Swedish naturalist. Carl Linnaeus' contribution to biology (briefly)

Carl Linnaeus(Swede. Carl Linne, lat. Carolus Linnaeus, after receiving the nobility in 1761 - Carl von Linne; Nar. May 23, 1707 - † January 10, 1778) - Swedish naturalist: botanist, zoologist and physician - scientist of the 18th century, the first president of the Swedish Academy of Sciences. In 1735, at the age of 28, he became a doctor of medicine. In the same year he published his main work entitled "The System of Nature" ("Systema Naturae"), that glorified his name. This work went through 12 editions during Linnaeus' lifetime; each time the author finalized it, clarified and supplemented it.

In his System of Nature, Carl Linnaeus was the first to propose a scientific classification of the then known plants and animals. At one time, the famous scientist of ancient Greece, Aristotle, described 454 species of animals. Two millennia have passed since then. Scientists have discovered and studied a large number of new animal species. Carl Linnaeus described 4,200 animal species and divided them into six classes: mammals, birds, amphibians, fish, worms, and insects. Plants he divided into 24 classes.

Linnaeus is a famous Swedish naturalist. In Sweden, he is also valued as a traveler who opened their own country for the Swedes, studied the peculiarities of the Swedish provinces and saw "how one province can help another." The value for the Swedes is not so much Linnaeus's work on the flora and fauna of Sweden as his descriptions of his own travels; these diary entries, full of specifics, rich in contrasts, set out in clear language, are still being republished and read. Linnaeus is one of those figures of science and culture with whom the final formation of the literary Swedish language in its modern form is associated.

Member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences (1739, one of the founders of the academy), the Paris Academy of Sciences (1762) and a number of other scientific societies and academies.

Biography

early years

Carl Linnaeus was born on May 23, 1707 in southern Sweden - in the village of Roshulte in the province of Småland. His father is Nils Ingemarsson Linnaeus (Swedish Nicolaus (Nils) Ingemarsson Linnæus, 1674-1748), a village priest, the son of a peasant, his mother is Christina Linnaeus, nee Brodersonia (Swedish Christina Linnæa (Brodersonia), 1688-1733), daughter of a rural priest. The surname Linnaeus (Linnæus) is the latinized Swedish name for the linden (Lind): when Nils Ingemarsson went to study at Lund University, he, according to the custom of that time, replaced his real surname with a Latin pseudonym, choosing as it a word associated with the generic symbol Ingemarssoniv - a large tristovbur linden, that grew up on the lands of his ancestors in the parish of Hvitavrida in southern Sweden. In Sweden, Linnaeus is usually called Carl von Linne- by the name that he began to bear after granting him the nobility; in the tradition of literature in English - to call it Carl Linnaeus, that is, the name given at birth.

Karl was the firstborn in the family (later Nils Ingemarsson and Christina had four more children - three girls and a boy).

In 1709 the family moved to Stenbrukhultshved, located a few kilometers from Roshulte. There, Niels Linnaeus planted a small garden near his house, which he lovingly looked after; Here he grew vegetables, fruits and various different flowers and knew all their names. From early childhood, Karl also showed interest in plants, until the age of eight he knew the names of many plants that happened in the vicinity of Stenbruchult; in addition, he was given a small area in the garden for his own small garden.

In 1716-1727, Carl Linnaeus studied in the city of Växche: first at the lower grammar school (1716-1724), then at the gymnasium (1724-1727). Since Växjö was about fifty kilometers from Stenbruchult, Karl was at home only during the holidays. His parents wanted him to train as a pastor and in the future, as the eldest son, take the place of his father, but Karl studied very poorly, especially in the basic subjects - theology and ancient languages. He was only interested in botany and mathematics; often he even skipped classes, instead of going to school, going to nature to study plants.

Dr. Johan Stensson Rothmann (1684-1763), a district doctor who taught logic and medicine at the Linnaeus school, persuaded Niels Linnaeus to send his son to study as a doctor and began to study medicine, physiology and botany with Karl individually. The concern of the parents about the fate of Karl was connected, among other things, with the fact that it was very difficult to find a job for a doctor in Sweden at that time, while there were no problems with working for a priest.

Education in Lund and Uppsala

Lund was the closest city to Växjö that had a higher education institution. In 1727, Linnaeus passed the exams and was enrolled at the University of Lund, where he began to study natural history and medicine. Linnaeus was most interested in the lectures of Professor Kilian Stobeus (1690-1742). Linnaeus settled in the professor's house; it was with the help of Stobeus that he largely streamlined the information that he had gleaned from books and his own observations.

In August 1728, on the advice of Johan Rotman, Linnaeus transferred to the larger and older Uppsala University, founded back in 1474 - there were more opportunities to study medicine. Two professors of medicine worked in Uppsala at that time, Olof Rudbeck Jr. (1660-1740) and Lars Rubergschwed. (1664-1742).

At Uppsala University, Linnaeus met his peer, student Peter Artedi (1705-1735), together with whom they began work on a critical revision of the natural-historical classifications that existed at that time. Linnaeus mainly dealt with plants in general, Artedi with fishes, amphibians and umbelliferous plants. It should be noted that the level of teaching at both universities was not very high, and most of the time students were engaged in self-education.

