power in the then known world, the combination of these two heterogeneous cultural spaces in the life of one society was its advantage over other peoples. However, subsequently, the strong development of both revealed their inconsistency: the growth of imperial ideology suppressed legal consciousness, practicality weakened the religiosity of the Romans. And this conflict was among those that led to the death of Roman statehood. After the fall of Rome and the end of the era of Antiquity, a medieval type of culture developed and became dominant.

This ancient agricultural civilization began to take shape in the 4th century BC. BC. The history of the state and culture of Egypt is divided into several periods: Early, Ancient, Middle and New Kingdom. Early Egypt was the time of the formation of a slave-owning system and a despotic state, during which the religious beliefs characteristic of the ancient Egyptians were formed: the cult of nature and ancestors, astral and afterlife cults, fetishism, totemism, animism and magic. Stone began to be widely used in religious construction. The ancient and Middle Kingdoms were characterized by the strengthening and centralization of the bureaucratic apparatus of government, the strengthening of the power of Egypt and its desire to expand its influence on neighboring peoples. In cultural development, this is the era of construction, surprising with the size of the tombs of the pharaohs, such as the pyramids of Cheops, etc., the creation of unique monuments of art, such as the sphinxes of the pharaohs, portrait reliefs on wood. The grandeur of the largest of the Egyptian pyramids - the pyramid of Cheops, which has no equal among the stone structures of the whole world, is indicated by its dimensions: 146m - height, and the length of the base of each of the 4 faces - 230m. The new kingdom was the last period of Egypt's external activity, when she waged wars in Asia and northern Africa. At this time, the architecture of temples especially flourished.

Among the greatest artistic achievements of this period are the image of Queen Nefertiti from the sculptural workshop in Akhetaten, the golden mask of Pharaoh Tutankhamun and the paintings of the tombs in the Valley of the Kings near Thebes. They continued the tradition of depicting the head and legs of a figure in profile, characteristic of the Ancient East, and the torso in front. This tradition disappears in the final period of the fall of Egypt, when it is conquered by Persia. Within the boundaries of a peculiar worldview, the religious and mythological system of the ancient Egyptians about the construction of the world was formed. All the many fragmented religions were gradually reduced to a certain divine hierarchy, where the cult of the god Ra (the most important among all deities) merged with the cults of other gods. In ancient Egypt, where only the pharaoh stood above society, all other citizens were considered equal before the creator and the law, women were equal with men. Belief in individual immortality gave rise to such a phenomenon in the culture of the ancient Egyptians as the desire to leave a memory of themselves for centuries, they built tomb monuments marked with hieroglyphs. If in the era of the Old Kingdom, only the pharaohs could enter the "kingdom of the dead" by building a pyramid for themselves, then since the Middle Kingdom, everyone had the right to build their own tomb. In ancient Egypt, all special knowledge was concentrated in a small group of people, which was the ruling caste of priests in society. The priests effectively used the data of astronomical observations accumulated over time to control the masses, discovering the periodicity of solar eclipses and learning to foresee them. In ancient Egypt, for the first time in the world, practical medicine arose, and the decimal counting system in arithmetic reached a certain development. The ancient Egyptians also possessed some elite knowledge in algebra.

The discovery of hieroglyphs as writing contributed to the development of such genres of literature as myths, fairy tales, tales, prayers, hymns, laments, epitaphs, stories, love lyrics and even philosophical dialogues and political treatises, later religious drama and secular theater appear. The rapid development of art in ancient Egyptian society led to the appearance of the world's first written aesthetic and philosophical reflections. It was here that humanism arose for the first time in the history of world culture. The cultural heritage of Ancient Egypt played its historical role in the formation and development of world culture.

Culture of Ancient India

The early Indian civilization was created by the ancient local population of North India in the 3rd century BC. BC. Its centers Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro (now Pakistan) maintained ties with Mesopotamia, the countries of Central and Central Asia. The inhabitants of these places have achieved high skill, especially in depicting images of small forms (statuettes, engravings); their amazing achievement was a plumbing and sewage system that none of their other ancient cultures had. They also created their original, still undeciphered writing system. A striking feature of the Harappan culture was its unusual conservatism: over the centuries, the layout of the streets of ancient Indian places did not change, and new houses were built on the sites of the old ones. A characteristic feature of the culture of India is that we meet with numerous religions that interact with each other. Among them, the main ones stand out - Brahminism and its forms Hinduism and Jainism, Buddhism and Islam. Ancient Indian culture reached its real flourishing in the era of “Rigvedi” - a large collection of religious hymns, magic spells and ritual customs created by the priests of the Aryan tribes, who appeared in India after the so-called. "Great Migration"

At the same time, Brahminism was formed as a kind of synthesis of the beliefs of the Indo-Aryans and the religious ideas of the previous local pre-Aryan population of North India. In the era of "Rigvedi" an Indian phenomenon began to take shape - the caste system. For the first time, the moral and legal motives for the division of Indian society into four main “varnas” were theoretically substantiated: priests, warriors, common farmers and servants. A whole system of regulations for the life and behavior of people of each varna was developed. According to this, marriage was considered legal only within the limits of one varna. The result of such relations between people was the following division of varnas into even more small castes. The formation of castes is the result of a thousand-year evolution of the interaction of different racial and ethnic groups in a single cultural system of the ancient Indian society, where a very complex social structure was formed. Olympus in Hinduism symbolizes the trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, which represents the cosmic forces of creation, saving and destruction. Buddhism was a peculiar reaction of the population, which did not belong to the castes of priests and opposed the inequality of castes. According to the teachings of Buddhism, the mission of human life is the achievement of nirvana.

Islam was distinctly different from all previous religious views. First of all, the Muslim tribes possessed military technology and a strong political system, but their main belief was based on the concept of “grouped brotherhood”, which united by bonds of deep respect all who accepted this faith. All Indian literature, both religious and secular, is filled with hints of sexual content and the symbolism of open erotic descriptions. In the Middle Ages, the very process of cosmic creation was depicted as a marriage between a god and a goddess, so the figures on the walls of temples were depicted in various poses. In the culture of ancient India, the originality of cultural trends and philosophical thought are closely connected. Philosophical views that shared the religious division of the world are included in Brahminism, Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism. All philosophical views played an important role not only in the history of Indian culture, but also in world philosophy and science. They are closely related to the achievements of various branches of ancient Indian science - mathematics, astronomy, medicine and natural history. It is known that Indian scientists in the distant past outstripped some of the discoveries made by European scientists only in the Renaissance or at the present time. The artistic culture of ancient Indian society is inextricably linked with its traditional religious and philosophical systems.

Ideas characteristic of the religious beliefs of the ancient Indians inspired creativity in architecture, culture and painting. Huge statues of Buddha, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, made of metal, remained for posterity. are surprising for their colossal size. The perception of light through the spiritual prism of the beliefs of these religions is the frescoes of the cave temples of Ajanta and rock compositions in the temples of Ellora, cat. unite the traditions of sowing. and south. type of temple structure in Dr. India. In some details of these monuments of art, one can also feel the influence of art and other ancient. east civilizations. This was due to the location of India on the Great Silk Road, according to the cat. not only were caravans with goods, but there was also a cultural exchange. In this process, India played a cultural role, expanding the civilized influence of Buddhism on other ancient languages. countries.

Culture Dr. China.

The most ancient The period of Chinese civilization is considered to be the era of the existence of the Shang state, a slave-owning country in the Yellow River valley. Its capital was the city of Shan, which gave the name. country and the ruling dynasty of kings. Later it was conquered by other Chinese tribes, called. new kingdom of Zhou. Subsequently, it broke up into five independent principalities. Already in the Shang era, ideographic writing was discovered, cat. through a long process of improvement, it turned into hieroglyphic calligraphy, and a monthly calendar was also drawn up in basic terms. During the early imperial era, Dr. K. brought into the world. culture such discoveries as a compass and a speedometer, a seismograph. Later, printing and gunpowder were invented. It was in K. that paper and movable type were discovered in the field of writing and book printing, and guns and stirrups were discovered in military equipment. Mechanical was also invented. hours and occurred technical. improvements in the region silk weaving.

In mat-ke, the outstanding Chinese achievement was the use of decimal fractions and an empty position to denote 0, the calculation of the number P, the discovery of a method for solving equations with two and three unknowns. Tree. The Chinese were educated astronomers and made one of the world's first star maps. Since the ancient Chinese society was agrarian, the centralized bureaucracy had to solve complex technical issues related primarily to the use and protection of water resources, therefore, high development in Dr. K. achieved astronomy, knowledge of calendar calculations and astrological forecasts, mathematics, physics and hydraulic engineering in their engineering use. The construction of forts also remained important, aimed primarily at protecting the outer borders of the empire from incursions by warlike nomads from the North.

Chinese builders became famous for their grandiose structures - the Great Wall of China and the Grand Canal. Chinese medicine has achieved many results over the course of its 3,000-year history. In Dr. K. was first written "Pharmacology", for the first time they began to carry out surgical operations using drugs. means, for the first time used and described in the literature methods of treatment with acupuncture, moxibustion and massage. Ancient Chinese thinkers and healers developed an original doctrine of "vital energy". On the basis of this teaching, the f-sco-health system “wushu” was created, which gave rise to the therapeutic gymnastics of the same name, as well as the art of self-defense “kung fu”. The peculiarity of spiritual culture Dr. China is largely due to the phenomenon known in the world as "Chinese ceremonies". These strictly fixed stereotypes of ethical and ritual norms of behavior and thinking were formed on the basis of the cult of antiquity. The place of the cult of the gods was taken by the cult of real clan and family ancestors. And those gods, whose cult was preserved, lost the least resemblance to people, becoming abstract symbolic deities, for example. Sky.

The most important place in Chinese spiritual culture is occupied by Confucianism - ethical and political. the teachings of the f-fa idealist Confucius. His ideal is a highly moral person, based on the traditions of wise ancestors. The Teaching divided society into “higher” and “lower” and demanded that everyone fulfill the obligations assigned to him. Confucianism played a significant role in the development of Chinese statehood and the functioning of polit. culture of imperial China. Ch. Legalism was the force that opposed Confucianism in the sphere of politics and ethics. Legalists, being realists, put the law, power and authority of the cat as the basis of their doctrine. must be backed up by harsh punishments. Confucianism relied on morality and ancient. traditions, while legalism put administrative regulations in the first place. Under the influence of the ancient Chinese Society of Religious, Ethical-F-Fs and Socio-Political. views developed and all of his classic. lit. Already in the earliest poetry collection of Dr. K., the famous "Book of Songs", cat. was created for a long time on the basis of folk songs, sacred tunes and ancient. hymns, feats of ancestors are sung. In 2-3 centuries. Buddhism comes to K., cat. quite noticeably influenced traditional Chinese culture, this manifested itself in literature, figurative art and, especially, in character. Buddhism existed in China for almost two millennia and changed markedly in the process of adapting to the specific Chinese civilization. On the basis of the synthesis of his ideas with Confucian pragmatism, Chan Buddhism arose in China. subsequently spread to Japan and received the form of Zen Buddhism. Most of the transformation of Buddhism manifested itself in its own way. Chinese art, cat. as nowhere else in the world relied on tradition. The Chinese never took the form of ind. Buddhas created their own image. The same thing happened with the character of the temples. Taoism also played a significant role in Chinese culture. associated with the development of science and technology dr. K. A special role in the cultural contacts of K. with the outside world was played by the “Great Silk Road”, cat. Not only trade, but also cultural exchange between China and other countries took place, which influenced Chinese culture.

Hellenic culture

The Hellenes worshiped deities representing various forces of nature, social forces and phenomena, heroes - the mythical ancestors of tribes and clans, the founders of cities. In myths, layers of different eras have been preserved - from ancient worship of plants and animals to anthropomorphism - the deification of man, the representation of gods in the images of young, beautiful and immortal people. A significant place in Greek mythology was occupied by legends about heroes - the children of gods and mortals. Mythology became a significant element of Greek culture, on the basis of which literature, philosophy, and science later developed. The basis of literary education was the works of Homer, Hesiod, Aesop. One of the biggest acquisitions of culture Dr. Gr. there are works of Homer's "Iliad" and "Odyssey", there was a lyric, one of the first lyres. poets is considered to be Archilochus. On the island of Lesvos, Sappho worked, the work of a cat. was the pinnacle of dr. Gr. In the 7th century BC. stone buildings appear. Ch. way these are temples.

In the process of formation gr. Characters arise in 3 main directions: Doric (used mainly in the Peloponnese, distinguished by simplicity and severity of forms), Ionic (lightness, harmony, decorativeness), Corinthian (refinement). Temples arch. period: Apollo in Corinth and Hera in Paestum. In sculpture, arch. period, the main place is occupied by the image of a person. Gr. thin people are trying to master the correct construction of the human body, to learn how to convey movement. The human body was subjected to careful geometric study, as a result, the cat. rules for the proportional ratio of its parts were established. Historians believe that the theoretician of proportions is the sculptor Polikleitos. The anthropocentricity of ancient Greek culture suggests a cult of the human body. The cult of the body was so great that nudity did not evoke a feeling of shame. As soon as the famous Athenian beauty Phryne, accused of committing a crime, threw off her clothes in front of the judges, they, blinded by beauty, justified her. The human body became the measure of all forms of Greek culture. Painting Ch. arr. known to us from vase paintings. In the 6th century black-figure painting dominates, figures are depicted on a yellow surface with black lacquer. At the end of the 6th c. red-figure painting appears, when the figures remain in the color of clay, and the background is black and lacquer. drama develops. The emergence of gr. theater was associated with the cult of the god of winemaking Dionysus. Actors performed in goat skins and therefore this genre was called “tragedy” (“song of goats”).

Famous playwrights were Aeschylus ("Chained Prometheus"), Sophocles ("Antigone" and "Oedipus Rex"), Euripides ("Medea", "Electra"). From the prose genres in the classical period, rhetoric flourished - the ability to clearly express one's thoughts, convincingly defend one's positions. Sculptors mostly depicted gods. The most prominent sculptors were Phidias, Poliklet and Lysippus (the court sculptor of A. Macedon). The creation of Phidias were the statues of Athena in the Parthenon and Olympian Zeus in Olympia. Polykleitos is the main representative of the Peloponnesian school. The most famous sculpture of the master is “Dorifor”, a young man with a spear. In the 4th century BC. gr. sculpture tends to convey the individual characteristics of the character of a person. In the 5th century BC. - fracture time in gr. painting, the transition to a three-dimensional image. Greek agon - struggle, competition personified the characteristic features of a free Greek. The most striking expression of the ancient agon was the famous Olympic Games. The origins of the first Olympiads are lost in antiquity, but in 776. BC. the name of the winner in running was first written on a marble plaque, and this year is considered the beginning of the historical period of the Olympic Games. The site of the Olympic festivities was the sacred grove of Altis.

In the famous temple of Olympian Zeus there was a statue of the god, created by Phidias and considered one of the seven wonders of the world. Trade deals were concluded in the sacred grove, poets, orators, and scientists spoke to the audience, artists and sculptors presented their paintings and sculptures to those present. The state had the right to announce new laws here. The Academy of Athens, a grove dedicated to the Athenian hero Academ, became famous for the fact that the torch races later started from here. Dialectics (the ability to conduct a conversation) originates in the Greek agon. Greek culture is festive, outwardly colorful and spectacular. In literature during the Hellenistic period, attention to man is growing. The comedy was a success. The rapid growth of cities, the desire of rulers to glorify the power of their states contributed to the development of characters, especially the art of urban planning and the arts associated with decorating buildings - mosaics, decorative sculpture, painted ceramics. There were basilicas, gymnasiums, stadiums, libraries, as well as the palaces of kings, residential buildings. In the region sculpture in this period there were 3 schools. 1. Rhodes school (drama). Sculptural groups "Laocoön" and "Farnese bull". 2. Pergamon school. Sculptural frieze of the altar of Zeus and Athena in Pergamon. 3. Alexandrian school. The image of the goddess Aphrodite. Great development was achieved by painting, especially landscape painting. The culture of Hellenism became the final stage in the development of the culture of Dr. Greece.

archaic period.

In the history of Dr. Gr. 8-6c. BC. characterized by great changes in households. activities, social life, culture. One of the greatest acquisitions of culture Arch. period there are works by Homer "Iliad" and "Odyssey". In 7-6 centuries. BC. emerged gr. lyrics, one of the first lyres. poets is considered to be Archilochus. In the first floor. 6c. BC. on the island of Lesvos, Sappho worked, the work of a cat. was the pinnacle of dr. Gr. In 8-6c. in Dr. Gr. there was a rise in the image-creating art-va and characters. In the 7th century BC. stone buildings appear. Ch. way these are temples. In the process of formation gr. Characters arise in 3 main directions: Doric (used mainly in the Peloponnese, distinguished by simplicity and severity of forms), Ionic (lightness, harmony, decorativeness), Corinthian (refinement). Temples arch. period: Apollo in Corinth and Hera in Paestum. In sculpture, arch. period, the main place is occupied by the image of a person. Gr. thin people are trying to master the correct construction of the human body, to learn how to convey movement. Painting Ch. arr. known to us from vase paintings. In the 6th century black-figure painting dominates, figures are depicted on a yellow surface with black lacquer. At the end of the 6th c. red-figure painting appears, when the figures remain in the color of clay, and the background is black and lacquer. Generalization of knowledge about the environment. world were the basis for the development of f-fi. Thales was the founder of the Milets Ph-ph school, who believed that the fundamental principle of the world is water, from the cat. everything arises in the cat. everything turns. Apeiron, indefinite, eternal matter, air, fire, was also considered to be the fundamental principle. Ancient Gr. f-f and mathematician Pythagoras founded the f-f school in Yuzh. Italy. According to his f-fii, the world consists of count-venous patterns, a cat. can be calculated. The merit of the Pythagoreans was the development of theorems, the theory of music, built on numerical ratios, the establishment of a number of number of regularities in the world. The idealistic line in philosophy, founded by the Pythagoreans, was continued by the Eleatic philosophy school. The victory over Persia gave Gr. full power in Sre-rye. Military booty, trade, the use of slave labor contributed to the development of all branches of culture.

classical period.

