We all know that unique works of art have been created in Holland for centuries. But what is happening on the contemporary art scene today? Which of the young artists will be able to take a place in history? In Amsterdam, as in many other major Dutch cities, there are many interesting galleries that host great exhibitions of talented creative artists from all over the country. Since there are a huge number of contemporary Dutch artists, known both at home and abroad, their works can be found both in large museums of the Stedelijk level, and in small galleries KochxBos Gallery or Nederlands Fotomuseum.

Below are five emerging Dutch artists who have caught the world's attention and are sure to contribute to the art history of the Netherlands.

Daan Roosegaard

“The purpose of my work is to make people think about the future,” Roosegaard says. This artist and innovator is the winner of several awards. He rose to prominence in the contemporary art world with his 2006 installation Dune. Interactive illuminated signage installed along the Meuse River in Rotterdam has opened doors for an artist obsessed with technology, design and architecture. In his work, Roosegaard creates a futuristic world in which people and technology interact harmoniously with each other. From February to May 5, the Lotus Dome will be exhibited in the Beuning Hall at the Rijksmuseum. This two-meter dome reacts to the approach of people: hundreds of aluminum flowers bloom, feeling the warmth of visitors.

Levy van Veluwe

The traditional ways of creating works of art by van Veluwu, an artist from Heuvelaken, are clearly not enough. His portfolio includes photographs, sculptures, drawings and installations, and using himself as a material is a hallmark of his work. It is no coincidence that his first exhibition at the Ron Mandos Gallery in Amsterdam featured a series of six photographs depicting beautifully detailed ballpoint pen drawings. Instead of a canvas, the artist painted on his own face. The connection between the body and the surface was discovered by post-war artists who developed the art of performance to a level never seen before. But using everyday objects like a pen to create a piece of art was essential to van Veluwe's success. By developing the idea in his personal style, Levy van Veluwe was able to showcase his work in the world's best museums and bring Dutch contemporary art to the international stage.

Tony Van Til

Tony Van Til graduated with a degree in Fine Arts from St. Just, an educational institution located in the small southern town of Breda, in 2007. After graduation, the young artist is engaged in interesting projects. One of them is "Sculptures on Twitter". Since 2012, he has maintained a Twitter account, where he describes ideas for sculptures in 140 characters. For example, one of the ideas is “a portrait of a Botox beauty enlarged to the size of a 4-story wall”, others are more abstract: creating “shadows with growing pain”. Other works of the artist include a series of drawings containing more ideas for sculptures. Is tweeting creative? For Van Til, the answer is yes.

Anouk Kruithof

This Dordrecht-based artist uses photographs as source material for sculptures, installations, books and brochures to give away. She occasionally creates anonymous items (such as postcards and posters) that visitors can take home. The Stedelijk Museum is currently hosting an exhibition of her and fellow Dutch artist Pauline Olseten. The installation on the first floor presents their interpretation of street photography. A characteristic feature of the works is an underlined admiration for people and strangers. Another aspect of life that draws her attention is color. According to the artist, she “creates order in chaos” using the color gradation method.

Harma Hykens

It's hard not to mention Harma Heykens when talking about contemporary Dutch art. Her first exhibitions date back to the early 1990s. The life-size sculptures combine manga style with contemporary street art. The work of Harma Heykens is not easy to perceive, especially at first. Many even called them "quirky kitsch." This is due to the fact that the artist has chosen a very painful topic: the exploitation of children in a consumer society where values ​​are distorted. Her sculptures depict the disturbed world of poor and exploited children, acting as a wake-up call to the viewer to address deep-seated social problems.

Meanwhile, this is a special area of ​​European culture worthy of more detailed study, which reflects the original life of the people of Holland of those times.

History of appearance

Bright representatives of art began to appear in the country in the seventeenth century. French culturologists gave them a common name - "small Dutch", which is not associated with the scale of talents and denotes attachment to certain topics from everyday life, opposite to the "big" style with large canvases on historical or mythological subjects. The history of the emergence of Dutch painting was described in detail in the nineteenth century, and the authors of works about it also used this term. The "Little Dutchmen" were distinguished by secular realism, they turned to the world around them and people, they used painting rich in tones.