Life in Holland

In 1735, Carl Linnaeus moved to Holland, where he defended his doctoral dissertation on malaria, after which he remained in this country for another three years. In Holland, Linnaeus was the personal physician of the mayor of Amsterdam, Georg Clifford. Clifford was one of the directors of the East India Company, while being interested in botany and created his own botanical garden, which featured plants from all over the world. Linnaeus was instructed to identify and classify them. By this time, Linnaeus had defined his basic biological ideas and published his works The System of Nature (Systema naturae) and the monograph Fundamental Botany, in which he outlined botanical terminology. To communicate with the most famous botanists of that time, Linnaeus visited London and Paris.

Return to Sweden

In 1738, Linnaeus returned to Stockholm, where he worked as a doctor in the Admiralty (Naval Department). In the same year, the Swedish Parliament awarded him the title of "royal botanist". Soon, Carl Linnaeus, together with five other Swedish scientists, founded a private community - the Stockholm Academy of Sciences. According to the results of the lottery, Linnaeus became its first president.

In 1742, Carl Linnaeus was elected professor of botany at Uppsala University, which he subsequently headed for the next 37 years. Linnaeus published his "System of Nature", where he outlined the system of plants and animals. He paid special attention to medicinal plants and the effects of medicines made from them. Having become a wealthy man, Linnaeus acquired an estate near Uppsala, became a kind of scientific center, and to which students and scientists from all over Europe came to study the basics of taxonomy.

In 1761, the Swedish king granted Carl Linnaeus the noble title of "von Linnaeus". The scientist himself came up with his noble coat of arms depicting an egg and symbols of the three kingdoms of nature (minerals, plants and animals). He was elected a member of the Paris Academy of Sciences and an honorary foreign member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. AT last years Carl Linnaeus was very ill during his life and suffered three strokes. He died on January 10, 1778 and is buried in Uppsala Cathedral.

Classification

The classification of plants and animals proposed by Linnaeus had certain drawbacks. So, he grouped the plants according to the external signs of flowers, and not according to the true relationship between closely related species. The classification of animals was not entirely successful either. To the class of amphibians, for example, Linnaeus included not only amphibians, but also reptiles. And to the class of worms he counted all the invertebrates known at that time, with the exception of insects. But for those times, his taxonomy of animals and plants was a great step forward and contributed to the further development of biological sciences.

Carl Linnaeus had a special passion for plants. He devoted a lot of time to the study of plants from different countries and continents, collected in a number of well-known European collections and herbaria. He personally studied and described about 1,500 plant species.

Linnaeus not only studied the structure of plants, he was also interested in their physiology - growth, flowering, fruiting. At the same time, he noticed that in some plants the flowers open in the morning, in others - in the afternoon, in the third - in the evening, while in the fourth - at night. And they also close in a certain sequence, each at its own time. This led the scientist to the idea of ​​​​creating a flower clock.

Systematics

Now Carl Linnaeus is the only author who can be referred to with only one initial (“L.”). In botanical nomenclature, this letter after the species name of the plant means that it was first described by Carl Linnaeus; For example, the botanical name for the coconut tree is Cocos nucifera L.

Scientific works

• Systema naturae sive regna tria naturae systematice proposita per classes, ordines, genera, & species. Lugduni Batavorum: apud Theodorum Haak. 1735.
• Bibliotheca botanica recensens libros plus mille de plantis huc usque editos, secundum systema auctorum naturale in classes, ordines, genera & species dispositos, additis editionis loco, tempore, forma, lingua etc cum explicatione. Amstelodami : apud Salomonem Schouten, 1736a. + 153 + 35 p.
• Fundamenta botanica quae majorum operaum prodromi instar theoriam scientiae botanices per breves aphorismos tradedunt. Amstelodami : apud Salomonem Schouten, 1736b. 36 p.
• Musa Cliffortiana florens hartecampi prope Harlenum. Lugduni Batavorum. 1736c. 50p.
• Critica botanica in qua nomina plantarum generica, specifica, & variantia examini subjiciuntur, selectiora confirmantur, indigina rejiciuntur, simulque doctina circa denominationem plantarum traditur. Seu Fundamentorum Botanicorum pars IV. Lugduni Batavorum : apud Conradum Wishoff. 1737a.
• Flora lapponica exhibens plantas per Lapponiam crescentes, secundum systema sexuale collectas in itinere ... 1732 institutio. Additis synonymis, & Locis natalibus omnium, descriptionibus & figuris rariorum, viribus medicatis & oeconomicis plurimarum. Amstelaedami: S. Schouten. 1737b. + 372 + p. + 12 tab.
• Hortus cliffortianus: plantas exhibens quas, in hortistam vivis quam siccis, Hartecampi in Hollandia, coluit vir nobilissimus et generosissimus Georgius Clifford … Amstelaedami: 1737c. + X + 502p. + 32 tab.
• Classes plantarum, seu Systemata plantarum. Lugduni Batavorum : C. Wishoff, 1738. 606 col. + P. 607-656
• Genera plantarum eorumque characteres naturales secudum numerum, figuram, situm, et proportionem omnium fructificationis partium. Lugduni Batavorum: apud C. Wishoff: G.J. Wishoff. 1742. 527 + p. Ill.
• Flora svecica exhibens plantas per Regnum Sveciae crescentes, systematice cum differentiis specierum, synonymis autorum, nominibus incolarum, solo locorum, usu pharmacopaeorum. Lugduni Batavorum : apud Conradum Wishoff: Georg. Jac. Wishoff. 1745. + 419 p.
• Fauna Svecica Sistens Animalia Sveciæ Regni: qvadrupedia, aves, amphibia, pisces, insecta, vermes; distributa per classes & ordines, genera & species; cum Differentiis Specierum, Synonymis Autorum, Nominibus Incolarum, Locis Habitationum, Descriptionibus Insectorum. Lugduni Batavorum : Apud Conradum Wishoff et Georg Jac. Wishoff. Fil. conr. 1746. , 411 S. 2 Tafeln.
• Philosophia botanica in qva explicantur fundamenta botanica cum definitionibus partium, exemplis terminorum, observationibus rariorum, adjectis figuris aeneis. Stockholmia, Apud Godofr. Kiesewetter, 1751. + 362 p. + Portrait. + 9 tab. HTML at BotanicalLatin.org
• Species plantarum exhibentes plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum differentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonimis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas. Holmiae: L. Salvii, 1753. T. i: xvi + 560 p. T. ii: P. 561-1158 + p. Sect. Figure 1-3: HTML on the Project Gutenberg site
• Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Editio decima, reformata. Holmiæ : impensis direct. Laurentii Salvii. 1758. Bl., S. 6-823.