In class period develops dramaturgy. The emergence of gr. theater was associated with the cult of the god of winemaking Dionysus. Actors performed in goat skins and therefore this genre was called “tragedy” (“song of goats”). Famous playwrights of this period were Aeschylus ("Chained Prometheus"), Sophocles ("Antigone" and "Oedipus Rex"), Euripides ("Medea", "Electra"). From the prose genres in the classical period, rhetoric flourished - the ability to clearly express one's thoughts, convincingly defend one's positions. Among f-fskih problems in class. period, understanding of the essence and place of man in the world is put forward on the 1st plan, consideration of the problems of being and the fundamental principle of the world continues. The materialistic interpretation of the problem of the fundamental principle was put forward by Democritus, who developed the doctrine of atoms. Ancient Gr. the sophists taught that "man is the measure of all things," and the essence of things depends on their connection with man. Socrates saw the path to achieving truth in self-knowledge. Plato developed the theory of the existence of "ideas" to explain being. Plato also paid considerable attention to the issues of the state; he proposed a draft of an ideal policy, which is controlled by f-fs. Aristotle made his contribution to philosophy, natural history, history, literature, state law, and the foundations of formal logic. Astronomy, medicine, geography, mechanics, history developed. The contribution to medicine was made by ancient. physician Hippocrates. Gr. claim in class. period reached its peak. Sculptors mostly depicted gods. The most prominent sculptors were Phidias, Poliklet and Lysippus (the court sculptor of A. Macedon). The creation of Phidias were the statues of Athena in the Parthenon and Olympian Zeus in Olympia. Polykleitos is the main representative of the Peloponnesian school. The most famous sculpture of the master is “Dorifor”, a young man with a spear. In the 4th century BC. gr. sculpture tends to convey the individual characteristics of the character of a person. In the 5th century BC. - fracture time in gr. painting, the transition to a three-dimensional image. Damn gr. culture competition. Gr. agon - struggle, competition personified the characteristic features of a free Greek. The most striking expression of the ancient agon was the famous Olympic Games. In the Greek agon, dialectics originates - the ability to conduct a conversation.

Hellenism.

The period from the beginning of the campaign of A. Macedonian to the East until the conquest of Egypt by Rome is called Hellenic. It is characterized by the expansion of interrelations and mutual influences gr. and east. cultures. Having lost the limitedness of the polis, gr. culture absorbed the East. e-you. These changes have found their manifestation in religion, philosophy, and literature. There were new f-fskih schools. The most famous in this period are the teachings of the Stoics (founder Zeno) and the philosophy of Epicurus (follower of Democritus). In literature during the Hellenistic period, attention to man is growing. The comedy was a success. The rapid growth of cities, the desire of rulers to glorify the power of their states contributed to the development of characters, especially the art of urban planning and the arts associated with decorating buildings - mosaics, decorative sculpture, painted ceramics .. Basilicas, gymnasiums, stadiums, libraries, and palaces appeared. kings, dwelling houses. In the region sculpture in this period there were 3 schools. 1. Rhodes school (drama). Sculptural groups "Laocoön" and "Farnese bull". 2. Pergamon school. Sculptural frieze of the altar of Zeus and Athena in Pergamon. 3. Alexandrian school. The image of the goddess Aphrodite. Great development was achieved by painting, especially landscape painting. The culture of Hellenism became the final stage in the development of the culture of Dr. Greece.

FEATURES OF FORMATION OF RIVER AGRICULTURAL CROPS

Public formations, which are called ancient, or most ancient, civilizations, began to appear in different regions of the Earth not earlier than 10 thousand years ago. Since about that time, three “channels” of development have been outlined in the history of mankind. Some tribes continue the traditions of the ancient stone age. Some of them - up to the 20th century (Bushmen, Pygmies, Australian natives, many inhabitants of Oceania, the Far North, the Amazon basin, individual mountain peoples, etc.). They remain mainly gatherers, hunters, fishermen. But in different regions of the Earth there was a spontaneous discovery of the possibilities of active cattle breeding and purposeful farming. On either basis, more or less large associations of tribes arise, the formation of ethnic groups and the formation (at least in a rudimentary form) of a fundamentally new organization of social life - state structures begin. Both pastoralists and farmers for their specific production and for life, other than those of tribal communities, need (albeit to varying degrees) the development of crafts.

But pastoral associations are initially less stable than agricultural ones. Developed pastoralism requires constant movement of livestock (to new pastures). Cattle breeders are nomads. Their centers of associations and crafts are poorly formed. Yes, and the craft itself is limited by the needs of a modest life, adapted for movement, as well as the needs of warfare, the manufacture of weapons. Moving pastoralists inevitably collided with other pastoralists and invaded the land of farmers. With serious invasions, assimilation took place, new communities of people were formed. Often the victorious pastoralists, becoming the elite of a mixed (with a part of the defeated) society, assimilated the customs, traditions, culture of the conquered farmers, although they contributed something of their own to all this. Actually pastoral associations (kingdoms, khanates) as Scythian, Hunnic or Mongolian, were at times very powerful, primarily in military terms. They gave birth to some values ​​of their civilizations, their pastoral culture: the very methods of domestication and breeding of livestock, leather dressing, epic, songs, norms of relations, etc. And yet these associations turned out to be less stable than agricultural - settled, the values ​​of their cultures - less materialized, not so diverse.

All associations of people, later called ancient cultures or ancient civilizations, were mainly agricultural, although they were influenced by pastoralists and themselves engaged in limited pastoralism, along with agriculture. Moreover, there were apparently quite a lot of primitive cultures that used agriculture. But only a few of them became civilized, falling into special conditions in which agriculture could become the main factor in fundamental changes in people's lives. This happened where agriculture turned out to be an efficient type of economic activity (even with primitive cultivation of the land), a type of economy that creates significant surpluses of production. Not all climatic zones were suitable for this. All ancient agricultural civilizations appeared in a fairly warm climate zone. In addition, they all arose in the valleys of large rivers or hollows between mountains. Water and natural river silt or natural mineral fertilizers (in mountainous regions) made it possible, with a certain technology, to obtain grain yields of up to 200, or even up to 300 grains per sown grain.

On the basis of agricultural production with such rich opportunities, all the features and achievements of ancient civilizations, ancient cultures have developed. They are called both civilizations and cultures. And this is quite justified. For the difference between what we today consider civilized and cultured is only beginning to emerge at that time. The achievements of early civilizations, including the use of what was created (discovered) by primitive people (the fire mastered by them, artificial tools and methods of activity created by them, certain skills) - all this acted not only in the proper civilizing function, but also in the cultivating, although at the vital level of culture. And all this also creates opportunities for the generation and development of spiritual culture, for the storage and transmission of spiritual experience.

The transition to civilization was associated with a departure from natural existence, with the creation of an artificial habitat, with the stratification of the population, with the appearance in people's lives of organized violence, slavery. But on the other hand, this transition made it possible to create an organized society, made it possible to use more and more diverse resources to improve the comfort of life and for the emergence of knowledge, enlightenment, for spiritual growth, the flourishing of construction and architecture, for the development of artistic activity.

Taken together, interconnected civilizational and culture-forming processes became possible and were realized where societies of settled farmers were formed. This happened in the valleys of such great rivers (with powerful floods) as the Tigris and Euphrates (Ancient Mesopotamia), the Nile (Ancient Egypt), the Indus and the Ganges (Ancient India), the Yellow River (Ancient China). No wonder these cultures are often referred to as agricultural river cultures. Somewhat later in time, similar civilizations developed in the hollows of the mountains of Mesoamerica. All named and

some other ancient civilizations are peculiar, in many ways unlike one another. And all of them, in terms of civilizational and cultural development, are clearly similar, have common features.

First of all, agriculture, which gave the opportunity for the formation of ancient civilizations, is irrigation agriculture, which required the combined efforts of many people who inhabited the valley of one river (or one area in a hollow of mountains). Irrigation devices that provide irrigation of land, distribution of water, its conservation in dry times (special reservoirs) - these structures are complex, require constant care and clear power management.

One river - one power. Irrigated agriculture predetermined the processes of centralization, the unification of disparate tribes and their unions. Control centers were created, cities arose.

In general, civilization is a type of development of society, which is associated with the presence of two interacting factors - the factor of the city and the factor of the countryside (for nomads, the first factor was very poorly formed, they did not have cities). The city among the farmers became the focus of administrative structures, concentrated the army, wealth, crafts, and trade. The countryside solved the problems of the production of agricultural products. Rural areas (periphery) and cities are connected by water and land routes of movement.

In ancient civilizations, movement was limited mainly to its closed territory. One of the common features of all ancient cultures is their relative isolation. And in connection with this - the dominance of the vertical over the horizontal, both in the structure of society and in thinking. Ancient cultures are thus agricultural, riverine, and "vertical" cultures.

These civilizations developed along rivers (or in intermountain areas), and usually a narrow strip of habitat was surrounded by desert, steppe, and mountains. This (in some cases, the sea or ocean) limited horizontal movement. And the thought went up and down. The whole worldview of the inhabitants of ancient civilizations is cosmogonic. The whole world of transcendental existence went up and down. The gods were located in the heavenly world. And either the Sky itself (as in Ancient China) turned out to be divine, or, most often, the main deity of this civilization was identified with the Sun, which gave everything to people. Harvests depended on the Sky and the Sun, the sun gave light and heat. But it could also burn crops. The sky and the sun are extremely important for agriculture. The land is just as important. The seed is sown in the ground and grows out of the ground. Man goes to earth after death. And if the Gods are above, then the ancestors (and some Gods) exist in the underworld, or pass through it before reaching heaven.

The verticality of ancient cultures was also expressed externally: in the tendency to build ever higher structures, temples and pyramids; in the device

earthly life, society, in its hierarchy. One of the reasons for the latter was the emergence of a division of labor. Namely, the emergence of managerial labor, the emergence of crafts, as well as the allocation of a special type of activity to serve the gods, intellectual labor. It is also important that new peoples usually flow into the territory of a civilization from the moment of its formation, since existence within the framework of such an organization provides obvious advantages. Among them, perhaps the most important is protection from the endless permanent state of war of all against all, which is so characteristic of primitiveness. Finding themselves in a new environment, the newcomer tribe had to find an economic gap that would allow the newcomers to live comfortably. But the main activities - those that were considered the most prestigious, were already occupied by the indigenous population. Therefore, it was necessary to invent something ourselves. Inventions led to greater diversity in both the world of goods and the world of services. But the tribe that arrived earlier, having “staken out” its site of activity, did not allow those who arrived later to it, thereby creating a closed community inaccessible to others. The earlier a tribe arrived, the higher the social status of the estate it formed. Thus, a hierarchical ladder was created, the existence of which contributed to the establishment of the vertical as the main semantic construct of antiquity.

Moreover, the hierarchy was usually of a rather rigid nature: movement up in it was impossible, while moving down was rather free. For example, in China in the Qin era, if there were several sons in the family, only the eldest remained in the class to which he belonged by birth. The rest went down one step. In general, the preservation of hierarchy was considered a matter of paramount importance, because order was conceived only in this form. It was not just the main, but the only, conceivable as an organizing, principle of being. In primitive times, a person felt himself to be a kind of particle merged with the community, practically indistinguishable and equal to others of the same kind. Now, however, a person's sense of self has taken the path of determining its place in the world, in a strictly organized system. It is very important that this place is not just occupied by me, but it is a factor that determines me as a member of the community and as a person. That is, a place in the hierarchy is essentially significant for a person. It essentially organizes a person for life.

Indeed, a society formed according to a hierarchical principle is distinguished by its particular harmony and stability. But this principle worked not only in the organization of society, any organization was built in this way. Even the family, which was conceived as an analogy of the state, and, accordingly, vice versa. Thus, in China, the emperor was not only the head of the hierarchical ladder, but was also regarded as the father and mother of the people. And he should have obeyed as unconditionally as the authority of the father in the family is unconditional. Moreover, any attempt on the power of the father was punished by the most

in the cruelest way, precisely because it was conceived as an attempt to undermine the power of the emperor, to whom it was necessary to show filial piety. He was considered the unlimited ruler of his subjects and their property. “There is no land that does not belong to the emperor; whoever eats the fruits of this land is a subject of the emperor.” The whole country was conceived as one big family, where the father is the emperor. Therefore, to act evil against the father means to act evil against the emperor. Such crimes were punished with incredible cruelty. And it's not just that the government was despotic. Society simply defended itself against those who were able to push it to the level of an unstructured state, to a pre-civilizational level. At one time, such punishments for parricide were established: the killer was quartered, his younger brothers were beheaded, the house was destroyed, his main teacher was executed by strangulation, neighbors living on the right and left were punished by cutting off their ears (They had to hear and convey to the right place), others gouged out eyes (they had to see and prevent the crime). The murder of a father, of course, is a terrible crime, but the cruelty of the punishment was connected precisely with the fear of returning to an unstructured state, “communitas”.

The ancient man's self-perception of himself as a civilized, cultured man was embodied in many factors of his being created by him. But the main thing turned out to be the vertical structure of the world and the determination of one's place at a certain stage in this world. This brought order into life, within which a person could navigate and somehow settle down. It was very important that this order acquired an external, and therefore authoritarian, character. All the most ancient state formations were predominantly tyrannical or totalitarian. One of the reasons for this was that for the ancient man the authority of some higher order in relation to him was extremely important. A certain ideal-connecting layer of being, in accordance with which a person lived. Otherwise, he felt lost, it was not like that. The Chinese have a saying: "No elder, no younger." Its meaning is that in this case, everything is mixed up and deteriorated, that is, the norms and gradations structuring society are broken. That is why in all ancient civilizations a clear hierarchy was established, both in the exercise of power and in the position of the strata of the population in relation to each other. The division into varnas (or castes) in ancient India is only the most expressive example of the hierarchy of estates. Their ratio had to be preserved, because otherwise the orderliness of life, based on the general laws of the universe, would collapse. Therefore, there was no injustice in the fact that there were upper and lower strata. On the contrary, as it is expressed in one of the ancient Egyptian texts: it is unfair if the prince is dressed in miserable rags, and the son of the poor and the hungry is clothed in luxurious clothes. It is precisely the preservation of the position of everyone that is important, for the orderliness of being is vital. The inhabitants of ancient states knew that violations of this orderliness led to terrible disasters. After all, at the same time

6.1. Culture and its understanding in the East

If we could look at a map of the Old World around the 1st millennium B.C. e., then three belts of cultures could be found: the first belt would form the cultures of the civilizations of the Ancient East. They formed a strip of states stretching from west to east from Ancient Egypt to China. As a rule, the beginning of their formation is attributed to the VI-IV millennium BC. e. The end falls at the beginning of our era. The second belt would consist of the cultures of "barbarian" societies - peoples who are at the tribal stage of development, who have switched to agriculture or cattle breeding, but have not yet created their own statehood. These cultures adjoined the belt of cultures of civilizations from the south and from the north. All of them, who earlier, who later, also move to the civilizational path of development. Above the second belt, to the north and under it, to the south, the third belt stretches - archaic cultures of pre-agricultural communities, peoples who used stone tools, were mainly engaged in hunting, gathering and fishing. These are the tribes of Siberia, the Far East, the coast of the Arctic Ocean, on the one hand, and the peoples of the southern countries, the islands of the Pacific, Indian Ocean, the tribes of Tropical and South Africa. Most of them survived until the 19th and early 20th centuries, and some of them will probably enter the 21st century.

The cultures of the civilizations of the Ancient East are the most ancient civilizations known to us. S. N. Kramer published in 1965 the book "History Begins in Sumer" - and he was close to the truth. In many ways, we can judge the culture of ancient civilizations from the written sources left to us by the Sumerians. But no less material is provided by the data of archeology, philology and other sources. Researchers have long been attracted to the culture of the East in general, and the ancient East in particular. A peculiar culture has developed here, which differs from the European one. In the 20th century, we used to look at the East "condescendingly", from top to bottom, believing that it is a catch-up type of culture, doomed to lagging behind the culture of the West and periodically modernizing. But such a state is the result of development over the last 3-4 centuries - a brief moment in history. For most of the historical time, the culture of the East was ahead of the West. The East - "gave", Europe - "took". No wonder the saying appeared: "Light from the East." And whether this situation will return again, in the 21st century - who knows? At least, the role of Eastern culture now, at the turn of the year 2000, is clearly increasing, and interest in Eastern culture is also growing. Therefore, it would be impossible to bypass the question of the peculiarities of the emergence of this culture.

The culture of the East differs from the West in many ways. Even the concept of "culture" in the West and the East carries a different meaning. The European understanding of culture comes from the concepts of "cultivation", change, the transformation of a product of nature into a human product. The Greek word "paideia" (from the word "pais" - child), also means "transformation". But the Chinese word (hieroglyph) "wen", similar to the concept of "culture", pictographically goes back to the outline of the symbol "decoration"; "decorated man" Hence the main meaning of this concept - decoration, color, grace, literature. "Wen" is opposed to "zhi" - something untouched, aesthetically rough, spiritually unrefined.