Milestones of development

The history of the emergence of Dutch painting can be divided into several periods. The first lasted approximately from 1620 to 1630, when realism took hold in national art. The second period of Dutch painting was experienced in 1640-1660. This is the time when the real heyday of the local art school falls. Finally, the third period, the time when Dutch painting began to decline - from 1670 to the early eighteenth century.

It is worth noting that cultural centers have changed throughout this time. In the first period, the leading artists worked in Haarlem, and Halsa was the main representative. Then the center shifted to Amsterdam, where the most significant works were performed by Rembrandt and Vermeer.

scenes of everyday life

When listing the most important genres of Dutch painting, one should definitely start with the everyday life - the most striking and original in history. It was the Flemings who opened to the world scenes from the everyday life of ordinary people, peasants and townspeople or burghers. The pioneers were Ostade and his followers Oudenrogge, Bega and Dusart. In Ostade's early paintings, people play cards, quarrel and even fight in a tavern. Each picture is distinguished by a dynamic, somewhat brutal character. Dutch painting of those times also tells about peaceful scenes: in some works, peasants talk over a pipe and a mug of beer, spend time at a fair or with their families. The influence of Rembrandt led to the widespread use of soft golden chiaroscuro. Urban scenes have inspired artists such as Hals, Leyster, Molenaer and Codde. In the middle of the seventeenth century, the masters portrayed doctors, scientists in the process of work, their own workshops, household chores, or Every plot was supposed to be entertaining, sometimes grotesquely didactic. Some masters were inclined to poeticize everyday life, for example, Terborch depicted scenes of playing music or flirting. Metsu used bright colors, turning everyday life into a holiday, and de Hooch was inspired by the simplicity of family life, flooded with diffused daylight. Late exponents of the genre, such as the Dutch masters Van der Werf and Van der Neer, often created somewhat pretentious subjects in their pursuit of elegant depiction.

Nature and landscapes

In addition, Dutch painting is widely represented in the landscape genre. It first originated in the work of such masters of Haarlem as van Goyen, de Moleyn and van Ruisdael. It was they who began to depict rural corners in a certain silvery light. The material unity of nature came to the fore in the works. Separately, it is worth mentioning the seascapes. Marine painters in the 17th century included Porcellis, de Vlieger and van de Capelle. They did not so much seek to convey certain sea scenes as they tried to depict the water itself, the play of light on it and in the sky.

By the second half of the seventeenth century, more emotional works with philosophical ideas emerged in the genre. Jan van Ruisdael maximized the beauty of the Dutch landscape, depicting it in all its drama, dynamics and monumentality. Hobbem, who preferred sunny landscapes, became the successor of his traditions. Koninck depicted panoramas, while van der Neer was engaged in the creation of night landscapes and the transmission of moonlight, sunrise and sunset. A number of artists are also characterized by the depiction of animals in landscapes, for example, grazing cows and horses, as well as hunting and scenes with cavalrymen. Later, artists began to get involved in foreign nature - Bot, van Laer, Venix, Berchem and Hackert depicted Italy bathed in the rays of the southern sun. The pioneer of the genre was Sanredam, whose best followers are the brothers Berkheide and Jan van der Heyden.

Image of interiors

Scenes with church, palace and domestic rooms can be called a separate genre that distinguished Dutch painting during its heyday. Interiors appeared in the paintings of the second half of the seventeenth century by the masters of Delft - Haukgest, van der Vliet and de Witte, who became the main representative of the direction. Using Vermeer's techniques, the artists depicted scenes bathed in sunlight, full of emotion and volume.

Picturesque dishes and utensils

Finally, another characteristic genre of Dutch painting is still life, especially the image of breakfasts. For the first time, Klas and Kheda from Harlem, who painted laid tables with luxurious crockery, took up the art. The picturesque mess and the special rendering of a cozy interior are filled with a silvery-gray light, characteristic of silver and pewter utensils. Utrecht artists painted lush floral still lifes, and in The Hague, the masters were especially successful in depicting fish and marine reptiles. In Leiden, a philosophical direction of the genre arose, in which skulls and hourglasses are adjacent to symbols of sensual pleasure or earthly glory, designed to remind of the transience of time. Democratic kitchen still lifes have become a hallmark of the Rotterdam art school.