Prof. M. L. Rokhlina

“... in the field of biology, they were mainly engaged in the accumulation and first selection of colossal material, both botanical and zoological, as well as anatomical and proper physiological. Comparison of forms of life among themselves, the study of their geographical distribution, their climatological and other conditions, was still out of the question. Here only botany and zoology have reached some completion thanks to Linnaeus.
ENGELS. Dialectic of nature

Carl Linnaeus.

Science and life // Illustrations

General picture of life according to Linnaeus.

Classification based on external features without taking into account phylogeny led the remarkable classifier Linnaeus to a number of gross errors.

Science and life // Illustrations

One of the most striking figures among the learned naturalists of the XVIII century. was Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778). In scientific terms, he stands at the turn of two eras. Linnaeus summarized the entire amount of factual knowledge accumulated since the Renaissance, created a taxonomy of the animal and plant world, and thus, as it were, completed the biology of the metaphysical period. The era of Linnaeus is characterized by two ideas: the recognition of the “creative act” that created the living world, and at the same time the idea of ​​the immutability, constancy of species and their hierarchy, their gradual complication, the idea that saw in the expedient structure of organisms a single plan, imbued with the “wisdom of the creator”.

The prevailing belief was that "Natura non faclt saltus" ("nature does not make leaps").

Engels writes that the period under consideration is especially characterized by "the formation of a single, integral worldview, the center of which is the doctrine of the absolute immutability of nature" (Engels, Dialectics of Nature).

Linnaeus went down in history as the creator of the metaphysical taxonomy of animals and plants, as the author of the formula "there are as many species as they came out of the hands of the creator," a formula he expressed in the first edition of The System of Nature (1735).

Linnaeus was an encyclopedically educated scientist with exceptional memory and powers of observation, and with what was said to be a "systematic streak." Linnaeus systematizes everything - minerals, animals, plants and even diseases (for example, to the first scientific work on medicinal plants “Materia medica”, published by him in 1749, Linnaeus attached the “Catalogue of Diseases”, and indicated how to treat each disease).

But at the same time, Linnaeus was a contemporary of K. F. Wolf, about whom Engels wrote:

“It is characteristic that almost simultaneously with Kant’s attack on the doctrine of the eternity of the solar system, K. Wolf made in 1759 the first attack on the theory of the constancy of species, proclaiming the doctrine of their development” (Engels. D.P.).

In the midst of Linnaeus's scientific work, the works of the great French materialists La Mettrie, Diderot, and others are published, in which the ideas of transformism (evolution) of species are expressed. Finally, a contemporary of Linnaeus was Buffon, who, contrary to the prevailing worldview, expressed the idea of ​​a historical connection in nature and said that animals themselves have a history and, perhaps, are able to change.

Thus, the idea of ​​the variability of species already appeared in the sphere of scientific problems of the 18th century, and, naturally, this could not pass by Linnaeus. He had a brilliant knowledge of fauna and flora and could not fail to see transitional, changing species. Therefore, it is no coincidence that “Linnaeus already made a big concession when he said that due to crossing in places new species could arise” (Engels D.P.). In a number of his last works, Linnaeus speaks directly about the variability of species. Thus, during his almost 50 years of scientific activity, he evolved to some extent; it is also no coincidence that the phrase "there are as many species as they came from the hands of the creator" is absent from the 10th edition of the System of Nature, which appeared shortly before the death of Linnaeus. These facts need to be emphasized, since the opinion that Linnaeus stood strictly on the point of view of the permanence of species is widely held. It can be seen from Linnaeus's letters that his insufficiently decisive statements are partly due to the influence of the social environment, in particular, the professorship of Uppsala University, where Linnaeus occupied the chairs of disease diagnostics, pharmacognosy, dietetics and natural sciences for 36 years (1741-1777).

At the end of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the laying of sea trade routes begins, the conquest of previously unknown countries, from which numerous and diverse animals and plants were brought to Europe. Throughout Europe in the XVI, and then in the XVII century. botanical gardens are created, which become scientific centers. This era is also characterized by an increased interest in ancient Greek scientists and philosophers.