Thus, if in the West culture is understood as the totality of both material and spiritual products of human activity, then in the East culture includes only those products that make the world and man "decorated", "refined" internally, "aesthetically" decorated.

6.2. Formational originality of the culture of the East

What formational type is Eastern culture attributed to?

K. A. Vitfogel characterized "Eastern society" as a primitive communal system with an exploitative state. F. Chokei believed that Han China (since the 2nd century BC) was already feudal and remained so until the 19th century. F. Tokei, and after him J. Chenot, believed that the "atypical" line of historical development was already formed by the culture of Ancient Greece, and, consequently, by European culture. While the rest of the world, including Eastern cultures and civilizations, followed the natural path. Similar theses were defended by E. S. Varga and L. A. Sedov.

In order to substantiate the correctness of the existence of the "Asian mode of production", and hence the special "Asian", "Eastern" type of culture, it was necessary to substantiate four parameters:

a special, Asian, level of development of the productive forces;

a special system of property relations;

special methods of appropriation by the exploiters of the surplus product;

non-slave, but at the same time, not a feudal class structure.

In general, these parameters were not identified.

Thus, it is not necessary to talk about a special "Asian" type of culture of the East, but it is possible and necessary to talk about the uniqueness of the culture of the East. After all, one and the same basis "can find in its manifestation endless variations and gradations."

Yu. V. Kachanovsky identified five main features in which the originality of the historical development of the East is manifested:

1. stronger tendency to preserve community structures;

2. important economic role of the state;

3. establishment of supreme ownership of the land;

4. the tendency of the development of feudalism without a large landlord economy;

5. centralized, despotic power.

As characteristic features of the "Asian" society and its culture, one can name:

to characterize the productive forces - the level due to their artificial non-growth;

as a special system of property relations - a system of state-bureaucratic, hierarchical relations;

as special methods of appropriation of the surplus product - the method of exploiting knowledge, the preventive redistribution of the surplus product due to the possession of knowledge;

as a non-slave-owning and, at the same time, non-feudal class structure - a specific estate-caste, hierarchical division of society with a special place in it for a colossal layer of bureaucracy, engineers and scientists.

Despite some common features of the culture of the civilizations of the Ancient East:

an early transition to bronze as the main material of culture (although stone tools are also preserved for a long time) and

the spread of slavery, which exists along with the communal peasantry, the confrontation between the state-temple and communal-private sectors of the economy, etc.,

these cultures retain the differences that led to the three models of civilizations.

6.3. Models of culture of civilizations of the Ancient East

The first model of the culture of civilizations is formed in Mesopotamia. The culture of Mesopotamia is preceded by the civilization of Jericho (6th millennium BC), Tochal-Kiyuk (6th-5th millennium BC). In the 5th-4th millennium BC. e. Civilization emerges in upper Mesopotamia. Initially, statehood in this region arises in the foothills, and only later descends into the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. In the 4th-3rd millennium BC. e. civilization covers the lower Mesopotamia - Sumer appears.

On the flood lands in the valley of the Euphrates River, the agricultural peoples began to receive a huge surplus product for those times. But the need for its conservation and distribution, as well as the organization of community joint work on the regulation of water flows, the creation of irrigation facilities, led to the creation of the state very early. This state included both the city and the surrounding territory. It was proposed to call it nome, in contrast to the policy, the state-city. Nomes in ancient Sumer were located on a river or irrigation canal, and not on a trade route, which indicates a weak development of trade.

The temple was the center for organizing work and storing the surplus product. The temple was the center of the city, the state. Therefore, such a state is called "temple". The rulers of the "ensi" - the state - called themselves not by the name of the territory, city, but by the name of the god of this or that temple. The temples were the main owners of the land, the priesthood performed both secular functions - control and organization of work, and sacral - holding religious events. The priests of the temple were both government officials and employees of the city administration.

The gods are the masters of the territory, its guardians. But they are also personified forces of nature, astral bodies, cosmic elements. Each nome had its own gods. There was a struggle between the nomes, the victory of the nome led to the victory of the patron god. He occupied a dominant place in the pantheon of gods. Ancient Eastern religion - communal. Dogmas have not yet formed here, they have not yet been united into a system. The main thing in such a religion is ritual, rite, cult, and not faith, feeling, mental conversion, love. The feeling of faith, love for God will appear later. By the middle of the III millennium BC. e. (XXIV century BC) the nomes are united into a single state. It resembled a military alliance and remained fragile. The ancient Sumerians spoke a language unknown to us. It did not belong to the Semitic group of languages. But it is they who invent writing, first pictorial - pictography, then syllabic - cuneiform.

Sumer was at enmity with the Akkadian kingdom, which was formed by Semitic tribes. It was located in the middle Mesopotamia. As a result of a long struggle, Sumer was conquered and a state was formed that united the middle and lower Mesopotamia under the rule of Sargon the Ancient. In the XXII century. BC e. The kingdom of the Sargonids disintegrates under the pressure of the Zagros tribes, and in the 21st century a newly centralized state "Ur of the Chaldees" is formed, from where Abraham comes. Hundreds of thousands of clay tablets-documents remained from the dynasty of Ur, huge ziggurats - temple complexes - adorned the cities, a strict reporting system was developed, which was monitored by the bureaucracy. All subjects of the king were called slaves. A report has been preserved - a shepherd's tablet, in which he reports where the cattle grazed. There is a sign about writing off two pigeons to the royal kitchen. But all this has passed. A new state is being created - Babylon. History continued. The second model of the culture of civilization takes shape in ancient Egypt, in the Nile Valley. In terms of language, the population of Ancient Egypt belongs to the Semitic-Hamitic group, that is, it is related to the Hebrew, Aramaic, Akkadian languages, but there is a certain relationship with the Berber-Libyan, Kumite, Gadic languages. On the territory of Egypt, archaeologists have found traces of Paleolithic cultures, but it is impossible to associate them with one or another ethnic group. Copper items appeared very early in this area - in the 5th-4th millennium BC. e., but the period of systematic spread of bronze begins later - in the II millennium BC. e. and only among the elite. Until the Ptolemies, farmers used stone products. Hence the well-known conservatism of culture. The annual floods of the Nile brought rich harvests even without the improvement of tools.

The formation of civilization in Ancient Egypt takes place in the 4th-3rd millennium BC. e., about the same time as in Sumer. Initially, there were up to 40 nomes in Egypt - centers, in all likelihood, tribal principalities. The boundaries of the nomes were quite stable and persisted throughout history. The whole territory was divided into two parts: Upper and Lower Egypt. This division is also quite stable. Pharaoh was called "Lord" of "both lands". Initially, the nomes were formed, then the nomes united into two kingdoms, and then the kingdoms and lands were united into a single state. The state has a leading role in the unification of the country. The pharaoh combined the functions of a "king" - the head of the executive and judicial authorities, a "leader" - a leader in war, and a high priest who performs religious functions. The main cult reflecting the idea of ​​the unity of the state was the cult of the pharaoh. Pharaoh is a living god on earth. With the activities of the pharaoh, his health was associated with the well-being of the country, the productivity of the fields. The Hepset rite existed for a very long time. It was a ritual run of the pharaoh, during which the ruler demonstrated his strength, health and, as it were, was reborn anew - renewed. The ritual had a religious significance, as it symbolized the high productivity of the fields. By order of the pharaoh, the Nile flooded. The entire population of Ancient Egypt was called the "slaves" of the pharaoh, although there were also free community members, artisans, etc. But they were required to work a certain amount of time for the state. Here, the state-temple sector very quickly absorbed and subjugated the communal-private sector.

The third model of the culture of civilization is the Hittite-Achaean. It arises later, after the addition of the Mesopotamian and Egyptian and in other geographical and climatic conditions. Here, the state-temple sector does not constitute a single whole. The state-temple complex does not concentrate in its hands the bulk of the surplus product, it remains in the hands of the community-private sector, we would say "civil society". As a result, this model of culture is not characterized by the unlimited power of the king. Among the Hittites, royal power was limited by the council of the nobility, in Trier the oligarchy dominated. The states of this model had the character of military alliances, not unitary states. According to this model, the culture of the Achaean, Hittite, Mittanian, Egyptian empires developed in Syria during the New Kingdom, etc.

One of the cases of such a variant of the development of culture and civilization is ancient culture. In this case, a special variant of the community-private sector arises - polis property, while state property is poorly developed.

In the future, we will talk about the first two models of the culture of the ancient civilizations of the East, because it was they who determined the specifics of its development for many years.

6.4. The Specifics of the Development of the Culture of the East: from Antiquity to the Present

Paleoanthropological research shows that during the Stone Age "from the African savannas to the Czechoslovakian hills and east of China itself, people formed a single giant genetic community ... in which ... there was an exchange of physical and behavioral traits all the time." Thus, the culture in the period of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic was more or less uniform and homogeneous among all peoples.

But the transition to barbarism, and then to civilization, leads to uneven development of cultures.

The first civilizations arise in the East: China, India, Sumer, Egypt. Thus, Eastern culture overtakes Western. "Oh Solon, Solon, you Greeks are like children ...", - says the Egyptian priest in Plato's "Dialogues" and this is true. Both in the first and in the fifteenth centuries of our time, the "new era", the Chinese "in general were far ahead of Europe." And not only the Chinese. The same can be said about other peoples of the East, for example, the Arabs of the VIII-XIII centuries. Moreover, some researchers believe that the Neolithic, Hellenistic and Renaissance brought the cultures of the East and West most closely together.

At the same time, the gap between the East and the West is revealed in many areas of culture in the New Age, which laid the foundations of industrial culture.

Why is this lag observed?

For example, the reason for the backlog of the East is the absence of its own Mediterranean Sea. But why in the Neolithic period did this circumstance not affect the backwardness of the East? That is, the geographical, natural factor does not work.

Maybe scientific, technical?

The opinion about the "cultural" backwardness of the East (in particular, China) is widely represented. But is it? Up to the XV century. The East was ahead of Europe in its cultural development: some speak of the "Eastern Renaissance". For example, gunpowder was invented in China in the 9th century. BC e., mechanical clocks - in the VIII century. BC e. (that is, 6 centuries earlier than in Europe). Paper was invented in 105 AD. e. (that is, almost 1000 years ahead of Europe), printing text from the board - in the 9th century. n. e. (that is, 600 years earlier than in Europe), and the typographical method has been known in China for 400 years longer than in Europe. In 130 AD e. Chinese Chang Heng invented the seismograph. Already in the 7th century. n. e. arch-segment bridges are being built. 15 centuries earlier, iron production began in China and iron-smelting technology was discovered. In the 1st century BC e. Chinese astronomers discover sunspots. After 1700 years they will be "discovered" by Galileo. The first porcelain factory appeared in China in 1369. Porcelain production here was based on a high degree of division of labor. China is the birthplace of silk, the compass. It is in China that the gateway is invented and the largest canals are built. The Chinese invented the stern rudder and were the first to master tack sailing, etc. Europe did not know this yet.

By the Renaissance, the East was ahead of the West in cultural development. Why is there a delay? It cannot be explained either by geographical, natural factors, or by scientific and technical ones.

We can find certain parallels in the development of culture in the East and West. The origin of the first civilizations began from the III millennium BC. e. In the II-V centuries. n. e. there were clashes with "barbarians" (the Romans called them "barbari", the Chinese - "hu", "huzhen"). Approximately at the same time, feudalism began to develop - I-VII centuries. n. e. By the 7th-8th centuries. n. e. powerful states-empires are formed.

The development of spiritual culture begins. As in the West, in China it takes place under the slogan of referring to the "ancient" "gu wen" - in China, in Europe - the Carolingian Renaissance. "But the term itself -" fugu "(return to antiquity) appears later, just like the term "Rinascimento" by Giorgio Vasari (XVI century). Moreover, not all Chinese antiquity, but only "classical" is taken as a model. In China, thinkers appealed to the authorities of the 1st century: Sima Qian, Simo Xiangzhu, Yang Xiong. treatises served: "Yijing" ("Book of Changes"), "Shijing" ("Book of Songs"), "Shujing" ("Book of History"), the works of Confucius. Interestingly, in Europe, the peak of the Renaissance does not fall on Italy, where it originated, but to England.In Eastern culture - to Japan, for the period of Genroku (1688-1704) (Fig. 6.8), and not to China.The subsequent cultural epochs, for example, the Enlightenment, are very close in content. , there is an advancement to the arena of "enlightened monarchs": Kangxi, Yun-zheng, Qiang-Lung, etc. In the Chinese monument of the XIV century "Histo riya Sun" times "Wei" and "Luchao" - from the III century. until the 7th century - rated as "Middle Ages".

At this time, elements of culture similar to European ones appear here. By the 7th century Yan Shi-chu edits five ancient texts: Yijing, Shijing, Shujing, Chunqiu, Liji. They constitute the canon, the "approved text" - "dingben". Then the comments were selected, which Kong Ying-da considered "correct" - "zheni", that is, canonization takes place.

Canonization also takes place in literature: "Wensuan" - "favorites in literature" - appears, therefore, a closed, dogmatic system of texts is formed, which are sanctioned by political and religious authorities.

In Europe, at that time, Thomas Aquinas' Summa Theologia and other Summas... were being published. There is also a practice of interpreting texts, phrases, words - it is called "xungu", in the West - exegesis.

Thus, medieval culture has much in common:

1. dogmatism as a worldview;

2. interpretation of texts as a method of cognition;

3. scholasticism as a form of pseudoscience.

There is also a desire to overcome these obsolete phenomena.

Nakamura Tekisai wrote in the preface to "Jinsi mu": "It is believed that in the ideological world of Confucianism, with the onset of the Song period (the 10th century, it serves as the date of a new era), a new era began. ... They proclaimed the doctrine in nature ... For scientists During the Han and Tang times, it was considered most important to give as many interpretations as possible."

But the same thing happened in Europe! Francis Bacon wrote that we have been given two books: the Book of Scripture, which reveals the will of God, and the Book of Nature, which reveals the power of God. Thus, this is not yet a rejection of the text, authority, faith, but a step aside.

In the East, this process of secularization proceeded faster. The acquisition of knowledge is the very first, but not the most important; the most important thing is the achievement of moral and intellectual human heights, "the philosophers of the Sung school believed. Thus, knowledge and morality are considered in unity. Moreover, morality is considered a higher value.

The main thing in the culture of the civilization of the Ancient East is the preservation and restoration - if something is violated - of order, organization, law. Citizens must uphold the law - they must pay taxes on time, pay taxes, and fulfill duties. Courtiers, courtiers should also know the law - the ritual, the ceremonial to which court life was subject. If the order was violated, for example, taxes were not received, this was perceived as the wrath of the gods, as the death of culture. The world order urgently needed to be restored.

From the need to preserve the approved world order, science was born: if the boundaries of the fields were washed away by a flood, they must be restored in the same form in which they existed before the destruction. If the yard, the owner, pays tax, then it is necessary to calculate whether he pays it correctly. The course of field work, river floods, dry seasons are cyclical. It is necessary to know the pattern of these cycles, and for this we need astronomy: "The great Sothis sparkles in the sky - the Nile overflows its banks."

But art also affirms and reflects the established order, the cosmos. In the cultures of the ancient kingdoms, art plays a very important role: it is a means of maintaining the universe, the enforcement of law and order. If at the archaic stage art united, brought a person to others, now it puts him in front of the world of the gods, allows him to see their life, to participate in the ritual of maintaining the existence of this world. The interest of the artist of the ancient world revolves exclusively around the life of the gods and the figure of the king. But the king is both a divine being (as, for example, the Egyptian pharaoh - the living sun god Ra), and the head of state (empire), and an ordinary person. Therefore, the ancient Egyptian artist depicts the pharaoh not only in the world of the gods (where he, as it were, supports with other gods world order). The pharaoh is depicted in war - he rides in a chariot, crushing enemies, hunting lions from a bow, in his palace he receives foreign embassies, in everyday life he rests with his wife. Since the pharaoh has close associates and servants, and they, in turn, have their own etc. to the slaves, who no longer have anything, the divine power is distributed through the sacred king to all his people. Therefore, in the center of the ancient drawing and painting of the canonical type, there is always the figure of the sacred king, from it to the periphery, images of other people diverge in waves - the queen, the king's associates, military leaders, scribes, farmers, artisans, slaves, prisoners. The task facing the ancient painter and in general art - to maintain the world order and law - contributed to the development of a picturesque canon: the formation of a stable, unchanging composition, preference for rest over movement, ritual poses over ordinary, natural ones; the different scales of the depicted figures (the king was depicted on the same scale, the largest, and the rest, in accordance with the position, in increasingly smaller scales); highlighting the preferred directions of observation (the crowd in front of the temple, the front of troops or work). The last moment explains why the multilateral bypass, the image and vision of objects, as it were, in different projections, was replaced by a different way of image - all views united around the main one.

But the Ancient East left its mark on the culture of civilization, gave it specific features that distinguish it from the culture of the West.

6.5. Features of the "Eastern" culture in its comparison with the "Western"

1. The basis of the written culture of the West is the alphabet - a set of signs expressing sounds. Eastern culture is characterized by a hieroglyph that fixes the meaning.