The history of any country finds its expression in art, and this pattern is especially indicative in the example of painting. In particular, on the example of the painting of the Netherlands, which survived the revolution, which greatly influenced the future fate of the once unified state. As a result of the revolution in the 17th century The Netherlands was divided into two parts: to Holland and Flanders (the territory of modern Belgium), which remained under the rule of Spain.

historical they developed in different ways. as well as cultural. This means that it became possible to divide the once common concept of Netherlandish painting into Dutch and Flemish.

Dutch painting

The culture of Holland in the 17th century is a living embodiment of the triumph of the state that gained independence. Inspired by the taste of freedom, the artists filled this time with the pathos of social and spiritual renewal and for the first time paid close attention to their surroundings. - nature, human image. Dutch genre artists get inspired routine, small everyday episodes, which becomes one of the characteristic features of Dutch realism.

In addition, not only representatives of the elite elite, but also merchants and peasants became the main customers of art. This partly influenced the development of painting as an interior item, and also contributed to the growth of public interest in the topics of everyday life.

Dutch art of the 17th century is famous for branched genre system of painting.

For example, among the landscape painters there were marine painters, artists depicting views of flat places or forest thickets, there were also masters of winter landscapes or paintings with moonlight; there were genre painters specializing in the figures of peasants, burghers, and scenes of domestic life; were masters of various types of still lifes - “breakfasts”, “desserts”, “shops”.

The strict concentration of the painter on one subsystem of the genre contributed to the detailing and improvement of all Dutch painting as a whole.

17th century is truly golden age of Dutch painting.

Artistic Features

Light and subtle sense of color play a major role in the paintings of Dutch artists.

For example, as in the pictures Rembrandt - an artist who became the personification of an entire era of Dutch painting. Rembrandt was not afraid realistic details, contradicting the canons of the image of reality, and therefore among contemporaries was known as a "painter of ugliness".

Rembrandt was the first to emphasize play of light which allowed him to invent a different from the rest writing style. According to André Felibien,“...often he just applied broad strokes with a brush and applied thick layers of paint one after another, not giving himself the trouble to make smoother and softer transitions from one tone to another.”

"The Return of the Prodigal Son", 1666-1669

Jan Vermeer(Vermeer/Vermeer of Delft ) - painter of harmony and clarity of vision of the world. Known for the strength of his imaginative solutions and image trend poeticized atmosphere of everyday life, he paid special attention colorful nuance, which made it possible to convey the nature of the light-air space.

"Young woman with a jug of water", 1660-1662

Jacob van Ruisdael wrote monumental landscapes in cold colors who embodied his subtle sense of dramatic and even gloomy variability of the world.

"Jewish Cemetery", 1657

Albert Cuyp famous for his unusual vision composition landscape - with him it is given, as a rule, from a low point of view, which allows you to convey the vastness of the observed space.

"Cows on the river bank", 1650

Frans Hals (Hals/Hals) known outstanding genre and group portraits, which are attractive due to their specificity.

"Gypsy", 1628-1630

Flemish painting

In Flanders, the cultural background was markedly different from the Dutch. Feudal nobility and the Catholic Church still played a major role in the life of the country, being the main customers of art . Therefore, the main types of works of Flemish painting remained paintings for castles, for the city houses of the rich and majestic altarpieces for Catholic churches. Scenes of ancient mythology and biblical scenes, huge still lifes, portraits of eminent customers, images of magnificent festivities are the main genres of art in Flanders in the 17th century.

The Flemish baroque art (cheerful, material-sensual, magnificent in abundance of forms) was formed from the features of the Italian and Spanish Renaissance in the refraction of its national color, which especially manifested itself in painting.

Flemish liveliness is different monumentality of forms, dynamic rhythm and triumph of decorative style. This was especially evident in the work Peter Paul Rubens, who became the central figure of Flemish painting.

His style is characterized by a lush, vivid image large heavy figures in rapid motion. Rubens is characterized by warm rich colors, sharp contrasts of light and shadow, the general spirit of a victorious holiday. Eugene Delacroix said:

“His main quality, if you prefer him to many others, - this is a piercing spirit, that is, a piercing life; without this no artist can be great... Titian and Paolo Veronese seem terribly quiet next to him.