The systematic description of the animal and plant world, as it is found in Aristotle, Theophrist, Dioscorides, and others, is supplemented and expanded by new botanical and zoological material. There is a need to systematize and classify the huge material that this era provides - a necessity arising from practical interests: “the main task ... was to cope with the material available” (Engels, D.P.). Strictly speaking, only from the XVI century. the first foundations of systematic science begin to be laid. Since that time, a number of works have appeared that try to build classification schemes and tables on different principles. The historical merit of Linnaeus lies precisely in the fact that he completes these numerous attempts, creating the largest simple and perfect system for that time.

“The crown and, probably, the last word of such a classification was, and still unsurpassed in its elegant simplicity, the system of the plant kingdom proposed by Linnaeus” (K. A. Timiryazev).

The main merits of Linnaeus are as follows:

1. He created a very simple and convenient system of taxonomic units (class, order, family, genus, species), subordinate to one another.

2. Classified the animal and plant world according to his system.

3. Established the species definition for plants and animals.

4. Introduced a double nomenclature to designate species, i.e. generic and specific Latin names, and established such names for animals and plants known to him.

Thus, from the time of Linnaeus, every animal or plant organism is designated by two Latin names, the name of the genus to which the animal belongs, and the name of the species; they are usually joined in an abbreviated form by the name of the researcher who first described the given organism.

So for example, an ordinary wolf is designated - Canis lupus L; where the word Canis denotes a genus (dog) - the word lupus is a species (wolf) and the letter L is the surname of the author (Linnaeus), who first described this species.

Similar species according to the Linnaean system are combined into genera (thus the wolf, jackal, fox, domestic dog are combined into the dog genus). Similar genera are combined into families (so the wolf belongs to the canine family); families are united into orders (for example, the canine family belongs to the order of carnivores), orders - into classes (for example, carnivores belong to the class of mammals), classes - into types (mammals belong to the type of chordates).

K. A. Timiryazev emphasizes the importance of binary nomenclature in the following words:

“Just as national literatures especially honor the creators of their language, so the universal language of descriptive natural science should honor its creator in Linnaeus.”

Linnaeus, however, was reproached that his Latin was “not quite Ciceronian,” but Jean-Jacques Rousseau, an ardent admirer of Linnaeus, objected to this: “But it was free for Cicero not to know botany” (according to Timiryazev).

One should not think that everything introduced by Linnaeus was invented by him. So, even John Ray introduced the concept of species, the binary nomenclature is found in Rivinus and Baugin, and Adanson and Tournefort before Linnaeus united similar species into genera, etc. However, Linnaeus’s merit does not decrease from this, since his role lies in the fact that he combined all this into a single whole, choosing what corresponded to the creation of harmonious systems of the plant and animal world. Linnaeus himself characterized the meaning of the system in the following way: “The system is Ariadne’s thread of botany; without it, the herbarium business turns into chaos.”

Systema naturae, a work by Linnaeus, appeared in 1735. The first edition appeared as a 12-page synopsis on all three kingdoms of nature, while the last edition appeared in 12 volumes.

Speaking about the works of Linnaeus on systematics, it is impossible not to touch on his other most important works. In 1751, his “Philosophy of Botany” was published, in which the doctrine of the species was set out and in which Liney first applied binary nomenclature, Jean Jacques Rousseau characterized this work as the most philosophical of all that he knows. In 1753, one of the most important works of Linnaeus was published: “Species plautarum” (“Species of Plants”), which for the first time gives a complete systematic of the entire plant world known at that time. Speaking of Linnaeus's views on taxonomy, constancy of species, etc., we will have to touch on all three of these works in parallel.

In our brief essay, we will be interested in two questions: 1) the evaluation of the Linnaean system in terms of natural and artificial classification, and 2) Linnaeus's attitude to the ideas of the constancy and variability of species.

Linnaeus himself considered his system as artificial and believed that it should be replaced by a natural system. Classifications before Linnaeus were purely artificial and had a random, arbitrary character. So, one of the first classifications of animals was compiled alphabetically, there were classifications of plants according to their signature (i.e., according to their medicinal value), some scientists (Rey, Tournefort) classified plants according to the corolla, others according to seeds (Cesalpin) or according to fruits ( Gertner). It is clear that all these taxonomists artificially combined the most diverse species according to some one taken arbitrary trait, and the need for a natural classification according to the degree of similarity, kinship between individual species spontaneously grew. A natural classification, unlike an artificial one, is based not on any one arbitrarily chosen trait, but on the basis of a combination of the most important morphophysiological properties, and tries to establish a genetic relationship between different species in the sense of a unity of origin. The Linnaean classification represents a significant step forward compared to all classifications that existed before it. But there is a great difference between his classification of the animal world and the classification of the plant world in regard to their approximation to the natural classification. Consider first the classification of animals.

Linnaeus took the heart of animals as the main feature for classification and divided it into six classes.

This division into six classes represented a significant step forward, refinement and approximation to the natural classification. But at the same time, it contained a number of errors: for example, both reptiles and amphibians were classified as amphibians, and all invertebrates were combined into two classes - worms and insects. The division of classes into detachments contained a number of gross errors, which Linnaeus himself knew and constantly corrected. Thus, the class of mammals was first divided into 7 orders or orders, and the latter were divided into 47 genera; in the 8th Linnaean edition there were 8 orders and 39 genera of mammals, and in the 12th edition there were 8 orders and 40 roles.