The West is characterized by an atomic system of alphabetic writing, analysis as the main method of recognizing sounds and a further synthesis of meanings. Separate parts of the word carry an independent meaning, a semantic load: the root, suffix, prefixes, etc. They convey the grammatical meaning of the whole - the word. Behind the word is a concept - a form of thinking. The figurative content of the subject in the concept is actually absent, reduced.

European concepts, for example, "man" or "individual" - are perceived purely atomically. But the Japanese concept of "NINGEN" (man) means both social relations that are established between individuals, and the individual himself.

2. The use of synonyms in Western culture is based on the conceptual content of words, regardless of the graphic shell of the word. True, the technique of sound alliteration was widely used in Old Norse poetry.

In Eastern culture, the branching of meanings is built according to the type of visual image. Here a symbol, a metaphor are given by graphic figurative identities characterized by a hieroglyphic symbol. The shell of the concept itself is not an external form, but a content form.

3. In Western culture, language is given the role of a means of expression, translation of meaning. In Eastern culture, the hieroglyph not only conveys meaning, but contains it in itself. A hieroglyph is a unity of purpose (concept) and means (image).

4. In Western culture, therefore, perhaps the discrepancy between "goal" and "means" is conceived. In the Eastern, means are understood as the unfolded content of the goal.

5. In Western culture, this is the basis for the difference between goals and means, the difference, the contradiction between technology, technology and values, morality, the personal-emotional world of a person. In Eastern culture, the development of technology, technology and morality, values ​​are inseparable. Hence the special role assigned to the conservation of nature.

6. In Western culture, science is aimed at transforming nature, hence nature is perceived as a force alien to man. "Experience" - a method of modern science, formed from the word "torture". Man "tortures" nature, seeking from it the disclosure of secrets by violence. In Eastern culture, science is looking for identity, the unity of nature and man, nature and culture.

7. For European culture, "to understand" means to give a repeating result, that is, to "reproduce". From here we have a specific world of transformed forms generated by our culture - neither natural nor social. For example, scientific language. For Eastern culture, to "understand" means to get used to this world, to feel one's own, human, involvement in this natural world. Therefore, the world of culture is as close as possible to the natural. An example is the Rock Garden. The desire to preserve nature as much as possible, in a larger volume, is characteristic. For example, the art of creating bouquets is ikebana.

8. Western culture is characterized by anthropocentrism, while eastern culture is characterized by nature centrism. Man is not a center, not a starting point, but an element of an integral system "nature - culture".

9. Western culture is characterized by "thingism", "commodity fetishism" - "buy, buy, buy", the instinct of the owner. For the eastern - "minimization" of needs. For example, in the decoration of a traditional Japanese house.

10. The West is characterized by the recognition of an impersonal, anonymous perception of culture: "everyone is a consumer." Oriental culture is characterized by the personal nature of the formation of culture: there is a "Teacher". This is explained by the fact that the language translation of the text coincides with the transfer of meaning: there is no need for an intermediary, interpreter, commentator. In Eastern culture, the situation persists when, without comments, the translation loses part of the content. For example, the "Quran" has seven layers of comments.

11. Silence outside the text means the absence of meaning - in Western culture. In Eastern culture - silence is a way to comprehend the meaning.

12. In Western culture, the goal of science is truth. It has practical implications. In the East, the goal of knowledge is the development of values ​​that go beyond the scope of utility.

13. In Western culture, knowledge and morality are separated. The main question of science: "truth - untruth." In Eastern culture, knowledge is a means of moral improvement. The main question is the ratio of good and evil.

14. In Western culture, the comprehension of the universal, laws is the main goal. The singular is inexpressible directly in language, in science. In Eastern culture, the focus is on individuality, the individual.

For example, European medicine copes well with epidemics, with mass diseases, but fails in the treatment of mental illness, in contact with a specific person, Eastern medicine, on the contrary, is stronger when it affects an individual, say, through acupuncture.

15. The interpretation of "humanism" is also different in the East. The term "humanism" was introduced in Italy by Coluccio Salutati and Leonardo Bruni. They borrowed it from Cicero. In China, Han Yu introduces the term "REN", distinguishing his path from the path before him. But the content of this term ("Ways") is different. Confucius preached love for man, Han Yu - love for everything, for the world, understood pantheistically and spiritually.

Thus, Eastern humanism was not anthropocentric. Zhang Ming-tao said: "My soul is the same as the soul of herbs, trees, birds, animals. Only a person is born, having accepted the middle Heaven-Earth." Thus, this is a kind of ecological worldview, "nature-centrism".

Moscow Aviation Institute

(State Technical University)

UMC "DIOMEN"

ESSAY

on the course "Culturology"

Topic: Culture of ancient civilizations

Completed by: student Kiseleva E.A.

Accepted by: Associate Professor, Ph.D. Pavlova T.P.

Introduction 3

Section 1. Development of Science and Mythology of Ancient Egypt 4

1.1. Development of Science in Ancient Egypt 4

1.2. Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt 7

Section 2. Sumerian mythology 11

Section 3. The cult of heroes in the mythology of ancient civilizations 14

Section 4. Culture of Babylonia 16

4.1. The development of the material culture of Babylonia 16

4.2. Development of science Babylonia 16

4.3. Mythology of Babylonia 19

4.4. Artistic culture of Babylonia 20

Section 5. Ancient world of Greece. Life and customs of ancient Greece 23

5.1. Homeric period, or "Dark Ages". 23

5.2. Archaic Greece. 24

5.3. Socio-political structure of the Archaic era . 25

5.4. Culture of the Archaic era . 27

5.5. Classical Greece. thirty

5.6. Greek economy of the classical era. thirty

5.7. Culture of Classical Greece. thirty

Section 6. Culture of Ancient Rome 35

6.1. Religion and mythology. Greco-Roman pantheon of gods. 35

6.2. Roman philosophy. 38

6.3. The development of the natural sciences of ancient Rome. 39

6.4. Legal Science of Ancient Rome. 41

6.5. Historical Science of Ancient Rome. 43

6.6. Literature of Ancient Rome. 45

6.7 Theatre. 47

6.8 Music of Ancient Rome. 49

6.9 Architecture, fine and decorative arts 50

Conclusion 56

References 57

Apps 58

INTRODUCTION

What is the Ancient World? The Great Soviet Encyclopedia gives the following definition: "The ancient world is the designation accepted in historiography for the period of early class societies in the Ancient East, in Greece and Rome"

The development of society is inextricably linked with the development of culture.

Culture (from Latin Cultura - cultivation, upbringing, education, development, veneration), a historically determined level of development of society and man, expressed in the types and forms of organization of people's life and activities, as well as in the material and spiritual values ​​\u200b\u200bcreated by them. The concept of culture is used to characterize the material and spiritual level of development of certain historical eras, socio-economic formations, specific societies, nationalities and nations, as well as specific areas of activity or life. In a narrower sense, the term "Culture" refers only to the sphere of the spiritual life of people.

Initially, the concept of culture meant the purposeful impact of man on nature (tillage, etc.), as well as the upbringing and education of man himself. Education included not only the development of the ability to follow existing norms and customs, but also the encouragement of the desire to follow them, formed confidence in the ability of culture to satisfy all the needs and demands of a person. In the late Roman era, along with the ideas conveyed by the main meaning of the word "Culture", a different set of meanings was born, and in the Middle Ages, a different set of meanings, which positively assessed the urban way of social life and was closer to the concept that arose later, became widespread. civilization(from lat. civilis - civil, state). The word "Culture" has become more associated with signs of personal perfection, primarily religious.

SECTION 1. DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE AND MYTHOLOGY

ANCIENT EGYPT

1.1. The development of science in ancient Egypt.

The civilization of the ancient Egyptians that existed in the Nile Valley in the 4th millennium BC. - IV century. BC.

The term "Egypt" (Aigyptos) comes from the Phoenician "Hikupta" - a corruption of the Egyptian "Hatkapt" ("Temple of Ptah"), the name of the ancient Egyptian capital of Memphis. The Egyptians themselves called their country "Kemet" ("Black Earth") by the color of the black soil in the Nile Valley, as opposed to "Red Earth" (desert).

The earliest traces of conscious human activity found in the Nile Valley are Paleolithic axes made of flint and hornfels.

In the Neolithic era (5th millennium BC), more specialized polished tools appeared, later - from the 4th millennium BC. e. (Negada II culture) uses obsidian. With the transition from hunting to cattle breeding, and then to agriculture, the first agricultural practices are applied. tools - hoes, a sickle, etc. The material for their manufacture was stone, wood, bone; more complex in shape, but still molded by hand, vessels appear: vessels are also drilled out of stone (alabaster). From the 4th millennium, copper (the Gerzean culture), the deposits of which were in the Eastern Desert and the Sinai Peninsula, began to be processed, the potter's wheel appeared, ceramic and weaving industries developed, faience was produced, and from the 3rd millennium, glass. Copper is ubiquitous. From the 2nd millennium, bronze came into use. The first individual pieces of iron found in Egypt date back to around the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e.; only a millennium later did iron become widely used. The Egyptians achieved great success in processing gold and silver, from which they made genuine masterpieces of art.

Since agriculture in Egypt is possible only with artificial irrigation, canals and dams began to be built even in the pre-dynastic era. For watering the fields, a crane was used and later - a water-lifting wheel (sakkie). The plow appears in the era of the Early Kingdom.

The main means of communication of the country passed along the Nile. Large boats of various shapes and purposes have been built since the pre-dynastic era. For relations with other countries (Syria, Punt), sea vessels were used, the size of which increased with time. By land, goods were transported in packs and sleds. Wheeled transport came into use only from the 18th century. BC e.

Clay and reed served as the main material for construction throughout the history of Ancient Egypt. Raw brick was used for the construction of pharaonic palaces and fortresses. Only temples and royal tombs (pyramids) were built from stone. In the processing of stone, the Egyptians achieved amazing perfection. Stone blocks were beaten off the rocks with wooden wedges, which were poured with water. Grinding and fitting of the plates with the utmost precision was carried out with sand and copper drills, which was possible with unlimited cheap labor. To lift weights, levers, rocking chairs, cranes were used. The draft force was people, less often bulls.

The needs of irrigation, construction and public administration with a complex system of calculating taxes and land allotments led to the development of mathematical and astronomical knowledge, which was purely empirical, applied, never rising to generalizations and theoretical conclusions, as, for example, in Greece. The annual floods of the Nile, the beginning of which coincided with the rise of the star Sirius above the horizon, made it necessary to follow the movement of celestial bodies, which led to the birth of astronomy and the emergence, possibly as early as the 4th millennium BC. e., calendar. The year was divided into 3 seasons (flood, harvest, drought) and 12 months. 30 days each, after which 5 more days were added without taking into account hours and minutes, which gave a discrepancy of 1 day every 4 years between the astronomical year and the calendar year. Priests and scribes, who accumulated scientific knowledge and experience over the centuries, determined with the help of the simplest tools (plumb line, ruler) the position of planets and stars, grouping the latter into constellations. Sun and water (clepsydra) clocks were used to measure time. Schematic primitive maps were compiled, taking into account the distance between settlements and city plans.

The mathematical papyri that have come down to us, mostly collections of problems with solutions, prove that the Egyptians not only introduced the decimal number system for the first time (albeit without a positional notation), but also knew fractional numbers, but only those whose numerator is one. Addition and subtraction were carried out in the usual way, multiplication was reduced to addition, and when dividing, the number by which the divisor should be multiplied to get the dividend was determined. Arithmetic and geometric progressions were known. In the era of the Middle Kingdom, elementary algebraic representations arise, equations with two unknowns are solved. The knowledge of the Egyptians was also high in the field of planimetry and especially stereometry: the areas of rectangles, triangles, circles, the surface and volume of simple and truncated pyramids were calculated.

The embalming of the dead, which involved an autopsy, contributed to familiarization with the anatomy and the accumulation of surgical experience. The functions of the heart were studied, the law of blood circulation was discovered, there were some ideas about the functions of the brain. Since the period of the Old Kingdom, there has been a specialization of doctors who treated diseases and injuries of various organs. They performed craniotomy, filled teeth, applied surgical splints, for which there were sets of surgical instruments. However, completely rationalistic ideas were intertwined with belief in magic, witchcraft, spells.

Mummification, the manufacture of incense, medicines, paints, etc., as well as the experience gained in the manufacture of glass and faience, favored the development of chemistry. For staining glass vessels, manganese, cobalt, and zinc oxide were used as impurities.

Trade, and then military expeditions, sent from the period of the Old Kingdom to Syria and along the Nile to Kush and to the equatorial regions of Africa, along the Red Sea to Punt, led to the accumulation and expansion of geographical knowledge. The Egyptians, however, had no idea about the sphericity of the Earth.

As far as is known, no historical works were created in Egypt before the Hellenistic era. Events were recorded only in weather chronicles and then sometimes reduced to canons. Annals of the campaigns of individual pharaohs were kept or reports were compiled describing their victories.

The knowledge of the Egyptians in various fields had a significant impact on the development of ancient and, consequently, European science. The Greeks have always looked at Egypt as a land of ancient wisdom and considered the Egyptians as their teachers.

1.2. Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt

Among the Egyptian myths, the central place was occupied by the main cycles: the creation of the world, the punishment of mankind for sins, the struggle of the sun god Ra with the forces of darkness in the form of the serpent Apep, the death and resurrection of Osiris, etc. The creation of the Universe was most often attributed to Ra, who rose from the lotus bud, which appeared in the eternal water chaos (Nune). According to the ideas of the Egyptians, the first gods came out of the mouth of Ra, and people arose from his tears.

According to another version of the myth, the god-potter Ptah (or Khnum) fashioned the earth and people. The cycle of myths about the punishment of people is very different from the Babylonian and Biblical ones. Instead of a flood in the Egyptian myths, Ra, angry at people who have ceased to obey the gods, sends his daughter Sokhmet-Khator to earth in the form of a lioness. It exterminates people and only with difficulty do the gods manage to stop it and save the rest of humanity. A red thread through these myths is the idea of ​​the omnipotence of the gods, capable of punishing or showering favors at their discretion.

The religion of the ancient Egyptians originated in primitive tribal communities and went a long way of development to the complex theological systems of the Eastern despotism. It is characterized by the strong preservation of the most ancient beliefs throughout the history of ancient Egypt: fetishism, deification of plants. Almost every Egyptian deity was revered in the form of some animal. So, the god Anubis (the god of death) was revered in the form of a wolf, the goddess Bast - in the form of a cat, the god Thoth (the god of the moon, wisdom, letters and accounts, the patron of sciences, scribes, sacred books and witchcraft) - in the form of an ibis or baboon, god Horus (the god of the sun, who was considered the patron of the power of the pharaoh, who was declared his earthly incarnation) - in the form of a falcon, etc. At a later stage, anthropomorphization of deities is observed (i.e., endowing them with human qualities). At the same time, the old ideas did not disappear, but began to be combined with new ones. Thus, the goddess Bast was portrayed as a woman with a cat's head, the god Thoth as a man with the head of an ibis, etc. (See Appendix No. 1). Killing a sacred animal was punishable by death. Sacred animals and birds were embalmed after death and buried in special cemeteries. The transition from hunting to agriculture and cattle breeding led to significant changes in religious beliefs. The gods came to the fore, personifying various elements: the sky (the goddess Nut), the earth (the god Geb), the sun (the god Ra), the moon (the god Thoth), etc. In the image of the god Hapi, Egyptian farmers revered the Nile River.

The ancient Egyptians had a widespread cult of the dead. According to their religious beliefs, each person had several souls: Ba, depicted as a bird with a human head, Ka, which was a double of a person, and others. According to the Egyptians, only those who had a body that was considered the refuge of the soul could achieve eternal bliss, was kept intact. Hence the custom of mummification of corpses. To preserve the mummified body, a tomb was built, which was supplied with items used by the deceased during his lifetime. Small figurines of servants ("ushebti" - defendants) were also placed in the tomb. The Egyptians believed that with the power of magic spells, the deceased would revive these figurines and they would work for him in the afterlife. After death, the soul of the deceased, according to the ideas of the Egyptians, went on a journey through the afterlife, where monsters lay in wait for her, from which she could be saved with the help of spells and prayers contained in the "Book of the Dead" - an integral part of the grave goods, the 125th chapter of the "Book of the Dead" the dead" is dedicated to the afterlife judgment on the human soul. In the face of Osiris, the supreme judge of the underworld, a psychostasia took place - the weighing of the heart of the deceased on the scales, balanced by the symbol of truth. The heart, burdened with sins, disturbed the balance, and then the deceased was devoured by the terrible monster Amamat the devourer; the righteous, whose hearts did not disturb the balance of the scales, went to paradise - "the fields of Ialu".

Initially, each nome honored its main god: in Heliopolis they worshiped Ra-Atum, in Thebes - Amon, etc. Divine triads were formed (for example, Theban: Amon is the god of the sun, his wife Mut is the goddess of the sky, their son Khonsu is the god moon). A hierarchy of gods formed around the triad. The unification of the nomes into two states (Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt), and then into a single despotism (about the 3rd millennium BC) made it necessary to create nationwide cults and unify religion. The main place in the unified religion was occupied by the gods of the hegemonic city. So, in the era of the Middle and New Kingdoms, when Thebes became the capital of the state, the Theban god Amon became the main deity of Egypt, and the Egyptian priests identified him with the former supreme god Ra.