Everything inherent in his brush became the common features of the whole school.

"Union of Earth and Water", 1618

Art Jacob Jordaens attracts cheerfulness, monumentality, but at the same time with sincere immediacy - Jordans' love for the image rich feasts(the repeated repetition of the plot of the “Bean King” confirms this. By the way, anyone who found a baked bean in his piece of pie was elected the bean king at feasts) and the heroes of Christian legends as healthy Flemings embody the spirit of the culture of Flanders of the 17th century.

"Feast of the Bean King", 1655

Anthony Van Dyck- a portrait painter who created a type of aristocratic portrait, filled with the finest psychologism, expressed in attention to the dynamics of the silhouette and the general expressiveness of the characters.

"Portrait of Charles I on the hunt", 1635

Frans Snyders known for depicting the sensual nature of things, represented by the colorfulness and monumentality of decorative still lifes, animal paintings.

Fruit Shop, 1620

Jan Brueghel the Younger- the grandson of the artist Pieter Brueghel the Elder, remembered for his skillful mixture of landscape and everyday painting, landscape and allegorical mythological subjects, as well as the talented transmission of the panorama effect due to the high horizon.

"Flora in the background of the landscape", 1600-1610

The main differences between Dutch and Flemish painting

1. In Holland becomes the main customer of art working class population in Flanders - the royal court and the nobility.
2. Plots. Different clients ask for different things. Ordinary people interested in paintings depicting the surrounding everyday life, among the nobility expected to be in demand antique and biblical scenes, a demonstration of luxury.
3. The manner of writing. characteristic a subtle sense of chiaroscuro becomes a feature of Dutch painting. From now on, this is the main tool that allows you to ennoble the image of an unsightly reality. In Flemish painting, the central position is occupied by means of artistic expression characteristic of the Baroque - splendor of forms, brilliant color, abundance and luxury.

The end of the era of Dutch and Flemish painting can be called similar - under the influence of French tastes and views, both Dutch and Flemish national consciousness is gradually weakening, and therefore the concept of Flemish and Dutch painting becomes a historical past.

The events of the 17th century in Holland and Flanders gave the world outstanding authors and a fresh look at the general development of world painting trends.

Sources:

1. Small history of arts. Western European Art XVII.

2. Flemish and Dutch art of the 17th century. As two poles of the worldview of the day // banauka.ru/6067.html.

3. The era of Renaissance art in the Netherlands // http://m.smallbay.ru/article/later_renaiss_niderland.html.

Holland. 17th century The country is experiencing unprecedented prosperity. The so-called Golden Age. At the end of the 16th century, several provinces of the country achieved independence from Spain.

Now the Protestant Netherlands went their own way. And Catholic Flanders (now Belgium) under the wing of Spain - its own.

In independent Holland, almost no one needed religious painting. The Protestant Church did not approve of the luxury of decoration. But this circumstance "played into the hands" of secular painting.

Literally every inhabitant of the new country woke up love for this type of art. The Dutch wanted to see their own life in the pictures. And the artists willingly went to meet them.

Never before has the surrounding reality been depicted so much. Ordinary people, ordinary rooms and the most ordinary breakfast of a city dweller.

Realism flourished. Until the 20th century, it will be a worthy competitor to academism with its nymphs and Greek goddesses.

These artists are called "small" Dutch. Why? The paintings were small in size, because they were created for small houses. So, almost all paintings by Jan Vermeer are no more than half a meter high.

But I like the other version better. In the Netherlands in the 17th century, a great master, a “big” Dutchman, lived and worked. And all the others were "small" in comparison with him.

We are talking, of course, about Rembrandt. Let's start with him.

1. Rembrandt (1606-1669)

Rembrandt. Self-portrait at the age of 63. 1669 National Gallery of London

Rembrandt had a chance to experience the widest range of emotions during his life. Therefore, in his early works there is so much fun and bravado. And so many complex feelings - in the later ones.

Here he is young and carefree in the painting “The Prodigal Son in the Tavern”. On her knees is Saskia's beloved wife. He is a popular artist. Orders are pouring in.

Rembrandt. The prodigal son in the tavern. 1635 Old Masters Gallery, Dresden

But all this will disappear in some 10 years. Saskia will die of consumption. Popularity will disappear like smoke. A large house with a unique collection will be taken away for debts.