Linnaeus approached the division into orders and genera already purely formally, sometimes taking into account one particular feature, such as teeth, and therefore the arrangement of species according to orders is artificial. Along with a very faithful combination of closely related species, he often combined animals that were far from each other into one order, or, conversely, distributed close, related species into different orders. So, for the first time in science, Linnaeus united the primate detachment: man, monkeys (higher and lower) and lemurs, but at the same time he mistakenly added a bat to the same place.

The characteristics of the order of primates are as follows: “The front teeth have 4 in the upper jaw, which stand parallel to each other; the fangs stand apart from the others; nipples, of which they have two, lie on the chest, legs - similar to hands - with rounded flat nails. The front legs are separated by the clavicles; they feed on fruits for which they climb trees.

The characteristic of the first genus of the order of primates is given as follows: “genus I. Man, Homo, has a direct vertical position, moreover, the female sex has a hymen and monthly cleansing.” Homo (man) is a generic name, and Linnaeus assigns man and the great apes to this genus. In this association of man with anthropoid apes, Linnaeus's great courage for that time was expressed. The attitude of his contemporaries to this can be judged from the letter of Linnaeus to Gmelin:

“It is not pleasing that I place man among the anthropomorphic, but man knows himself. Let's leave the words, it doesn't matter to me what name we use, but I ask you and the whole world the generic difference between man and ape, which (would follow) from the foundations of natural history. I most definitely don't know any; if someone pointed out to me at least one thing ... If I called a person a monkey, or, conversely, all theologians would attack me. Maybe I should have done it on the duty of science. Further, Linnaeus attributed the rhinoceros, elephant, walrus, sloth, anteater and armadillo to the second order Bruta (heavy animals), uniting them on the basis of the following features: “they have no front teeth at all, legs are equipped with strong nails. The gait is quiet, heavy. They mostly feed on fruits and crush their food.” Of these animals, according to the modern classification, the sloth, armadillo and anteater belong to the order of edentulous (Edentata), the elephant to the order of proboscis (Proboscidea), the rhinoceros to the order of equids (Peryssodactyla) and the walrus to the order of carnivores (Cagnivora), suborder of pinnipeds (Pinnipedia).

If Linnaeus combined the genera belonging to four different orders into one order of “heavy” (Bruta), then at the same time the genera belonging to the same order according to the modern natural classification (for example, walrus and seal) fell into different orders (walrus to heavy, seal to animals).

Thus, the Linnaean classification of animals, despite its undeniable positive value, consisting primarily in the fact that it provided a system that scientists could later use, was artificial. Nevertheless, for its time, of course, it played a very important role and was a significant approximation to the natural system in comparison with all previous classifications.

The Linnean classification of plants was more artificial, although it was distinguished by the greatest simplicity and convenience. Liney based it on the structure of the reproductive system (the number of stamens and pistils, whether they grow together or remain free). In constructing this system, he proceeded from his law of constancy of numbers, according to which each plant individual is distinguished by a certain number of flower parts (stamens and pistils). According to these characteristics, he divided all plants into 24 classes (i.e., he artificially divided plants according to one characteristic). In turn, the classes were divided into 68 units.

When dividing plants into orders, Linnaeus managed to create a more natural system, almost unchanged in the future. But when asked why he divided the plants into groups (orders), Linnaeus referred to “a certain intuitive feeling, the hidden instinct of a naturalist: I cannot give a basis for my orders,” he said, “but those who come after follow me, find these grounds and make sure that I was right. But still, in the taxonomy of plants, Linnaeus did not avoid mistakes. So, according to the number of stamens (2), he combined into one class such distant plants as lilac and one of the cereals - the golden spikelet.

In § 30 of the Philosophy of Botany (p. 170, ed., 1801), Linnaeus writes: “The marriage system (Systema sexuale) is that which is based on the male and female parts of the flower. All plants according to this system are divided into classes (classes), categories (ordines), sub-categories (Subordines), genera (genera), species (species). Classes are the main plant distinctions based on the number, proportionality of the position and connection of the stamens ... The order is the subdivision of the class, so that where a large number of species are to be dealt with, they do not escape our attention, and the mind easily catches them. It’s easier, after all, to cope with 10 births than with 100 at once ...

... Species (spesies) are units that are contained in the genus as descended from seeds, remain forever the same.

In the last sentence, Linnaeus asserts the constancy of species. In this work, which outlines the basic principles and views of Linnaeus, he metaphysically develops the ideas of his era about the immutability and isolation of species and genera, of which there are as many as "how many God created them." The disciples of Linnaeus were already talking about the variability of species. Thus, Greberg, in the collection of works of his students Amoenitates academicae (Academic Leisures, 19 volumes of dissertations), published in 1749 by Linnaeus, openly suggests that all species of the same genus used to be one species; at the same time, he sees the cause of variability in crossing. The biographers of Linnaeus (for example, Komarov) can be found doubting whether Linnaeus shared this point of view; he is considered firmly ostensibly convinced of the permanence of forms. But in Species plantarum, published in 1753, that is, only two years after the Philosophy of Botany, there are quite clear statements about the variability of species; At the same time, it is especially interesting that Linnaeus sees the cause of variability not only in crossings (like Greberg), but also in the influence of the external environment. Thus, on pp. 546-547, Linnaeus describes two species of Thalictrum: F. flavum and T. lucidum; while about T. lucidura he writes: “Is the plant different enough from T. flavum? “It seems to be the daughter of time.” He goes on to describe a species of Achillea ptarmica from the temperate zone of Europe and another species of Achillea alpina from Siberia, and concludes with the following suggestion: “Could not the place (i.e., external conditions) form this species from the previous one?”