The hierarchy of the gods, headed by the king of the gods, is a reflection of the orders of the eastern despotism. The supreme god (Ra-Atum, and later Amon-Ra) has his own court, his vizier (the god of wisdom Thoth), his offices, etc. The official religion declared the pharaoh to be the incarnation of God, a living god, prescribed to pay him divine honors. Huge donations and various benefits led to the strengthening of the priesthood, which began to challenge the power of the pharaohs. An attempt by Amenhotep IV (Akhenaton) (late 15th - early 14th centuries BC) to undermine the power of the priesthood by introducing monotheism failed; the cult of the single sun god Aten introduced by him was soon abolished. In the 11th century BC e. Theban priests seized the throne of Egypt and established a theocracy.

SECTION 2. SUMERIAN MYTHOLOGY

The Sumerians are tribes of unknown origin, in con. 4th millennium BC e. mastered the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates and formed the first city-states in Mesopotamia. By the time the first Sumerian city-states were formed, the idea of ​​an anthropomorphic deity had formed. The patron deities of the community were, first of all, the personification of the creative and productive forces of nature, with which the ideas about the power of the military leader of the tribe-community, combined with the functions of the high priest, are connected. From the first written sources (late 4th - early 3rd millennium) the names of the gods Inanna, Enlil and others are known, and from the 27th-26th centuries. - Theophoric names and the most ancient list of gods.

Each city-state retained its own deities and heroes, cycles of myths and its own priestly tradition. Until con. 3rd millennium BC e. there was no single systematized pantheon, although there were several common Sumerian deities: Enlil(lord of the air, king of gods and people), Enki(lord of underground fresh waters and the oceans, later the deity of wisdom), Naina(moon god), warrior god Ningirsu, and etc.

The oldest list of gods from Farah (c. 26th century BC) identifies six supreme gods of the early Sumerian pantheon: Enlil, An, Inanna, Enki, Nanna, and the sun god Utu. The ancient Sumerian deities, including the astral gods, retained the function of a fertility deity, which was thought of as the patron god of a separate community. One of the most typical images is the image of the mother goddess, who was revered under various names: Damgalnuna, Ninhursag, Ninmah (Mach), Nintu. Mom, Mami. It is possible that the patron goddesses of cities are also associated with the image of the mother goddess: for example, the Sumerian goddesses Bay and Gatumdug also bear the epithets “mother”, “mother of all cities”.

See Appendix No. 2.

In the myths about the gods of fertility, there is a close connection between the myth and the cult. The cult songs from Ur (end of the 3rd millennium BC) speak of the love of the priestess Lukur for King Shu-Suen and emphasize the sacred and official nature of their union. The hymns to the deified kings of the III Dynasty of Ur and the I Dynasty of Isin also show that a sacred marriage ceremony was performed annually between the king and the high priestess, in which the king represented the incarnation of the shepherd god Dumuzi, and the priestess represented the goddess Inanna. The content of the works includes motifs of the courtship and wedding of the heroes-gods, the descent of the goddess into the underworld and replacing her with a hero, the death of the hero and crying for him, and the return of the hero to earth. All works of the cycle turn out to be the threshold of the drama-action, which formed the basis of the ritual and figuratively embodied the metaphor "life - death - life".

Myths related to the cult of fertility provide information about the ideas of the Sumerians about the underworld. There is no clear idea of ​​the location of the underworld. They not only descend there, but also “fall through”; the border of the underworld is the underground river, through which the carrier ferries. Those who enter the underworld pass through the seven gates of the underworld, where they are met by the chief gatekeeper, Neti. The fate of the dead underground is hard. Their bread is bitter (sometimes it is sewage), salty water (slops can also serve as a drink). The underworld is dark, full of dust, its inhabitants, "like birds, are dressed in clothes of wings." There is no idea of ​​a "field of souls", just as there is no information about the court of the dead, where they would be judged by behavior in life and by the rules of morality. A tolerable life (clean drinking water, peace) is awarded to the souls for whom the funeral rite was performed and sacrifices were made, as well as those who fell in battle and those with many children. The judges of the underworld, the Anunnaki, sitting before Ereshkigal, the mistress of the underworld, pass only death sentences. The names of the dead are entered in her table by a female scribe of the underworld kingdom of Geshtinanna. The unburied souls of the dead return to earth and bring trouble, the buried are crossed over the “river that separates from people” and is the border between the world of the living and the world of the dead. The river is crossed by a boat with the carrier of the underworld Ur-Shanabi or the demon Humut-Tabal.

Several myths have come down about the creation of people, but only one of them is completely independent - about Enki and Ninmah. Enki and Ninmah sculpt a man from the clay of the Abzu, the underground world ocean, and involve the goddess Nammu, "the mother who gave life to all the gods," in the process of creation. The purpose of the creation of man is to work for the gods: cultivate the land, graze cattle, collect fruits, feed the gods with their victims. When a person is made, the gods determine his fate and arrange a feast on this occasion. At the feast, drunken Enki and Ninmah begin to sculpt people again, but they end up with freaks: a woman unable to give birth, a creature deprived of sex, etc.

Many myths are devoted to the creation and birth of the gods. Cultural heroes are widely represented in Sumerian mythology. The creators-demiurges are mainly Enlil and Enki. According to various texts, the goddess Ninkasi is the initiator of brewing, the goddess Uttu is the weaving craft, Enlil is the creator of the wheel, grain; gardening is an invention of the gardener Shukalitudda. A certain archaic king Enmeduranki is declared to be the inventor of various forms of predicting the future, including predictions with the help of an outpouring of oil. The inventor of the harp is a certain Ningal-Paprigal, the epic heroes Enmerkar and Gilgamesh are the creators of urban planning, and Enmerkar is also writing.

The degree of activity and passivity of each deity is also varied. So, the most alive are Inanna, Enki, Ninhursag, Dumuzi, some minor deities. The most passive god is the "father of the gods" An.

SECTION 3. HERO CULT

IN THE MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS

The heroic period is the initial period in the history of many peoples, about which legends have been preserved in myths, legends and folk poems. The characters are heroes who are attributed to divine origin (demigods), possessing superhuman strength; for example, among the Greeks, Hercules, Theseus, and others, among the Germans, the heroes of the Nibelungen song, among the Slavs, heroes, Gilgamesh in Mesopatamia, etc.

In Rome there was a legend about the wanderings of the Trojan hero Aeneas - the ancestor of the founders of Rome - Romulus and Remus. In the future, the mythology of the Romans was mainly connected precisely with the legends about Aeneas, Romulus and the kings who replaced Romulus.

Heroes in ancient Greek religion and mythology are legendary leaders or heroes, revered after death as semi-divine beings. The cult of heroes was supported by the community or city, which saw them as their ancestors. Many heroes revered in ancient Greece in the 1st millennium BC. e., were by their origin ancient local deities that lost their former importance with the spread of the Olympic religion (Agamemnon, Elena, etc.). The Greeks also revered eponymous heroes, i.e., persons by whose name the name of the tribe was given, the city (Lacedaemon, Corinth, etc.); most often they were fictitious persons. Heroes could also include prominent historical figures after their death (for example, the tyrannicide Harmodius and Aristogeiton in Athens, the poet Archilochus on the island of Paros, etc.).

The heroic myths of Mesopotamia are grouped according to local cycles. The most interesting circle of myths of the city of Uruk, associated with the names of the heroes of Enmerkar, Lugalbanda and Gilgamesh- the semi-legendary ruler of the city of Uruk in Sumer (28th century BC). In the 3rd millennium BC. e. Sumerian epic songs about Gilgamesh that have come down to us arose. At the end of the 3rd - beginning of the 2nd millennium, a large epic poem about Gilgamesh was compiled in the Akkadian (Assyro-Babylonian) language. It describes Gilgamesh's friendship with the wild man Enkidu, Gilgamesh's despair after the death of his friend and his wanderings in search of the secret of immortality, his visit to his ancestor Utnapishti, who survived the flood, etc. The legend of Gilgamesh was also spread among the Hittites, Hurrians, in Palestine and etc. The most famous version of the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. from Nineveh (Kuyundzhik).

There is also a myth about the enmity between the eagle and the snake and about the attempt of the hero Etana to fly up to heaven on an eagle. Mostly records of official versions of myths have come down to us, subordinated to the idea of ​​man's impotence before the gods.

SECTION 4. CULTURE OF BABYLONIA

Babylonian culture, the culture of the people who inhabited in antiquity, in the 4th-1st millennium BC. e., Mesopotamia - the Mesopotamia of the Tigris and Euphrates (the territory of modern Iraq), is characterized by a relatively high level of science, literature and art, on the one hand, and the predominance of religious ideology, on the other.

4.1. Development of material culture Babylonia

The material culture of the people of Babylonia was at a relatively high level. However, stone tools finally went out of use only at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. e. In metallurgy in the middle of the 3rd millennium, casting, forging, chasing, making gold and silver wire, and filigree were known. The main building material was raw and, less often, burnt brick; was known, but little used vault, drainage system, etc. Later, noticeable progress in technology begins. Military equipment is being improved - a chariot army is introduced (from the beginning of the 2nd millennium), a shell of copper plaques (from the middle of the 2nd millennium), a horse army, a sword, fortified military camps, siege weapons - rams, stone and floating bridges are built (on leather skins).

In the 1st millennium BC. e. in Babylonia, iron tools appear, in the craft - also a diamond drill, approximately at the turn of the 2nd and 1st millennium BC. e. a new irrigation technique also appeared: a water-lifting wheel (sakie), and an “endless” rope with leather buckets (cherd).

4.2. The development of science in Babylonia

The most important factor in the development of science was economic practice, which required, first of all, the development of a system of measures, as well as the creation of methods for determining the area of ​​\u200b\u200bfields, the volume of granaries and artificial reservoirs, calculating working standards for digging channels, in construction and craft; on this basis, by the end of the 3rd millennium BC. e. Sumero-Babylonian mathematics was created. Babylonian mathematicians widely used the sixagesimal positional counting system created by the Sumerians; on the basis of this system, various calculation tables were compiled: division and multiplication of numbers, squares and cubes of numbers and their roots (square and cubic), etc. The Babylonians solved quadratic equations, knew the “Pythagorean theorem” and had methods for finding all kinds of “Pythagorean” numbers ( more than a thousand years before Pythagoras); in addition to planimetric problems, they also solved stereometric problems related to determining the volume of various kinds of spaces, bodies, and widely practiced drawing plans for fields, areas, individual buildings, but usually not to scale.

The Babylonians achieved great success in the field of chemistry, which, of course, had a purely applied character. From the 2nd millennium BC e. Numerous recipes for making bronze have been preserved, glazes and multi-color glazes on ceramics are known.

An attempt to generalize geographical representations is a “world map”, where the earth is depicted as a plane crossed by the Tigris and Euphrates rivers running down from the northern mountains, and surrounded by the world ocean, on the surface of which it was apparently thought to be floating. The ocean was imagined surrounded by a "dam of heaven", on which several (three or seven) heavenly vaults rested; under the earth, the underworld (“Great Mountain”) was conceived. But the geographical outlook of the Babylonian merchants-practitioners was much wider (by the 1st millennium - from Spain to India).

Medicine also made a major step forward at this time. Surgical operations included amputations, fusion of fractures, removal of a thorn from the eye, etc. In medical texts that have come down from the 2nd half of the 2nd millennium BC. e. and the 1st half of the 1st millennium BC. e., parts of the human body were already brought together in an anatomical system. Some diseases and related medicines were also systematized.

From the records of astronomical and meteorological observations, astrology (only in the 1st millennium BC) and astronomy began to develop. Planets were singled out, which, in contrast to the fixed stars, compared with calmly grazing sheep, were called "bibbu", "goats". Each planet received its own special name (except for Mercury, called "bibbu", that is, the planet): Venus - "Dilbat", Jupiter - "Mulubabbar" ("star-sun"), Mars - "Zalbatanu" and Saturn - "Caymanu" . At the same time, observations of the movements of the planets began; in particular, texts devoted to the study of the motion of Venus have been preserved. The relatively high development of astronomy was apparently associated with the needs of the lunar calendar. Initially, each city-state had an independent calendar, but after the rise of Babylon, the calendar adopted in Babylon became common to the whole country. The year consisted of 12 lunar months, having 29 or 30 days (the synodic month, or the period of the change of phases of the moon, is approximately 29 eq f (1; 2) days). Due to the fact that the solar year is 11 days longer than the lunar year, from time to time, to eliminate this discrepancy, an additional month was introduced. Already until the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. constellations were described, heliacal sunrises were recorded, and so on. Starting from the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. firm rules are established for the insertion of leap months, computational astronomy is intensively developed, texts have been preserved where for a certain year (or sequence of years) the positions of the moon (or planets) are indicated at certain time intervals. The great merit of the Babylonian astronomers was the discovery saros- the period of time after which the solar and lunar eclipses are repeated in the same sequence.

The first works of a scientific nature in ancient Babylon include lists of writing signs - first pictorial, and then developed from them - cuneiform - and lists of terms written using such signs. Such lists were first compiled around 3000 BC. e. Later, due to practical needs, certain knowledge in the field of philology was accumulated.

The center of science in Babylon until the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. there was the so-called e-dubba - a type of secular school-academy, which trained mainly scribes, but there were, apparently, temple schools. The scribe was an honorary title of an educated person. In accordance with the degree of erudition and specialization, there were about twenty types of scribes. Among the didactic school texts, the "Instruction to the Farmer", something like a short agricultural reference book, is well known.

4.3. Mythology of Babylonia

The myths that have come down to us reflect mainly the ideas of peoples who lived in irrigation agriculture, as well as sedentary hunters and pastoralists. According to the ideas of the ancient peoples, the flat earth lies on the surface of the world's waters, surrounding it and acting in the form of well and river water; these waters are separated from the celestial waters by the "Dam of Heaven", on which rests several firm firmaments - the sky of the Sun, Moon, planets and fixed stars. Inside the earth is a gloomy city of the dead. The world was created either by a mother goddess or (in later myths) by a male deity (Enlil, Marduk). So, according to the Babylonian myth (2nd millennium BC), in the struggle between the older gods and the younger ones, the first is led by a monster - the goddess Tiamat ("Sea"), the second - by the god Marduk. After killing Tiamat, Marduk cuts her body in two, turning it into underground and celestial waters.

During the period of the rise of Babylon (18th century BC), the patron god of this city was declared the supreme deity Marduk. In the 1st millennium BC. e. astral cults develop on the basis of the identification of certain deities with heavenly bodies. Along with the supreme god, the "great gods who decide fates" that make up the council of elders in the community of gods, 7 or 12 main deities were recognized.

Perceptions persisted that go back to the cult of the leader as the embodiment of the life forces of the community. A remnant of the ritual murder of an aged leader was in Babylon an annual rite in which the king was temporarily replaced by a pauper or a slave who was beaten by the high priest.

In the 2nd-1st millennium, the concept of sin and repentance developed, which, however, were perceived mainly in the ritual plane (violation of magical prohibitions and rules of worshiping the gods and atonement for sin).

A professional priesthood was created in Babylonia very early - back in the 4th millennium, the ruler (king) was also a priest. For religious purposes from the 4th millennium BC. e. from the communal ones, special extensive temple farms began to be allocated, then they entered as components of the royal households.

4.4. Artistic culture of Babylonia

In the artistic culture of the ancient world of Babylonia, an important place is occupied by the plastic arts of the 4th-1st millennium BC. e. In Babylonia, as in Ancient Egypt, many forms of architecture, sculpture, synthesis of arts, images of man and the surrounding world, characteristic of subsequent eras, take shape and receive initial development. The slowness of social development and the subordination of art to religion determine the stability of artistic structures and stylistic principles.

The oldest artistic monuments of Babylonia (hand-molded cult clay vessels with a painted Rhythmiz geometric pattern and stylized images of birds, animals and people; clay figurines) date back to the 5th-4th millennium BC. e. From the middle of the 4th millennium BC. e. the potter's wheel appears, the construction of temples develops, the walls of which are sometimes decorated with a geometric mosaic pattern of multi-colored hats of clay "nails". At the end of the 4th - the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. e. round sculpture is developing, the principles of Mesopotamian sculptural relief are taking shape, the art of glyptics flourishes (carved cylinder seals with plot scenes marked by freedom of composition and movement).

During the formation of city-states (the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC), the features of conventionality and canonicity grow in art. 7th-6th centuries BC e. the heyday of the neo-Babylonian period in art. The ensemble of the city of Babylon is magnificent with a complex system of fortifications, wide straight procession roads, the palace of Nebuchadnezzar II, the Esagila temple complex and the 90-meter Etemenanki ziggurat.

According to legend, the descendants of Noah erected the Tower of Babel on the land of Shinar (Babylonia) in order to reach heaven. God, angered by the plan and actions of the builders, confused their languages ​​so that they could not understand each other, and scattered them around the world. The city where the tower was built was called Babylon, which, according to biblical etymology, comes from the Hebrew "balal" ("to mix"). This story represents one of the first attempts to explain the origin of the various languages ​​in the world. In fact, the Akkadian word "Babylon" ("bab-ili") means "gate of God".

According to historical information, the city of Babylon - the capital of Babylonia, located on the banks of the Euphrates - was famous for its temple Esagila, whose name translates as "reaching the clouds." This temple was built by Hammurabi, one of the first Babylonian kings.

The Hanging Gardens were one of the most famous curiosities of the ancient city of Babylon. However, although archaeologists have found the alleged ruins of the gardens, it is impossible to prove that these are they. We only know one thing: the gardens really existed because people saw and described them.