But the same Rembrandt will appear, which will remain for centuries. The naked feelings of the characters. Their most secret thoughts.

2. Frans Hals (1583-1666)

Frans Hals. Self-portrait. 1650 Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

Frans Hals is one of the greatest portrait painters of all time. Therefore, I would also rank him among the "big" Dutch.

In Holland at that time it was customary to commission group portraits. So there was a lot of similar works depicting people working together: shooters of the same guild, doctors of the same town, managing a nursing home.

In this genre, Hals stands out the most. After all, most of these portraits looked like a deck of cards. People sit at the table with the same expression on their faces and just look. Hals was different.

Look at his group portrait "Arrows of the Guild of St. George".

Frans Hals. Arrows of the Guild of St. George. 1627 Frans Hals Museum, Haarlem, Netherlands

Here you will not find a single repetition in posture or facial expression. At the same time, there is no chaos here. There are many characters, but no one seems superfluous. Thanks to the surprisingly correct arrangement of figures.

Yes, and in a single portrait, Hals surpassed many artists. His models are natural. People from high society in his paintings are devoid of far-fetched grandeur, and models from the bottom do not look humiliated.

And his characters are very emotional: they smile, laugh, gesticulate. Like, for example, this "Gypsy" with a sly look.

Frans Hals. Gypsy. 1625-1630

Hals, like Rembrandt, ended his life in poverty. For the same reason. His realism went against the tastes of customers. Who wanted to embellish their appearance. Hals did not go for outright flattery, and thus signed his own sentence - "Oblivion".

3. Gerard Terborch (1617-1681)

Gerard Terborch. Self-portrait. 1668 Mauritshuis Royal Gallery, The Hague, Netherlands

Terborch was a master of the domestic genre. Rich and not very burghers talk slowly, ladies read letters, and a procuress watches courtship. Two or three closely spaced figures.

It was this master who developed the canons of the domestic genre. Which will then be borrowed by Jan Vermeer, Pieter de Hooch and many other "small" Dutch.

Gerard Terborch. A glass of lemonade. 1660s. State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg

A Glass of Lemonade is one of Terborch's famous works. It shows another advantage of the artist. Incredibly realistic image of the fabric of the dress.

Terborch also has unusual works. Which speaks of his desire to go beyond the requirements of customers.

His "Grinder" shows the life of the poorest inhabitants of Holland. We are used to seeing cozy courtyards and clean rooms in the pictures of the “small” Dutch. But Terborch dared to show unattractive Holland.

Gerard Terborch. Grinder. 1653-1655 Berlin State Museums

As you understand, such works were not in demand. And they are a rare occurrence even in Terborch.

4. Jan Vermeer (1632-1675)

Jan Vermeer. Artist's workshop. 1666-1667 Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

What Jan Vermeer looked like is not known for certain. It is only obvious that in the painting "Artist's Workshop" he depicted himself. True from the back.

Therefore, it is surprising that a new fact from the life of the master has recently become known. It is associated with his masterpiece "Street of Delft".

Jan Vermeer. Delft street. 1657 Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam

It turned out that Vermeer spent his childhood on this street. The house pictured belonged to his aunt. She raised her five children there. She may be sitting on the doorstep sewing while her two children are playing on the sidewalk. Vermeer himself lived in the house opposite.

But more often he depicted the interior of these houses and their inhabitants. It would seem that the plots of the paintings are very simple. Here is a pretty lady, a wealthy city dweller, checking the work of her scales.

Jan Vermeer. Woman with weights. 1662-1663 National Gallery of Art, Washington

How did Vermeer stand out among thousands of other "small" Dutch?

He was an unsurpassed master of light. In the painting “Woman with Scales”, the light gently envelops the face of the heroine, fabrics and walls. Giving the image an unknown spirituality.

And the compositions of Vermeer's paintings are carefully verified. You will not find a single extra detail. It is enough to remove one of them, the picture will “crumble”, and the magic will go away.

All this was not easy for Vermeer. Such amazing quality required painstaking work. Only 2-3 paintings per year. As a result, the inability to feed the family. Vermeer also worked as an art dealer, selling works by other artists.