Even more direct indications of the origin of species (not varieties) from others are contained in the second, corrected and supplemented edition of the book Species of Plants. Thus, on p. 322 he writes of Beta vulgaris: "It may have originated in foreign countries from Beta maritima." Regarding Clematis maritima, Linnaeus writes: “Magnol and Rey regard it as a variety of Clematis flanimula. In my opinion, it is better to consider it (derived) from Clematis recta under the influence of changes in the soil.

One could give many more examples of Linnaeus's perfectly clear statements about the origin of various species from other species under the influence of the external environment. I think that the foregoing quite clearly indicates a significant evolution of Linnaeus's views.

In fact, it would be difficult to expect anything else from a scientist who possessed the personal qualities of Linnaeus - exceptional erudition and memory, the title of the most diverse species and absolutely outstanding powers of observation. Linnaeus wrote about himself: Lyux faritalpa domi (“a lynx in the field, a mole in the house”), that is, if he is blind at home, like a mole, on excursions he is vigilant and observant, like a lynx.

Thanks to correspondence with botanists from all over the world, Linnaeus collected plants from all over the world in the Botanical Garden at Uppsala University and perfectly knew the flora known at that time. Naturally, his views on the immutability of species had to be revised. And only, perhaps, the well-known fear of public opinion and attacks from theologians explains the fact that in the "Philosophy of Botany", published in 1751, that is, just two years before the "Species of Plants" (and two years after "Academic leisure", where his students write about variability), his views did not find a clear expression. On the other hand, the possibility is not excluded that later, during the period of struggle around the evolutionary idea, its opponents used the authority of Linnaeus, relying on his early works and creating for him the glory of a consistent metaphysician; now it is necessary, as it were, to protect the scientific reputation of Linnaeus, restoring his true views and their evolution over the course of almost 50 years of his scientific activity.

But, of course, if in the second half of his scientific activity he allowed the variability of individual species, their origin from other species, this does not mean that he stood on the point of view of the evolution of the organic world, since, apparently, regarding genera he was convinced that "the constancy of childbirth is the basis of botany."

At the same time, Linnaeus, perhaps more than any of his contemporaries, provided material for proving and substantiating the evolutionary idea, since he approached the creation of a natural classification of plants and animals known to him, which was then created by the works of Jussieu, De- Kandolya and others. Natural classification, asserting the genetic connection of organic forms, develops into an evolutionary doctrine, is, as it were, the basis for it. The dialectical course of the development of science is clearly seen in this example. Scientists who were looking for and trying to create a natural classification - and John Ray, and Linnaeus, and Cuvier - did not themselves share the idea of ​​evolution or, like Cuvier, for example, even actively fought against it. Nevertheless, their work on the creation of a natural classification system that establishes the relationship of species to each other, the origin of species from the same genus, etc., naturally led to the conclusion about the variability of species and, further, about the evolution of the organic world. This explains that the natural classification appears before the evolutionary doctrine, and not after it, and that it represents, as it were, one of the sources and one of the proofs of the idea of ​​evolution.

Engels wrote about the development of biology: “The deeper this research penetrated, the more precisely it was done, the more this frozen system (of unchanging species, genera, classes, kingdoms) of unchanging organic nature blurred under the hands. Not only did the boundaries between individual species of plants and animals disappear hopelessly, but animals appeared, like amphiox and lopidosiren, which definitely mocked all the classifications that existed before ”(“ D.P. ”). And further: “But it is precisely these supposedly insoluble and irreconcilable polar opposites, these hereditarily fixed boundaries of classification, that have given modern theoretical natural science a limited metaphysical character. The recognition that these opposites and differences in nature have only a relative significance, that, on the contrary, the immobility and absoluteness attributed to nature are introduced into it only by our reflection - this recognition constitutes the main point of the dialectical understanding of nature.

Thus, the work done by Liney played a colossal role in the development of natural science in the 18th century.

Moscow, 13/IV 1936

By the 18th century scientists and nature lovers have done a great job collecting and describing plants and animals all over the world. But it became more and more difficult to navigate in the ocean of information accumulated by them. The Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus generalized and brought this knowledge into a system. He laid the foundations of modern taxonomy.

Carl Linnaeus was born on May 23, 1707 in the family of a village priest. Carl's mother from childhood brought up in him a love for all living things, especially for flowers.

But the future president of the Swedish Academy of Sciences remained very indifferent to schoolwork. Latin was not given to him at all. The teachers said that education, apparently, was not up to the boy - it would be better to teach him some trade. The angry father decided to send Karl to be trained by a shoemaker.

And Linney would have waited for a career as a shoemaker, if a familiar doctor had not persuaded the boy's father to allow him to study medicine. In addition, he helped Carl finish high school.

Karl studied medicine and biology at the universities of the Swedish cities of Lund and Uppsala. He lived in his student years in poverty.

When Karl was 25 years old, the leadership of the Uppsala University invited him to go on a scientific journey through northern Scandinavia - Lapland, to explore its nature. He carried all his luggage on his shoulders. During this journey, he ate what he had to, barely got out of the swampy swamps, fought mosquitoes. And once he ran into a more serious enemy - a robber who almost killed him. Despite all the obstacles, Linnaeus collected samples of Lapland plants.