Legend tells that the king ordered the construction of gardens for the homesick young wife Amitis, hoping that they would remind her of her native Persian mountains.

The Hanging Gardens were built, probably by the river, and overlooked the city walls of Babylon. They were arranged in the form of terraces, the uppermost of which, perhaps, towered 40 meters above the ground. Nebuchadnezzar ordered that every conceivable type of tree and flower be planted in the garden. They were brought from all over the empire on carts pulled by oxen and river boats. The gardeners' success must have depended on a good irrigation system, which used water from the Euphrates. Water could be raised to the upper terrace with a chain of buckets attached to a wheel that was turned by slaves. And then she must have run through the gardens in streams and waterfalls, so that the ground always remained wet.

See Appendix No. 3

As a result of the conquest of Babylon by the power of the Achaemenids (539 BC) and its entry into the state of the Seleucids (end of the 4th century BC), the influence of Persian, and later Hellenistic art, manifests itself in Babylonian culture. In turn, Babylonian art influenced the development of art Iran and Parthia.

SECTION 5. ANCIENT WORLD OF GREECE.

LIFE AND MORALS OF ANCIENT GREECE

The term "antiquity", the root concept of which is the Latin word antiquus - ancient, denotes the totality of everything connected with Greco-Roman antiquity, starting with Homeric Greece (approximately 9th century BC) and ending with the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476 BC e.). The term originated in the early 18th century. in French and meant a special kind of art related to the early history of mankind.

5.1. Homeric period, or "Dark Ages".

Period XI-IX centuries. called "Homeric", since the main source of information about him are the poems of Homer Iliad and Odyssey.

At the end of the XII century. BC. Dorian Greeks invaded Greece.

The Dorian conquest led Greece to regress - a sharp decline in population, a drop in living standards, the cessation of monumental and stone construction in general, the decline of crafts, the weakening of trade contacts, and the loss of writing. Throughout Greece, the former state formations disappeared and the primitive communal system was established. From the achievements of the Mycenaean civilization, the Dorians borrowed only the potter's wheel, the technique of metal processing and shipbuilding, the culture of growing grapes and olive trees. At the same time, the Dorians brought with them the art of smelting and processing iron, the practice of using it in military affairs.

XI-IX centuries BC. - the era of the dominance of subsistence farming. Cattle breeding acquired a special role: cattle was both a criterion of wealth and a measure of value. The main type of social organization was the rural community (demos), which lived in a small area and strove for complete isolation. The community and its clans and families produced everything they needed for themselves.

Slavery did not play a big economic role. The bulk of the slaves, as in the Mycenaean era, were women and children who were used in auxiliary work in the household. Male slaves usually performed the duties of shepherds. The slaves were mostly prisoners of war. Slavery was patriarchal in nature, and the standard of living of slaves differed little from that of their masters.

Gradually, in the community where "equality in poverty" originally reigned, the process of social differentiation intensified, which was facilitated by constant internal and external military conflicts.

In the ninth century BC. the royal family gradually loses its privileges, and the positions monopolized by it become elective, turning into the property of the entire elite.

5.2. Archaic Greece.

Period VIII-VI centuries. BC. - a time of grandiose changes in the ancient Greek world. During this period, the number of iron tools increased significantly, their assortment expanded and their quality improved. The iron ax made it easier to fight trees and bushes, and the iron plowshare, pick, hoe and sickle made it possible to increase productivity.

The foundation of colonies in distant overseas lands (Great Greek colonization) turned out to be promising in three directions: western, northeastern and southeastern. Progress in shipbuilding contributed to successful colonization activities. Based on the achievements of the Phoenician shipbuilders, two new types of ship were created - the penteconter and the trireme. As a result of colonization in Greece, the second type of external expansion triumphed - peaceful (trading).

Handicraft is separated from agriculture; handicraft specializes. The center of economic life is moving from the village to the city, whose interests are directed not inland, but to the sea; new cities are now based on the coast next to convenient bays, and the old ones (Athens, Corinth) establish close links with nearby ports.

5.3. Socio-political structure of the Archaic era.

The archaic era was marked by two leading trends - the desire for unification and the transformation of the aristocratic system. The first trend was most fully expressed in Sinoikism ("joint settlement"), the unification of several previously independent communities by moving their inhabitants to an already existing or newly founded fortified center. Religious and political unions arise, uniting groups of states of a certain area, an entire region, or even different regions of the Greek world.

By the beginning of the 7th century BC. the monarchical system actually ceases to exist in Attica, Boeotia, the states of the northeastern Peloponnese, and many cities of Asia Minor. In most cases, this change is done without violence: under the king, a collective body (ephorate, collegium of efetes) is created, to which its main functions are transferred, with the exception, as a rule, of priestly ones; his position becomes elective. Often, the highest body of executive power becomes a collegium of magistrates, elected for a fixed term (usually a year) and obliged to report to the aristocratic council upon the expiration of their term of office. In this system, the popular assembly, while remaining as an institution, plays an extremely small role.

By the middle of the 7th century BC. the aristocracy lost its leading position in the military sphere. The widespread distribution of iron weapons and armor and their relative cheapness in comparison with bronze ones is changing the social composition of heavily armed infantry (hoplites), which is now recruited from the middle strata of the city and countryside. The main defender of the state becomes not the nobility, but the middle strata.

In the second half of the 7th c. BC. the role of the urban demos is growing, first in the economic, and then in the socio-political life.

The first step towards limiting the omnipotence of the elite and transforming a chaotic aristocratic society into an orderly civil society was the writing of laws. In the first half of the 7th c. BC. such a record was made in Corinth and Thebes by the nomothetes ("legislators") Phidon and Philolaus, and in 621 BC. in Athens archon Drakon. The codification of laws in a number of Greek states was carried out by esimnets ("organizers") - intermediaries chosen by the community for the forced streamlining of civil cases, who not only wrote down existing legal norms, but also "improved" (reformed) them. Particular attention was paid to the regulation of legal proceedings, the protection of property and concern for morality.

In the VII-VI centuries. BC. the main form of violent destruction of the aristocratic regime was tyranny, which is called the elder. Usually people from the aristocratic layer became tyrants. Often, before the coup, they occupied high civil and especially military positions (polemarch, strategist), which allowed them to gain authority from the hoplites, the main military force in the state. Tyrants often surrounded themselves with bodyguards and relied on mercenaries. The most important posts were occupied by their relatives and adherents. The narrowing of the social base of tyrannical regimes caused their widespread disappearance by the end of the 6th century. BC.

By the end of the VI century. BC. in the vast majority of Greek states, a republican system was established, in which political sovereignty belonged to the "people" - a set of full-fledged citizens: men, the indigenous inhabitants of the area, who owned hereditary land plots (with the supreme ownership of the land of the entire community). A citizen had the right to participate in the national assembly (ekklesia), serve in the army, elect and be elected to public office. The People's Assembly formed the Council (bule) - the highest governing body and elected magistrates for a certain period of time, who, after the expiration of their powers, reported to him; There was practically no permanent bureaucracy. Depending on the composition of the civil corps, two forms of the republican system were distinguished - oligarchy and democracy. If under democracy all members of the community enjoyed equal political rights, then under the oligarchy the degree of their possession was determined by the property qualification: persons with a small income were either removed from the civil collective and not allowed to military service, or transferred to the category of "passive" citizens, deprived of access to public administration.

The result of the socio-political development of the archaic period was the birth of a classic policy - a small city-state. The city was a place of socially significant events - religious rites and festivities, public meetings, theatrical performances, sports competitions. The center of polis life was the central city square (agora) and temples. The spiritual basis of the polis was a special polis worldview (the ideal of a socially active free citizen, patriot and defender of the fatherland; subordination of personal interests to the public). The small framework of the city-state allowed the Greek to feel his close connection with it and his responsibility for it (direct democracy).

5.4. Culture of the Archaic era.

The archaic era was an important milestone in the development of ancient Greek culture. At the turn of the IX-VIII centuries. BC. written language, forgotten in the Homeric period, was revived. Laws and commemorative inscriptions were carved on wooden boards, stone, marble and bronze slabs; all other texts were written on leather, wood bast, canvas, clay shards and wooden waxed tablets, later on papyrus delivered from Egypt. Signs were drawn with a lead or painted with reed brushes dipped in soot ink with the addition of glue or decoction of madder roots.

The spread of writing gave impetus to the development of ancient Greek literature. In the 8th century BC. Homeric poems were written down, previously sung by the Aeds. At the end of the 8th century BC. Hesiod created two new types of epic poetry - didactic and genealogical. From the middle of the 7th century BC. Lyrics became the leading genre. The birth of drama belongs to the archaic period; the ancient Greek theatre. Prose genres appear: historical writing, philosophical prose, fable.

Urban planning is rapidly developing (stone buildings, planning of the urban complex, water supply). Monumental architecture is being revived (primarily the construction of temples); a new method of construction is being introduced with the help of huge stone blocks, the gaps between which are filled with small stones and rubble. An order system was invented for combining the load-bearing (column with a base and capital) and carried (architrave, frieze and cornice) parts of buildings and their decoration. The first order was Dorian (beginning of the 7th century BC), the second - the Aeolian (middle of the 7th century BC), the third - the Ionian (middle of the 6th century BC).

The archaic era is marked by the appearance of plastic art. The sculpture is guided by the ideal of a young, beautiful and courageous hero, personifying the virtues of a citizen of the policy - a warrior and an athlete; the generalized image of a deified man or a humanized god dominates. The art of depicting a naked male body and conveying its proportions is being improved. The female figure is usually draped in ornate clothing. Temple sculpture and relief are intensively developing, becoming obligatory elements of external and internal decor; reliefs, as a rule, reproduce group scenes on mythological subjects. By the end of the VI century. BC. the ability to convey relationships between characters and freely place figures in space increases.

In painting (vase painting) at the turn of the 9th-8th centuries. BC. the art of the sign, the geometric symbol, is dying; it is replaced by understandable and visual humanized mythological images. Geometric style of painting in the 7th century. BC. gives way to an orientalizing style, in which, with an abundance of fantastic animal and floral ornaments, images of living beings, primarily the gods of Greek mythology, dominate. By the middle of the VI century. BC. vase painting of the "black-figure style" is spreading, where the carpet ornament is completely replaced by a living image and where movement is skillfully conveyed. Around 530 BC the "red-figure style" is approved, which made it possible to more skillfully convey the volume and mobility of the human body and the depth of space.

An important indicator of the progress of Greek culture was the birth of philosophy as a science. At the end of the 7th century BC. in Ionia (Milet) a natural-philosophical school arose; its representatives considered the whole world to be a single material whole, and its invariable fundamental principle - an animated material substance. Heraclitus of Ephesus at the end of the VI century. BC. put forward the idea of ​​the changing essence of being (the eternal cycle of elements in nature). In southern Italy, Pythagoras of Samos created the Pythagorean school, which saw in numbers and numerical relations the basis of everything that exists; he is credited with the idea of ​​the immortality of the soul and its posthumous migrations. Xenophanes of Colophon (c. 565 - after 480 BC) developed a pantheistic doctrine of the identity of God and the universe. His ideas influenced the emergence of the Eleatics school, who considered being one and unchanging, and the plurality and mobility of things an illusion;

5.5. Classical Greece.

In the 5th century BC. the ancient Greek world became the object of large-scale external aggression from Persia. The open military confrontation between the Greeks and Persians lasted more than half a century (500-449 BC). In 449 BC In the 17th century, the Kallia peace was concluded, according to which the Achaemenid state recognized the independence of the Greek cities of Asia Minor and abandoned its military presence in the Aegean basin.

After the expulsion of the Persians from Greece, disagreements escalated both between individual Greek policies and between unions of states.

5.6. Greek economy of the classical era.

The war stimulated the development of shipbuilding, monumental construction (fortresses, walls), weapons and related metallurgy, metalworking and leather crafts. Greece received a large number of prisoners, as well as material values, which contributed to the growth of commodity production and the use of slaves in it. Agriculture finally acquired a diversified character with a predominance of labour-intensive intensive crops; the leading role in it belonged to the small producer; there were few large estates associated with the market.

5.7. Culture of Classical Greece.

5th century BC. 5th century BC. - the golden age of Greek culture. There was a turning point in urban planning - the principle of regular planning of cities with the same type of streets intersecting at right angles and identical rectangular ones was established. The order system has reached the peak of its development. The Dorian peripter developed into the main building type. Around 430 BC a new, Corinthian, order with an elegant capital appeared.

Sculpture of the 5th century BC. continues to focus on the image of an ideal person - a hero, a warrior-athlete, however, it acquires a greater plastic content. Based on the geometric study of the human body, the proportional ratio of its parts is established and universal rules for constructing an ideal figure are developed. The schematism and static nature of archaic sculpture are being overcome, the skill of conveying movement is being improved.

The picturesque image has ceased to be a flat contour silhouette, creeping along the surface. In the second quarter of the 5th c. BC. Polygnot discovered a new way to convey the depth of space by placing figures on different levels. In the middle of the 5th century BC. the Athenian Apollodorus invented the technique of chiaroscuro; he is credited with creating the first works of easel painting (on boards). In the second half of the 5th c. BC. the "free" style of vase painting was established (figures in front, in profile, in a three-quarter turn, combined into complex scenes). The highest achievement of classical painting was the painting of Attic white lekythos, in which the emotional state of the characters was unusually skillfully conveyed.

5th century BC. was marked by the flourishing of Greek literature, especially drama. In the work of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, classical tragedy takes shape. Gradually the number of actors increases and the importance of the choir decreases. Mythological plots are increasingly modernized. The principle of strict unity of action is affirmed: the tragedy ceases to be a series of scenes loosely connected to each other. There is a change in the interpretation of images. Classical comedy takes its form in the work of Cratinus and Aristophanes. The number of actors in it is at least three, and the composition of the choir has also been expanded. 5th century comedy BC. is focused exclusively on a satirical and parodic interpretation of modernity, but it is occupied not by human actions, but by abstract ideas.

In the field of lyric poetry, choral lyrics acquired a special role. The genre of epinicia (song in honor of the winner in the competition) is developing. Poetry serves to glorify religion, polis order and polis morality.

In the 5th century BC. Greek philosophy developed rapidly. Materialists proved the material nature of the universe, and considered it to be eternally mobile and changeable; in their opinion, all phenomena are the result of the connection or separation of elements, "seeds" - homeomers, atoms. The "senior" sophists - denied the objective reality of the world and the possibility of its knowledge, insisted on the relativity of all things; they made a significant contribution to the development of logic and rhetoric. Socrates' ethical teaching was based on a rationalistic understanding of morality: the path to virtue is the acquisition of true knowledge, the prerequisite for which is self-knowledge; The Socratic method of searching for truth - "dialectics" - in form consisted of irony (disclosure of internal contradictions in the asserted judgment) and maieutics (setting leading questions), and in content was divided into induction (study of opinions and choice of preferred ones) and definition (formulation of truth).

In the 5th century BC. there was a decisive turning point in the development of historiography. Herodotus laid the foundation for the actual Greek tradition of historical writing, referring to the central event of his era - the Greco-Persian wars. Unlike logographers, he managed to create a universal ethno-historical composition, highlighting the history, life and customs not only of the Greeks, but also of neighboring peoples. Greek historiography reached its highest point in the work of Thucydides, who wrote the history of the Peloponnesian War.

By the second half of the 5th c. BC. refers to the birth of scientific medicine. Hippocrates rejected religious and mystical ideas about the physical condition of a person and offered a rationalistic explanation for it. He believed that health depends on the correct combination of four fluids in the human body - blood, phlegm, yellow and black bile; imbalance leads to disease. The best method of treatment is natural (mobilization of the body's forces for recovery), so the doctor must know and take into account the individual characteristics of each patient.

The Olympic Games (Greek: Olýmpia) are the oldest and most popular pan-Greek festivals and competitions in Ancient Greece. Arranged in honor of the god Zeus, according to tradition, from 776 BC. e. in Olympia once every 4 years. At the time of the Olympic Games, a "sacred peace" was declared mandatory for all Greeks, at that time there were no hostilities in Greece and the roads to Olympia were safe. The Olympic Games were held for 5 days: the first and fifth days were devoted to solemn processions, sacrifices and ceremonies, the rest to sports competitions for men and boys (until 472 BC, the competitions took place on one day). The program of the Olympic Games in classical times included competitions in chariot riding, pentathlon (running, javelin and discus throwing, long jump, wrestling), fisticuffs, art competitions, etc. Only full-fledged citizens of the Greek policies could speak, and later the Romans as well. Women were not allowed to the site of the Olympic Games. The winners of the competitions (olympionics) were awarded with a wreath of olive branches and enjoyed honor and respect in Greece, sometimes even deified. In their cities, they usually received important economic and political privileges. During the games, poets, philosophers, orators spoke to the audience. The stewards and judges of the games were Hellenodiks elected from the citizens of the region of Elis. In the 5th century BC. The citizens of Olympia decided to build a temple to Zeus. The majestic building was erected between 466 and 456. BC. It was built of huge stone blocks and surrounded by massive columns. For several years after the completion of construction, the temple did not have a worthy statue of Zeus, although it was soon decided that it was necessary. The famous Athenian sculptor Phidias was chosen as the creator of the statue.

Zeus sat on a throne inlaid with ebony and precious stones. The finished statue reached 13 meters in height and almost touched the ceiling of the temple. It seemed that if Zeus stood up, he would blow the roof off. Platforms for spectators were built along the walls so that people, having climbed them, could see the face of God. After its completion in 435 BC. the statue for 800 years remained one of the greatest wonders of the world

See Appendix No. 4.