5. Pieter de Hooch (1629-1884)

Peter de Hooch. Self-portrait. 1648-1649 Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam

Hoch is often compared to Vermeer. They worked at the same time, there was even a period in the same city. And in one genre - household. In Hoch, we also see one or two figures in cozy Dutch courtyards or rooms.

Open doors and windows make the space of his paintings multi-layered and entertaining. And the figures fit into this space very harmoniously. As, for example, in his painting "Servant with a girl in the yard."

Peter de Hooch. Maid with a girl in the yard. 1658 London National Gallery

Until the 20th century, Hoch was highly valued. But few people noticed the few works of his competitor Vermeer.

But in the 20th century, everything changed. Hoch's glory faded. However, it is difficult not to recognize his achievements in painting. Few people could combine the environment and people so competently.

Peter de Hooch. Card players in the sun room. 1658 Royal Art Collection, London

Please note that in a modest house on the canvas "Card Players" there is a picture in an expensive frame.

This once again speaks of how popular painting was among ordinary Dutch. Pictures adorned every house: the house of a wealthy burgher, a modest city dweller, and even a peasant.

6. Jan Steen (1626-1679)

Jan Stan. Self-portrait with a lute. 1670s Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum, Madrid

Jan Steen is perhaps the most cheerful "small" Dutchman. But loving moralizing. He often depicted taverns or poor houses in which vice was found.

Its main characters are revelers and ladies of easy virtue. He wanted to entertain the viewer, but implicitly warn him against a vicious life.

Jan Stan. Chaos. 1663 Art History Museum, Vienna

Stan also has quieter works. Like, for example, "Morning toilet". But here, too, the artist surprises the viewer with too frank details. There are traces of stocking gum, and not an empty chamber pot. And somehow it’s not at all the way the dog lies right on the pillow.

Jan Stan. Morning toilet. 1661-1665 Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam

But despite all the frivolity, Stan's color schemes are very professional. In this he surpassed many of the "small Dutch". See how the red stocking goes perfectly with the blue jacket and bright beige rug.

7. Jacobs Van Ruysdael (1629-1882)

Portrait of Ruisdael. Lithograph from a 19th century book.

"Burger" baroque in Dutch paintingXVII in. - the image of everyday life (P. de Hoch, Vermeer). "Luxury" still life Kalf. Group portrait and its features in Hals and Rembrandt. Interpretation of mythological and biblical subjects by Rembrandt.

Dutch art of the 17th century

In the 17th century Holland became a model capitalist country. She conducted extensive colonial trade, she had a powerful fleet, shipbuilding was one of the leading industries. Protestantism (Calvinism as its most severe form), which completely replaced the influence of the Catholic Church, led to the fact that the clergy in Holland did not have such an influence on art as in Flanders, and even more so in Spain or Italy. In Holland, the church did not play the role of a customer of works of art: temples were not decorated with altarpieces, for Calvinism rejected any hint of luxury; Protestant churches were simple in architecture and not decorated in any way inside.

The main achievement of the Dutch art of the XVIII century. - in easel painting. Man and nature were objects of observation and depiction by Dutch artists. Everyday painting becomes one of the leading genres, the creators of which in history received the name "small Dutch". Paintings on gospel and biblical scenes are also represented, but not to the same extent as in other countries. Holland never had connections with Italy and classical art did not play the same role as in Flanders.

The mastery of realistic tendencies, the addition of a certain range of topics, the differentiation of genres as a single process, were completed by the 1620s. History of Dutch painting of the 17th century. perfectly demonstrates the evolution of the work of one of the largest portrait painters of Holland, Frans Hals (circa 1580-1666). In the 10-30s, Hals worked a lot in the genre of group portraits. From the canvases of these years, cheerful, energetic, enterprising people look, confident in their abilities and in the future (“St. Adrian’s Shooting Guild”, 1627 and 1633;

The Shooting Guild of St. George", 1627).

Individual portraits of Khals are sometimes called genre portraits by researchers due to the special specificity of the image. Hulse's sketchy style, his bold writing, when a brushstroke sculpts both form and volume and conveys color.