At home, Linnaeus could not find a permanent job in his specialty, and for several years he moved to Holland, where he was in charge of one of the best botanical gardens in the country.

Here he received his doctorate, here in 1735 his most famous work, The System of Nature, was published. During the life of Linnaeus, 12 editions of this book were published. All this time, Linnaeus constantly supplemented it and increased its volume from 14 pages to 3 volumes.

Carl Linnaeus system:

The concept of the form.

In order to “sort through” a huge number of descriptions of plants and animals, some kind of systematic unit was needed. Such a unit, common to all living things, Linnaeus considered the species. By species, Linnaeus called a group of individuals similar to each other, like children of the same parents and their children. A species consists of many similar individuals that produce fertile offspring. For example, forest raspberries are one species, stone berries are another, cloudberries are the third species of plants. All domestic cats are one species, tigers are another, lions are a third species of animals. Consequently, the whole organic world consists of various types of plants and animals. All living nature consists, as it were, of separate links - species.

Linnaeus discovered and described about 1,500 plant species and over 400 animal species, he distributed all plant and animal species into large groups - classes, he divided each class into orders, each order into genera. Each genus of Linnaeus was composed of similar species.

Nomenclature.

Linnaeus began to give names to species in the very Latin that was so poorly given to him in his school years. Latin was at that time the international language of science. Thus, Linnaeus solved a difficult problem: after all, when names were given in different languages, the same species could be described under many names.

A very important merit of Linnaeus was the introduction of double species names (binary nomenclature) into practice. He proposed to name each species with two words. The first is the name of the genus, which includes closely related species. For example, a lion, a tiger, a domestic cat belong to the genus Felis (Cat). The second word is the name of the species itself (respectively, Felis leo, Felis tigris, Felis do-mestica). In the same way, the European Spruce and Tien Shan Spruce (blue) species are combined into the genus Spruce, the White Hare and Brown Hare species into the Hare genus. Thanks to the double nomenclature, the similarity, commonality, unity of the species that form one genus is revealed.

Systematics of animals.

Linnaeus divided animals into 6 classes:

mammals

Amphibians (in this class he placed amphibians and reptiles)

Insects

The number of "worms" includes molluscs, jellyfish, various worms, and all microorganisms (the latter were combined by Linnaeus into a single genus - Chaos infusorium).

Man (whom he called "reasonable man", Homo sapiens) Linnaeus rather boldly for his time placed in the class of mammals and the detachment of primates along with monkeys. He did it 120 years before Charles Darwin. He did not believe that man was descended from other primates, but he saw a great similarity in their structure.

Systematics of plants.

Linnaeus approached the systematization of plants in more detail than the systematization of animals. He singled out 24 classes among plants. Linnaeus understood that the most essential and characteristic part of a plant is a flower. He attributed plants with one stamen in a flower to the 1st class, to the 2nd - with two, to the 3rd - with three, etc. Mushrooms, lichens, algae, horsetails, ferns - in general, all, devoid of flowers, were in the 24th class ("mystery").

The artificiality of Linnaeus' systematics.

The system of plants and animals of Linnaeus was largely artificial. Plants far from each other (for example, carrots and currants) ended up in the same class only because their flowers have the same number of stamens. Many related plants ended up in different classes. The systematics of Linnaeus is artificial, also because it helped to recognize plants and animals, but did not reflect the course of the historical development of the world.

Linnaeus was aware of this deficiency in his system. He believed that future naturalists should create a natural system of plants and animals, which should take into account all the features of organisms, and not just one or two signs. Trying to develop a natural system of plants, Linnaeus became convinced that the science of that time did not provide the knowledge necessary for this.

Despite the artificiality, the Linnaean system played a positive role in biology. The systematic subdivisions proposed by Linnaeus and the dual nomenclature have firmly entered science and are used in modern botany and zoology. Later, two more divisions were introduced:

Type - the highest division that unites similar classes;

Family - uniting similar genera

Linnaeus innovations.

Carl Linnaeus reformed the botanical language. He first proposed such plant names as: corolla, anther, nectary, ovary, stigma, filament, receptacle, perianth. In total, K. Linnaeus introduced about a thousand terms into botany.

Linnaeus' views on nature.

Science at that time was influenced by religion. Linnaeus was an idealist, he argued that in nature there are as many species of plants and animals as "how many different forms the almighty created at the beginning of the world." Linnaeus believed that plant and animal species do not change; they retained their characteristics "from the moment of creation." According to Linnaeus, every modern species is the offspring of the original parent pair created by God. Each species reproduces, but retains, in his opinion, unchanged all the features of this ancestral pair.

As a good observer, Linnaeus could not help but see the contradictions between the ideas about the complete immutability of plants and animals with what is observed in nature. He allowed the formation of varieties within a species due to the influence of climate change and other external conditions on organisms.

The idealistic and metaphysical doctrine of the creation and immutability of species dominated biology until the beginning of the 19th century, until it was refuted as a result of the discovery of many proofs of evolution.

Carl Linnaeus (Swedish Carl Linnaeus, Carl Linné, lat. Carolus Linnaeus, after receiving the nobility in 1761 - Carl von Linné; May 23, 1707, Roshult - January 10, 1778, Uppsala) - Swedish naturalist and physician, creator of a unified system of plant and animal world, which generalized and largely streamlined the biological knowledge of the entire previous period and even during his lifetime brought him worldwide fame. One of the main merits of Linnaeus was the definition of the concept of a biological species, the introduction of the active use of binominal (binary) nomenclature and the establishment of a clear subordination between systematic (taxonomic) categories.