Subjugation of Greece by Macedonia by the middle of IV. BC. It was conditioned the general crisis of the Greek ancient world in the 4th century, the essence of which was the crisis of the polis as a type of state. The Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta, in which all the Greek cities took part in one way or another, weakened Greece and made the task of Acedonia easier.

The victory of Ancient Rome over Macedonia led to the fact that at the beginning of the II century. before n. e. Greece came under the rule of Rome.

SECTION 6. CULTURE OF ANCIENT ROME

Ancient Roman culture - originally the culture of the Roman community, the city-state (polis) - went through a difficult path of development, expanding the boundaries of distribution as Rome turned into a huge Mediterranean power, which included such traditionally Greek scientific and cultural centers as Athens, Alexandria, Pergamum, etc. ., changing its character under the influence of Etruscan, Greek, Hellenistic cultures.

6.1. Religion and mythology. Greco-Roman pantheon of gods.

The religion of the Romans of ancient times was based mainly on the idea of ​​the internal forces inherent in individual objects and people, and on faith in spirits - guardians and patrons of places, actions, states. These included geniuses, penates, the keeper of the hearth and unquenchable fire of the city of Vesta, the spirits of the dead - beneficent mana and evil lemurs, as well as deities of mountains, springs, forests and individual trees, deities who were in charge of all stages of growth and maturation of plants and people. These spirits and deities were originally non-anthropomorphic and impersonal, later, under the influence of the Etruscan and Greek religions, they were given a human appearance. Their gender was uncertain, so they were often referred to both in the masculine and in the feminine gender (Janus and Yana, Faun and Faun). Some deities were designated descriptively. Sacrifices and religious ceremonies were sent either by separate family-surnames in honor of their special deities, their lares, the guardians of their territorial boundaries - terms, the spirits of deceased relatives, or by part of the citizens, or by the whole people. Some festivities were both private and public.

This primitive religion was early influenced by the beliefs of neighboring Italic tribes, especially the Etruscans. From the latter were borrowed the god Saturn, the forest god Silvanus, and the so-called celestial patrician trinity (Jupiter, originally the god of the weather, then the supreme god of the Roman state, Juno and Minerva). She was opposed by the plebeian trinity: Ceres (goddess of cereals), Liber (god of vineyards) and Libera. After the equalization of the rights of patricians and plebeians, these gods became nationwide. Fortune telling was also borrowed from the Etruscans, carried out by priests augurs and haruspices. The custom of building temples was also introduced by the Etruscans. Before meeting him, the Romans worshiped their gods in groves, on mountains, in open places where altars were set up.

Common Italian deities also revered in Rome were Mars, Diana, Fortune, Venus, the goddess of the land Feronia, in whose temple slaves were freed, and others. Some gods were especially revered by persons of one class or one profession. As we got closer to the Greek world, the Greek gods also began to be included in the state pantheon (for example, the god of healing Aesculapius, Apollo and Hercules (Hercules), who soon gained wide popularity. The Roman gods were identified with the Greek ones, depicted according to Greek models, and legends of Greek mythology were timed to coincide with them

See Appendix No. 5.

Greek forms of cult also penetrated into Rome, solemn sacrifices, processions arranged during the festivities, spectacle-games. In the 4th and especially in the 3rd centuries. BC e. also under Greek influence, the cult of deified virtues spread: Consent, Courage, Freedom, Honor, Fortitude, Fidelity, in honor of which temples were erected, statues were erected. In the 3rd century BC e. secular games in honor of the underground gods, held once every hundred years, and annually celebrated Saturnalia were introduced. Cults not recognized by the state were forbidden. However, as life became more complicated and many old ties weakened, the need for a less formalized religion grew, and faith in the immortality of the soul grew stronger. All this contributed at the end of the 2nd-1st centuries. BC e. the penetration of the eastern cults of Isis, Osiris, Cybele, with whom Roman soldiers and merchants met in the Hellenistic countries. In connection with the disasters caused by the civil wars of the 1st c. BC e., various prophecies spread, belief in the return of the "golden age", astrology, magic. At the same time, under the influence of Greek philosophy, faith in the original Roman gods weakened, rationalistic explanations began to be given to religions, and old rites were forgotten. Having become the ruler of the empire, Augustus (end of the 1st century BC - 1st century AD) proclaimed a "return to the mores of the ancestors" and tried to restore the old Roman religion and cult. However, the cult of the genius of the reigning emperor and the deceased deified emperors, which arose with the beginning of the principate, obligatory for all citizens, began to exert an ever greater influence on it. It was combined with the cult of the gods, especially revered by the emperors, called Augusts, imperial victories and virtues - Courage, Justice, Indulgence, Generosity - and the "golden age" allegedly reigning in their reign. The slaves and the poor who suffered from heavy oppression opposed the official deities of their gods, who were not included in the state pantheon - Sylvanus, Priapus, Pan, close to the working person and at the same time omnipotent creators of the cosmos. The number of adherents of the eastern gods grew, the cult of which was associated with the hope of the immortality of the soul and the coming of a certain savior, who promised the believers and initiates in the mysteries an afterlife bliss. Roman religion gradually declined. Christianity spread more and more among the broad masses. At the end of the 4th c. n. e. Emperor Theodosius I banned the practice of pagan rites, and the Roman religion ceased to exist.

6.2. Roman philosophy.

Roman philosophy developed under the decisive influence of Greek philosophy of the Hellenistic era, adopting its conceptual apparatus, terminology and the most important directions; it summed up the specific social experience of Rome. The initial stage of Roman philosophy is associated with the crisis of polis ideology, the liberation of thought from the subordination of religion and mythology; this period can be called enlightenment, or the period of secularization (3-1 centuries BC). Almost the official doctrine of the Roman state was stoicism with its demands to free the individual from all dependence, with its materialism, providentialism and fatalism.

The deification of state power and the cult of the emperor, associated with the end of the republic and the formation of the empire, were the beginning of the sacralization of philosophy, i.e., the subordination of its religion. In the 1st century BC e. Posidonius, a representative of the Greek Middle Stoa, reformed Stoicism in a Platonic direction, as a result of which a whole current of Stoic Platonism appeared.

2nd-3rd centuries - a period of developed sacralization of philosophy. Platonism began a decisive struggle with Stoicism, using Aristotle, as well as Pythagoreanism, along with which not only mystical numerical operations were introduced into philosophy, but also intensive religious practice.

3-4 centuries - the culmination of sacralized philosophy, the dominance of Neoplatonism, in which the synthesis of universalism and subjectivism triumphed on an absolute idealistic basis. Sacred Roman philosophy proved so strong that it survived the fall of the Roman Empire and Greco-Roman paganism. It formed the basis of the theocratic ideology of the Middle Ages.

6.3. The development of the natural sciences of ancient Rome.

Monuments of Latin scientific literature of the era of the Roman Republic are extremely few. In the 1st century BC e. Greek cultural influence sharply increased. In 88 BC e. The dictator Sulla took to Rome the library of the Athenian book collector Apellicon, in which a collection of the writings of Aristotle was discovered. This stimulated a revival of interest in the philosophical and natural science views of Aristotle and his school; the grammarian Tyrannion, who lived in Rome, and the head of the peripatetic school, Andronicus of Rhodes, gave the writings of Aristotle the form in which they were subsequently intensively studied and commented on.

At the end of the 1st c. astronomy and mathematics were on the rise again. Systematic observations of celestial bodies are carried out, books on spherical geometry and trigonometry appear. In the famous "Almagest" of Ptolemy, the complete geocentric system of the world was outlined. Astrology, which came from the East, was very popular, and the largest astronomers were also engaged in it. Diophantus wrote (presumably in the 3rd century) Arithmetic. In the 3-4 centuries. Pappus of Alexandria stood out, who compiled the Mathematical Collection, which contained information about the mathematics of previous eras. The works of Heron of Alexandria set out the achievements of the ancient world in applied mechanics. He also wrote works on geometric optics, which was developed in the works of Ptolemy.

Mathematics and mechanics among the Romans themselves were of a narrowly applied nature and were reduced to the rules of roughly approximate calculations needed for practical purposes. Roman numbering (originated in the 5th century BC) did not contribute to the development of arithmetic and forced the use of counting boards and pebbles. Astronomical literature in Latin is extremely scarce and of little originality; Astrological literature became widespread in Rome. In 46 BC e. Caesar reformed the calendar.

In the field of natural sciences, the Romans developed mainly applied disciplines. The most peculiar monuments of Roman scientific and technical literature are works on agriculture. A large number of works by Roman authors are devoted to architecture, construction, hydraulic engineering, and military technology. The description of Roman aqueducts is contained in the works of a surveyor and hydraulic engineer of the 1st century. n. e.

The needs of military affairs, as well as the founding of new colonies and the distribution of land allotments, led to the appearance of the works of Roman agrimensors (surveyors); The heyday of this literature falls on the 1st-2nd centuries. The rich military-technical experience of the Romans is reflected in the writings of the writer Vegetius, which outlined many technical issues related to setting up camps, building fortresses, etc.

Botany, which was the basis of pharmacology, has made significant progress. The greatest fame in antiquity and in the Middle Ages was the botanical and pharmacological work of Dioscorides from Cilicia, in which 600 medicinal plants are described. Medicine has made progress. In Censorin's book On the Birthday, embryological material is intertwined with astrological data; The pharmacological work of Scribonius Larga "Compositiones" contains the first ever mention of the preparation of opium.

The characteristic features of Roman science are the presentation of scientific issues in a literary and entertaining form, as well as the love of encyclopedias. Varro creates an essay in 9 books "Disciplinae", covering grammar, logic, rhetoric, geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, music theory, medicine and architecture.

Territorial growth of the Roman state in the 3rd-1st centuries. BC e. contributed to the expansion of geographical knowledge. The most significant geographical work is Strabo's "Geography" (in Greek), containing an exhaustive summary of information about all the then known countries and peoples. "Geography" Ptolemy was devoted mainly to the methods of scientific mapping; 27 maps were attached to the book, in the aggregate depicting all the then known parts of the globe - from the Canary Islands to China. During the time of Emperor Augustus, a large geographical map of the world was made, which was put up for public viewing in the portico of Octavia in Rome.

Rome did not know scientific institutions like the Alexandrian museion. The foundation of the first public library is attributed to the writer and statesman Gaius Asinius Pollio. In the last centuries of the empire there were 28 of them in Rome.

6.4. Legal Science of Ancient Rome.

The law of Rome reflected and consolidated the socio-economic and political orders that had developed in the Roman slave-owning society. In the most ancient period, law, the source of which was customs and a few laws, was characterized by the influence of religion and communal relations, the primitiveness of the main institutions, and strict formalism. It applied exclusively to quirites, i.e., the original citizens of Rome, and therefore was called quirite, or civil. The most important monument of Roman law of this era was the Laws of the XII Tables.

The heyday of law in Rome falls on the 3rd century. BC e. - 3 in. n. e. Civil law permeated with traditions could not adapt to the new conditions generated by the rapid development of slavery and commodity-money relations. Therefore, along with it, in the process of law-making activities of magistrates, a special system of legal norms was formed - praetor law. On the basis of edicts, a law was formed that was not bound by narrow national boundaries, incorporating the customs of international circulation and the peoples conquered by the Romans - the so-called public law. The gradual convergence of civil and public law led to the fact that Roman law, while maintaining its conservatism, was freed from excessive formalism, enriched with new institutions, and responded more flexibly to the needs of property turnover. As a result of this process, Roman law developed - "... the most perfect form of law that we know, based on private property"

An exceptional place in the process of law-making in Rome was occupied by lawyers. The highest rise of Roman jurisprudence falls on the 1st-3rd centuries. n. e.

During this period, two main legal schools developed - proculians (supporters of the republican system) and Sabinians (supporters of the principate), which expressed the interests of various strata of Roman society. The complete discrepancy between the initial positions of the representatives of these schools led to serious differences in their solution of state and civil issues. Beginning in August, emperors grant eminent jurists the right to give binding advice. The writings of such lawyers, along with the edicts of praetors, laws, senatus advisers, imperial constitutions, acquired character. By law 426, the works of 5 prominent lawyers, as well as the opinions of lawyers cited by them, were given binding legal force. All-round protection of the interests of the private owner is ensured. At the same time, being in the service of the emperors, lawyers supported their claims to unlimited power, creating, according to F. Engels, "... the most vile state law that ever existed"

In the 4th-5th centuries. Law-making activity of lawyers practically stops.

Legislative functions are entirely concentrated in the hands of the emperors, whose acts become the main source of law. However, at that time, work was underway to streamline and systematize the law of Rome. At the end of the 3rd - beginning of the 4th centuries. private collections of legislation appeared, and in 436, under Theodosius II, an official code of imperial constitutions was drawn up. A comprehensive systematization of the law of Rome took place after the fall of the Western Roman Empire under the Byzantine emperor Justinian.

6.5. Historical Science of Ancient Rome.

The Roman historical tradition was based on the annals. According to Roman tradition, almost from the middle of the 5th c. BC e. in Rome there were so-called tables of pontiffs; the high priest kept records of the most important events over the years, which were entered on the "white boards" and exhibited for general information at the pontiff's house. At first, this custom was associated with the duty of the priests to regulate the calendar (which was not firmly fixed); records were kept very primitively, but gradually the number of headings in them increased and, in addition to information about wars and natural disasters, there appeared reports on domestic political events, on the activities of the Senate, on the results of elections, etc. These tables became, as it were, the chronological framework of the most ancient Roman chronicle. Around 130 BC e. by order of the supreme pontiff P. Mucius Scaevola, a summary of all weather records was published, starting from the founding of Rome (in 80 books) under the title "Great Annals".

Literary processing of official annals and family chronicles of noble families began in the 3rd century. BC e. and is associated with the spread of Hellenistic cultural influences in Rome. Early Roman historians are usually called annalists, and they are divided into senior, middle and junior. Quintus Fabius Pictor, the author of the Annals written in Greek, which tells the history of Rome from legendary times to the end of the 2nd Punic War, is considered the founder of Roman annalistics. The middle annalists used basically the same sources as the older ones. Younger annalistics as a special genre and direction arose in the era of the Gracchi (2nd century BC). If the older and middle annalists were engaged in a rather primitive, but conscientious processing of the annals and chronicles, presenting the history of Rome from a patriotic position, then for the younger annalists, history turned into a section of rhetoric and an instrument of political struggle. In the interests of this or that political grouping, they did not stop at conscious embellishment, and sometimes even a direct distortion of events, having developed a number of techniques (repetition of events, borrowing from Greek history, etc.).

The genre of historical memoir literature primarily includes "Notes on the Gallic War" and "Notes on the Civil War" by Julius Caesar, in which a somewhat embellished, but fairly reliable presentation of the course of these wars is given. The works of Sallust "On the Conspiracy of Catiline" and "On the Yugurtian War" belong to the genre of historical monographs. Of the numerous biographies compiled by the historian Cornelius Nepos, only two biographies of Roman figures have survived - Atticus and Cato the Elder, and 23 biographies of the commanders of "foreign peoples".

In the era of the empire, the artistic and didactic direction was further developed. In the era of empire at the beginning of the 2nd century. n. e. the historical and biographical genre developed

The history of Rome was devoted to the works of Greek historians of the 2nd half of the 2nd century BC. Appian and Dio Cassius.

In the era of the late empire, Christian historiography arose and developed.

6.6. Literature of Ancient Rome.

The oldest monuments of Roman literature (5-4 centuries BC) have not been preserved. According to later testimonies, the lyrics in them were represented by ritual songs (prayer, wedding, funeral): epic - "feast songs" about the exploits of Roman heroes; drama - musical performances that developed from choral songs (fessennin), and farcical scenes (atellani); prose - oratorical speeches, texts of laws and chronicles (annals). The first step from oral literature to written literature was made at the turn of the 4th-3rd centuries. BC e. Consul Appius Claudius, who wrote down his speeches and compiled under his own name a collection of moral maxims in verse.

In 3-2 centuries. BC e. Rome subjugated most of the Greek-speaking Mediterranean and was heavily influenced by the more developed Greek culture. During this period, Roman literature gradually mastered all the main genres of Greek literature; national epic; Roman comedy and tragedy; the specific Roman genre of satura (poetic scenes on free themes); by the end of the 2nd c. BC e. the first works of Roman poetry appeared. Translated into Latin "Odyssey".

In the 1st half of the 1st c. BC e. Greek culture was finally mastered by Rome and became the basis for the highest flowering of Roman literature. The new culture went beyond the aristocratic circles and spread to the middle strata of the population through the medium of rhetorical schools and popular philosophical treatises and dialogues. In an atmosphere of social contradictions, genres designed for a wide and homogeneous audience (epos, drama) lost their significance; eloquence and poetry developed. The central figure in the art of eloquence is Cicero.

During the period of the formation of the empire (2nd half of the 1st century BC), Augustus paid special attention to the organization of public opinion, attracted the best writers of his time.

Poetry dominated the literature of the era: the ideal of a person who combines philosophy and verbal art was embodied in the orator for Cicero, and in the poet for Horace ("The Science of Poetry"). Prose fades into the background: eloquence in the conditions of the monarchy lost its importance, the historical genre in the writings of Titus Livius approached epic poetry.