In the portraits of Khals of the late period (50-60s), the carefree prowess, energy, and pressure in the characters of the depicted persons disappear. But it is in the late period of creativity that Hals reaches the pinnacle of mastery and creates the most profound works. The color of his paintings becomes almost monochrome. Two years before his death, in 1664, Hals again returned to the group portrait. He paints two portraits - regents and regents of a nursing home, in one of which he himself found shelter at the end of his life. In the portrait of the regents, there is no camaraderie of the previous compositions, the models are disunited, powerless, their eyes are cloudy, devastation is written on their faces.

The art of Hals was of great importance for its time, it had an impact on the development of not only the portrait, but also the genre of everyday life, landscape, still life.

The landscape genre of Holland in the 17th century is especially interesting. Holland is portrayed by Jan van Goyen (1596-1656) and Salomon van Ruisdael (1600/1603-1670).

The heyday of landscape painting in the Dutch school dates back to the middle of the 17th century. The greatest master of the realistic landscape was Jacob van Ruysdael (1628/29-1682). His works are usually filled with deep drama, whether he depicts forest thickets (“Forest Swamp”),

landscapes with waterfalls (“Waterfall”) or a romantic landscape with a cemetery (“Jewish Cemetery”).

Nature in Ruisdael appears in dynamics, in eternal renewal.

In close connection with the Dutch landscape is the animalistic genre. Albert Cuyp's favorite motif is cows at a watering place ("Sunset on the River", "Cows on the Bank of a Stream").

Brilliant development reaches a still life. The Dutch still life, in contrast to the Flemish, is modest in size and motives for paintings of an intimate nature. Pieter Claesz (circa 1597-1661), Billem Head (1594-1680/82) most often depicted the so-called breakfasts: dishes with ham or pie on a relatively modestly served table. Kheda's "breakfasts" give way to Kalf's sumptuous "desserts". Simple utensils are being replaced by marble tables, carpet tablecloths, silver goblets, mother-of-pearl shells, and crystal glasses. Kalf achieves amazing virtuosity in conveying the texture of peaches, grapes, and crystal surfaces.

In the 20-30s of the XVII century. the Dutch created a special type of small, small-figure painting. 40-60s - the heyday of painting, glorifying the calm burgher life of Holland, measured daily existence.

Adrian van Ostade (1610-1685) depicts at first the shady sides of the life of the peasantry ("The Fight").

Since the 1940s, in his work, satirical notes are increasingly replaced by humorous ones (“In a village tavern”, 1660).

Sometimes these little pictures are colored with a great lyrical feeling. By right, Ostade's masterpiece of painting is considered to be his "Painter in the Studio" (1663), in which the artist glorifies creative work.

But the main theme of the "small Dutch" is still not a peasant, but a burgher life. Usually these are images without any fascinating plot. The most entertaining storyteller in paintings of this kind was Jan Stan (1626-1679) ("Revelers", "The backgammon game"). Gerard Terborch (1617-1681) achieved even greater skill in this.

The interior becomes especially poetic among the "small Dutch". The real singer of this theme was Pieter de Hooch (1629-1689). His rooms with a half-open window, shoes thrown inadvertently or a broom left are often depicted without a human figure.

A new stage of genre painting begins in the 50s and is associated with the so-called Delft school, with the names of artists such as Karel Fabricius, Emmanuel de Witte and Jan Vermeer, known in art history as Vermeer of Delft (1632-1675). Vermeer's paintings seem to be in no way original. These are the same images of a frozen burgher life: reading a letter, a gentleman and a lady talking, maids engaged in a simple household, views of Amsterdam or Delft. These pictures, which are simple in action: “Girl reading a letter”,

"The Cavalier and the Lady at the Spinet",

“The Officer and the Laughing Girl”, etc., are full of spiritual clarity, peace and quiet.

The main advantages of Vermeer as an artist are in the transmission of light and air. The dissolution of objects in a light-air environment, the ability to create this illusion, first of all, determined the recognition and fame of Vermeer precisely in the 19th century.

Wermeer did what no one else did in the 17th century: he painted landscapes from nature (“Street”, “View of Delft”).

They can be called the first examples of plein air painting.

The pinnacle of Dutch realism, the result of the pictorial achievements of the Dutch culture of the 17th century, is the work of Rembrandt. Harmensz van Rijn Rembrandt (1606-1669) was born in Leiden. In 1632, Rembrandt left for Amsterdam, the center of the artistic culture of Holland, which naturally attracted the young artist. The 30s were the time of the highest glory, the path to which was opened for the painter by a large commissioned painting of 1632 - a group portrait, also known as "Anatomy of Dr. Tulp", or "Anatomy Lesson".

In 1634, Rembrandt marries a girl from a wealthy family - Saskia van Uylenborch. The happiest period of his life begins. He becomes a famous and fashionable artist.

This whole period is covered with romance. Rembrandt's attitude of these years is most clearly conveyed by the famous "Self-portrait with Saskia on his knees" (circa 1636). The whole canvas is permeated with frank joy of life, jubilation.

Baroque language is closest to the expression of high spirits. And Rembrandt in this period is largely influenced by the Italian Baroque.

In complex foreshortenings, the characters of the 1635 painting "The Sacrifice of Abraham" appear before us. The composition is extremely dynamic, built according to all the rules of baroque.

In the same 30s, Rembrandt for the first time began to seriously engage in graphics, especially etching. Rembrandt's etchings are mostly biblical and gospel subjects, but in drawing, as a true Dutch artist, he often refers to the genre as well. At the turn of the early period of the artist's work and his creative maturity, one of his most famous paintings, known as The Night Watch (1642), is presented to us - a group portrait of the rifle company of Captain Banning Cock.

He expanded the scope of the genre, presenting a rather historical picture: on an alarm signal, Banning Cock's detachment sets out on a campaign. Some are calm, confident, others are excited in anticipation of what is to come, but all have an expression of common energy, patriotic enthusiasm, the triumph of civic spirit.

A group portrait under the brush of Rembrandt grew into a heroic image of the era and society.

The painting had already darkened so much that it was considered to be an image of a night scene, hence its incorrect name. The shadow that lies from the figure of the captain on the light clothes of the lieutenant proves that this is not night, but day.

With the death of Saskia in the same year 1642, Rembrandt's natural break with patrician circles alien to him occurs.

The 40-50s are the time of creative maturity. During this period, he often turns to old works in order to remake them in a new way. This was the case, for example, with Danae, which he painted back in 1636. Turning to the painting in the 1940s, the artist intensified his emotional state.

He rewrote the central part with the heroine and the maid. Giving Danae a new gesture of a raised hand, he told her great excitement, an expression of joy, hope, an appeal.

In the 1940s and 1950s, Rembrandt's craftsmanship steadily grew. He chooses for interpretation the most lyrical, poetic aspects of human existence, that human, which is eternal, universal: maternal love, compassion. The Holy Scripture gives him the greatest material, and from it - the scenes of the life of the holy family, Rembrandt depicts a simple life, ordinary people, as in the painting “The Holy Family”.

The last 16 years are the most tragic years of Rembrandt's life; he is broke, has no orders. But these years are full of amazing creative activity, as a result of which picturesque images are created, exceptional in terms of monumentality of characters and spirituality, deeply philosophical works. Even small-sized works by Rembrandt of these years create an impression of extraordinary grandeur and true monumentality. Color acquires sonority and intensity. His colors seem to radiate light. The portraits of the late Rembrandt are very different from the portraits of the 30s and even 40s. These are extremely simple (half-length or generational) images of people who are close to the artist in their inner structure. Rembrandt achieved the greatest subtlety of characteristics in self-portraits, of which about a hundred have come down to us. The final in the history of the group portrait was Rembrandt's depiction of the elders of the cloth maker's shop - the so-called "Sindiki" (1662), where Rembrandt created living and at the same time different human types with stingy means, but most importantly, he managed to convey a sense of spiritual union, mutual understanding and relationships of people.

In the years of maturity (mainly in the 50s), Rembrandt created his best etchings. As an etcher, he knows no equal in world art. In all of them, the images have a deep philosophical meaning; they tell about the secrets of being, about the tragedy of human life.

He does a lot of drawing. Rembrandt left behind 2000 drawings. These are sketches from nature, sketches for paintings and preparations for etchings.

In the last quarter of the XVII century. the decline of the Dutch school of painting begins, the loss of its national identity, and from the beginning of the 18th century the end of the great era of Dutch realism begins.