During the heyday and crisis of the empire (1-3 centuries AD), Roman culture developed in parallel with the Greek, but already completely independently. The spread of culture captured not only Rome and Italy, but also the provinces. However, the social significance of literature in the new conditions fell, its ideological content was either fed by oppositional sentiments, or reduced to semi-official panegyricism. Literature gradually degenerated into a self-contained play of style; according to the nature of these stylistic experiments in this period, three stages can be distinguished. The first stage (1st half - the middle of the 1st century AD) - the dominance of the "new style", developed in rhetorical schools, sententious, spectacular and catchy. The second stage (the end of the 1st - the beginning of the 2nd centuries AD) is a reaction to the "new style", the domination of neoclassicism, the revival of the "golden age" style. The third stage (2nd - early 3rd centuries) - the dominance of archaism: the rapid revival of Greek literature in the Roman Empire pushes Latin literature into the background.

In the period 4-5 centuries. Christian literature comes to the fore. She was now assimilating the literary technique of Roman rhetoric and poetry. Works of great artistic value are the sermons and hymns of Ambrose, the letters of Jerome, and especially the "Confession" of Augustine, which opens up for literature a psychological depth that is not available to antiquity. The authors who continued the pagan literary traditions receded into the background.

Literature gradually became isolated within individual provinces, and then within individual barbarian kingdoms. By the end of the 6th c. the traditions of ancient literary forms and ancient cultural heritage are rapidly weakening and disappearing. There comes a period of so-called "dark ages" - the first stage of Latin literature of the Middle Ages.

6.7 Theater.

The emergence of theatrical art in Rome is associated with harvest festivities, the participants of which performed comic, rude songs in the form of a dialogue - festennina. A further development of these rudiments of dramatic action was satura - everyday comic scenes that included dialogue, singing, music and dancing. Probably around 300 BC. e. a folk improvisational comedy appeared - atellana, a distinctive feature of which was the presence of 4 permanent characters-masks. Atellani were played first by young Roman citizens and only later by professional actors. From the end of the 3rd c. BC e. Another type of folk performances, mime, became widespread. A new period in the history of the Roman theater is associated with the staging of the first drama (240 BC) by the Greek freedman Livius Andronicus, based on the Greek original. In Rome, tragedies and comedies began to be staged, composed according to Greek models. Palliata, a comedy, which was a reworking of the new Attic comedy, enjoyed great success with the audience. In the 2nd - early 1st centuries. BC e. the palliata was replaced by the togata, which depicted the life of Roman citizens, mainly from the lower strata of the population. At the beginning of the 1st c. BC e. togata gave way to the literary processed atellana, which, in turn, in the middle of the 1st century. BC e. was pushed aside by the literary mime.

Theatrical performances in Rome were held during the annual public holidays: at the Roman (September), Plebeian (November) and Apollo (July) games, Megalesia (April), Floralia (April - May). Performances were also given in connection with triumphal and funeral games, during the selection of high officials, etc. Initially, the performances took place near the temple of the deity, in whose honor the games were held. There were no permanent theater buildings. The first stone theater was built by Pompey in 55-52 BC. e. At the end of the 1st c. BC e. 2 more stone theaters were built - Marcellus and Balba.

Roman actors came from freedmen or slaves and occupied a low social position. They united in troupes headed by the owner, who, by agreement with the magistrate, organized performances, distributed monetary rewards, and often played the main roles himself. In 3-2 centuries. BC e. the actors played, as a rule, without a mask, which came into use around the 1st century. BC e.; this later penetration of the mask on the Roman stage favored the development of acting. Women's roles were played by men. By the last century of the republic, the tragic actor Aesop and the comic actor Roscius were especially prominent.

In the era of the empire, performances were arranged more often, but they began to be mainly entertaining, spectacular; detachments of cavalry and infantry appeared on the stage, processions of prisoners, performances of rare wild animals, etc., were included in the action. In 1-2 centuries. n. e. in the performance of the tragedy, the vocal skill of the actor came to the fore. The literary processed atellana, which sometimes contained sharp allusions to political events, was popular. Particularly successful were pantomime - a solo dramatic dance (usually on a mythological plot), accompanied by music and singing of the choir, and pyrrikh, performed by an ensemble of dancers and dancers; At the same time, the main attention was paid to luxurious decorations and various stage effects. The mime continued to be a huge success, displacing by the time of the late empire all other types of performances except dance. From a small everyday scene, it turned into a big play (it was built mainly on improvisation), a brilliant enchanting spectacle with an entertaining and often intricate plot, with a significant number of characters. Even more popular were circus performances and gladiator fights held in the Colosseum and other amphitheatres. In circuses and amphitheatres, scenes of a hunter's combat with an animal or a mass hunt were also shown. Staged naval battles were staged, the so-called naumachia. The decline of artistic drama, the addiction to bloody spectacles, and the difficult legal conditions of life for actors testified to the degradation of the theatrical culture of the era of the empire.

The Roman theater and, above all, dramaturgy played an important role in the development of world theater. Outstanding playwrights, starting from the Renaissance, constantly turned to Roman drama, perceiving through it the humanistic traditions of ancient culture. The theater of Rome also had a great influence on theatrical architecture.

6.8 Music of Ancient Rome.

In the music of Rome, which developed under the influence of Hellenistic culture, musical and poetic genres associated with everyday life developed: triumphal (victorious), wedding, drinking, funeral songs, often accompanied by playing the tibia. An essential layer of ancient Roman musical culture was represented by the tunes of the Salii and Arval brothers. At the festivities of the Salii, a kind of military dance-game was performed. The festivities of the Arval brothers were dedicated to the harvest; prayers, the famous anthem of the brothers have been preserved.

The musical life of Rome, especially the period of the empire, was distinguished by its diversity; performers from many countries flocked to the capital. Poetry and music were closely related. Poetic works, including Horace's odes, Virgil's eclogues, and Ovid's poems, were sung to the accompaniment of plucked string instruments. Musical numbers of a recitative nature were introduced into the Roman drama, performed to the accompaniment of the tibia. For the performance of classical music, along with the kithara and aulos, harp-type instruments were used: psalterium, trigonon (triangular harp), sambika, and less often - varieties of plucked lyre (barbitos, pectis, magadis). At the festivities in honor of the god Bacchus - bacchanalia - cymbals and other shock-noise instruments sounded. The Roman aristocracy acquired water bodies - hydraulics - for their palaces and villas. A significant role in the development of ancient Roman instrumental music belongs to the theatrical genre of pantomime - a kind of "pantomimic suite", performed by a dancer-soloist to the singing of the choir (Greek texts) and the accompaniment of the orchestra. Under the military legions, there were huge brass bands, including buccins (curved horns), tubas (straight pipes) and other metal instruments.

In the circuses and theaters of the Roman Empire, huge choral ensembles performed, often with lush instrumental accompaniment. By the end of the 1st c. n. e. Emperor Domitian founded the "Capitol competitions", in which, along with poets, singers and musicians participated. Virtuosos' public concerts were a great success. Emperor Nero introduced the so-called "Greek competition", where he himself performed as a poet, singer and kifared. In noble families, children were taught to sing and play the cithara. The profession of music and dance teacher was especially honorable and popular.

6.9 Architecture, fine and decorative arts.

The art of Rome represents the last, final stage in the development of ancient artistic culture. For a Roman, art was one of the means of rational organization of life; therefore, in Rome, the leading place was occupied by architecture, engineering research, a sculptural portrait distinguished by an interest in a particular person, a historical relief that tells in detail about the deeds of citizens and rulers. The real element prevails in ancient Roman art over fiction, and the narrative principle over philosophical generalization. In addition, in Rome, a clear division of art into the official and meeting the needs of the private consumer took place. Official art played an important role in Roman politics, being an active form of state ideology in the conquered areas. Especially great was the importance of architecture, which combined ideological functions with the organization of social life; Roman construction practice developed a system of constructive, planning, and compositional techniques.

In the most ancient period, the art of Rome developed within the framework of the Middle Italic archaeological cultures of the Iron Age. At the time of the formation of the ancient Roman artistic culture proper (8th-4th centuries BC), Roman architecture experienced the fundamental influence of the Etruscan, from which it borrowed high building technology and the original types of a number of structures. The Etruscan features of the most ancient temples: a three-part cella, a podium, an accentuation of the main facade by a portico and a staircase, later became characteristic features of Roman religious architecture. Closely connected with the art of the Etruscans are the earliest examples of ancient Roman painting, as well as arts and crafts.

During the period of the Punic Wars and the late Republic, the features of practicality and rationality prevailed in art, but the specifically Roman rigor of style was sometimes combined with sophistication, inspired by the art of Great Greece and the Eastern Greek cities captured by the Romans. The architecture of this time is characterized by wide urban planning measures, rectangular planning schemes repeating the layout of a military camp, which are based on 2 main highways - "cardo" (from north to south) and "decumanus" (from east to west). As the composition of the forum was formed, the most important principles of the planning solution of the ancient Roman complexes were formed: gravitation towards symmetry, axial construction, accentuation of the facade of the main building and the arrangement of the rise to it from the solemn entrance to the site. In residential architecture, the type of atrium house developed, the center of the composition of which was in the 2nd century BC. BC e. became a peristyle garden, testifying to a craving for nature, which increased unusually with the urbanization of ancient society. Trends towards the synthesis of planning solutions with nature have found expression in country villas, often picturesquely located on hillsides. The splendor of aristocratic dwellings is opposed by the ordinary building of city blocks with insulami. From the 2nd century BC e. The use of concrete not only simplified and reduced the cost of laying massive load-bearing structures, but also ensured the flexibility and variety of their shape, created opportunities for the construction of buildings that included large indoor spaces. During the 2nd - 1st half of the 1st century. BC e. the most important types of Roman structures were formed and improved: basilicas, baths, various spectacular buildings, majestic engineering buildings (arched bridges, water pipes, warehouses).

In the visual arts of the 3rd-1st centuries. BC e. portrait statues and busts, genetically related to Etruscan plastic art and distinguished by their emphasized constructiveness and severity of figurative structure, were widely distributed; along with the official portrait sculpture that adorned the cities, portraits were created by private order, installed in houses or on tombs. During the period of the republic, historical reliefs also appeared, where the everyday plausibility of the situation, bordering on the ordinary, was combined with mythological elements. In late republican sculpture, a Hellenizing trend developed, copying Greek statues gained wide scope. An important area of ​​artistic culture of this era was monumental and decorative painting; if the so-called first, or "inlay" style (2nd half of the 2nd - early 1st centuries BC) is characterized by imitation of wall masonry, then in the second, or "architectural-perspective" style (80-30 -s BC) the center of the wall turned into a perspectively written aedicule, framing a landscape, genre or mythological scene. The art of mosaics and glyptics (gems ​​made from hard rocks of semi-precious stones) also developed.

The highest achievements of ancient Roman architecture date back to the heyday of the empire (20s of the 1st century BC - 2nd century AD). The distinctive features of the buildings of this time are the monumental plasticity of mighty masses, the dominant role of the arch and its derivative forms (vault, dome), huge, dynamically subordinated spaces of interiors or open spaces, the rapidly improving facing of concrete walls with stone and brick with more and more abundant inclusions of marble, widespread use of painting and sculpture. A specific feature of the mature ancient Roman architecture is the so-called order arcade (a system of tiered orders superimposed on a wall cut by arches), which gave the structures a majestic scale. Architecture is increasingly becoming a means of glorifying the personality of the emperor and promoting the power of the empire. The dominant type of architectural memorial monument is the triumphal arch, and tombstones, modest in scale in the Republican era, turn into large, sometimes grandiose structures. By the middle of the 1st c. the attraction to the magnificent representativeness of architectural compositions intensified. Under Flavius, the largest of the ancient Roman amphitheaters is also being built - Colosseum, under Trajan - the most developed and complex of the forums of the city of Rome, under Hadrian - the grandest domed structure of the ancient world - Pantheon. Starting from the era of Hadrian, there has been a turning point in architecture towards the exquisite complexity of the image, partly due to the influence of the art of the Hellenistic East.

In the official sculpture of the early empire, idealizing tendencies grew and the individual characteristics of those portrayed, which the masters of the republican era liked to emphasize, were somewhat smoothed out. At the same time, chiaroscuro contrasts, elements of movement, refined plastic development are introduced into the works. If the time of Trajan was marked by a return to the heroically severe style of the republic, then during the reign of Hadrian and the Antonines, the search for emotional expressiveness and psychological depth of the image intensified. The historical reliefs of Imperial Rome were originally marked by measured compositional rhythms and restraint of plastic language; the features of picturesqueness, intense dynamics, which were intensified in the reliefs of the Flavian period, are especially characteristic of the Trajan period, when the type of battle relief was taking shape. The impact of Greek-Hellenistic traditions reached its zenith in the period of Hadrian, when the schools of copyists of ancient Greek sculpture developed a particularly intensive activity. In decorative painting until 63, the so-called third style prevailed (light, graphic patterns and small plot paintings, located against the backdrop of vast free spaces). It was replaced by the fourth style, or the style of "fantastic architecture" (complex, illusory-spatial architectural compositions). The diversity of constructions, the complexity of architectural and landscape backgrounds are also characteristic of mosaics, the palette of which was enriched with smalts of various shades; from the 2nd century black-and-white stone mosaics also spread. In the decorative and applied art of the empire era, works of toreutics, "red-lacquer" ceramics with relief decor, glassware, gems, where alternating layers of semi-precious stones were picturesquely compared, were especially prominent.

During the period of the decline of the empire (3rd-4th centuries), features of an internal breakdown appeared in ancient Roman art. The architecture of this period is characterized by an unusually large scale of buildings, love for lush effects, luxury finishes and restless plasticity of the walls. Construction activity unfolded mainly in the provinces, where new forums and gigantic temple complexes were built.

In the late Roman sculptural portrait, interest in the reliable transfer of the bodily appearance of a person is lost: external features are interpreted more and more summarily, and at the end of the 3rd-4th centuries. the frozen face contrasts sharply with the emphatically pathetic gaze of wide-open eyes. Elements of convention and stylization in sculpture sometimes testify to the increased influence of the art of the eastern provinces. Among the art products of the 3rd-4th centuries. stand out portrait miniatures on gold foil, placed between two layers of glass, marble sarcophagi with plot reliefs, in which from the 3rd century. Christian themes spread. The katakomo murals are also associated with the Christian cult, the style of which during the 2nd-4th centuries. evolved towards more and more flatness and graphics. The artistic forms that emerged in late Roman art, full of intense spiritual expression, anticipated the artistic culture of the European Middle Ages.

See Appendix No. 6

CONCLUSION

History is the movement of society in time. History appears as the past of human society, the retrospective development of which reveals to man the historical character of modernity. Modernity continuously grows out of the past and, fulfilling its historical mission, goes into the past itself. The dynamic unity of the past and the present reveals history as the accomplishment or realization of some goal ("the progress of civilization", etc.). History forms the meaning that fills time; from abstract calendar time, which serves as a means of dating or measuring the duration of processes, historical time differs in meaningful certainty. It can be either more or less saturated with historical events, it can flow either more slowly or faster - depending on the pace of historical transformations, it can be the time of heroes, the time of unfulfilled hopes, or even historical timelessness. A comparative analysis of different cultures reveals a variety of ideas about the history of ancient civilizations. In particular, if in societies charged with development, historical time is understood as flowing from the past through the present into the future, then in the historical consciousness of traditional societies, the past is ahead of the present - as a model that should be as close as possible. Moreover, it turns out that the very idea of ​​historical development is characteristic only of civilized societies that first appeared in the 4th millennium BC.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Mathieu M. E. Ancient Egyptian myths - M. - L., 1956
2. Turaev B.A. God Thoth - Leipzig, 1898.
3. Mythology. Encyclopedia - M.: Belfax, 2002
4. S. Kramer "Mythology of Sumer and Akkad" - M.: Enlightenment, 1977
5. Internet Encyclopedia "Circumnavigation" - M. 2000
6. Korolev K. Ancient mythology. Encyclopedia - St. Petersburg, 2004
7. Great Soviet Encyclopedia. Third edition - M. Ed. "Soviet Encyclopedia" 1969 - 1978 in 30 volumes.
8. Brief Dictionary of Foreign Words - M. ed. "Russian language", 1987
9. Legends and myths of Ancient Egypt, - M.: Summer Garden, 2001
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APPENDIX No. 1

Image of gods and goddesses in ancient Egypt

God Thoth

APPENDIX No. 2

Images of the Sumerian gods

The gods Anu (left) and Enlil. God Enki with bird Anzud

Babylonian stone ca. XXIII BC

1120 BC

Gods Utu and Inanna

Bas-relief ca. XXIII BC

APPENDIX No. 3

Legendary Wonders of Babylonia

Hanging Gardens of Babylon

tower of babel

APPENDIX No. 4

One of the 7 Wonders of the World - Statue of Zeus at Olympia

APPENDIX No. 5

Image of Greek and Roman gods

Dionysus "Athena and Perseus, Zeus the Thunderer"

Vase killing the Gorgon "(Ancient Greece)

Approx. 400g. BC. (Ancient Greece)

Goddess of the earth "Faun". Bronze "Birth of Aphrodite"

Tellus" (Ancient Rome) (Ancient Greece)

(Ancient Rome)

APPENDIX No. 6

Architecture of Ancient Rome

Arch of Constantine. Ruins of the Colosseum

315 AD Forum

Pantheon Capitol Square

Publication: The Epic of Gilgamesh (“About the One Who Has Seen Everything”), trans. from Akkadian, M. - L., 1961; Sumerian heroic epic, Bulletin of Ancient History, 1964, No. 3.