Linnaeus is the most famous Swedish naturalist. In Sweden, he is also valued as a traveler who opened their own country for the Swedes, studied the peculiarities of the Swedish provinces and saw "how one province can help another." The value for the Swedes is not so much Linnaeus's work on the flora and fauna of Sweden, as his descriptions of his own travels; these diary entries, full of specifics, rich in contrasts, set out in clear language, are still being republished and read. Linnaeus is one of those figures of science and culture with whom the final formation of the literary Swedish language in its modern form is associated.

Member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences (1739, one of the founders of the academy), the Paris Academy of Sciences (1762) and a number of other scientific societies and academies.

early years

Carl Linnaeus was born on May 23, 1707 in southern Sweden - in the village of Roshult in the province of Småland. His father is Nils Ingemarsson Linnaeus (Swedish Nicolaus (Nils) Ingemarsson Linnæus, 1674-1748), a village priest, the son of a peasant; mother - Christina Linnæa (Linne), nee Brodersonia (Swedish: Christina Linnæa (Brodersonia), 1688-1733), daughter of a village priest. The surname Linnaeus (Linnæus) is the Latinized Swedish name for the linden tree (Lind): when Nils Ingemarsson went to study at Lund University, he, according to the custom of that time, replaced his real surname with a Latin pseudonym, choosing as it a word associated with the Ingemarsson family symbol - a large three-barreled linden who grew up on the lands of his ancestors in the parish of Hvitavrid in southern Sweden. In Sweden, Linnaeus is usually called Carl von Linné, after the name he took after his elevation to the nobility; in the tradition of literature in English, to call him Carl Linnaeus, that is, by the name that he was given at birth.

Karl was the firstborn in the family (later Nils Ingemarsson and Christina had four more children - three girls and a boy).

In 1709, the family moved to Stenbrukhult (Swedish) Russian, located a couple of kilometers from Roshult. There, Niels Linneus planted a small garden near his house, which he lovingly looked after. From early childhood, Karl also showed interest in plants.

In 1716-1727, Carl Linnaeus studied in the city of Växjö: first at the lower grammar school (1716-1724), then at the gymnasium (1724-1727). Since Växjö was about fifty kilometers from Stenbruchult, Karl was at home only during the holidays. His parents wanted him to train as a pastor and in the future, as the eldest son, take the place of his father, but Karl studied very poorly, especially in the basic subjects - theology and ancient languages. He was only interested in botany and mathematics; often he even skipped classes, instead of going to school, going to nature to study plants.

Dr. Johan Stensson Rothman (German) Russian (1684-1763), a district doctor who taught logic and medicine at Linnaeus's school, persuaded Nils Linneus to send his son to study as a doctor and began to study medicine, physiology and botany with Karl individually. The concern of the parents about the fate of Karl was connected, in particular, with the fact that it was very difficult to find a job for a doctor in Sweden at that time, at the same time there were no problems with working for a priest.

Studying in Lund and Uppsala

Lund was the closest city to Växjö that had a higher education institution. In 1727, Linnaeus passed his exams and was enrolled at the University of Lund, where he began to study natural history and medicine. Linnaeus was most interested in the lectures of Professor Kilian Stobeus (Swedish) Russian. (1690-1742). Linnaeus settled at the professor's house; it was with the help of Stobeus that he largely put in order the information that he had gleaned from books and his own observations.

In August 1728, on the advice of Johan Rotman, Linnaeus transferred to the larger and older Uppsala University, founded back in 1474 - there were more opportunities to study medicine. Two professors of medicine worked in Uppsala at that time, Olof Rudbek Jr. (1660-1740) and Lars Ruberg (Swedish) Russian. (1664-1742).

At Uppsala University, Linnaeus met his peer, student Peter Artedi (1705-1735), together with whom they began work on a critical revision of the natural history classifications that existed at that time. Linnaeus mainly dealt with plants in general, Artedi with fish, amphibians and umbrella plants. It should be noted that the level of teaching at both universities was not very high and most of the time students were engaged in self-education.

Manuscript of Linnaeus' Praeludia sponsaliorum plantarum (December 1729)

In 1729, Linnaeus met Olof Celsius (Swedish) Russian. (1670-1756), professor of theology, who was an enthusiastic botanist. This meeting turned out to be very important for Linnaeus: he soon settled in the house of Celsius and gained access to his extensive library. In the same year, Linnaeus wrote a short work "Introduction to the Sexual Life of Plants" (lat. Praeludia sponsaliorum plantarum), which outlined the main ideas of his future classification of plants based on sexual characteristics. This work aroused great interest in Uppsala academic circles.

From 1730, Linnaeus, under the guidance of Professor Olof Rudbeck Jr., began teaching as a demonstrator in the university's botanical garden. Linnaeus's lectures were a great success. In the same year, he moved to the professor's house and began to serve as a home teacher in his family. Linnaeus, however, did not live in the Rudbecks' house for too long, the reason for which was an unsettled relationship with the professor's wife.

It is known about the educational excursions that Linnaeus conducted during these years in the vicinity of Uppsala.

With another professor of medicine, Lars Ruberg, Linnaeus also developed a good relationship. Ruberg was a follower of the philosophy of the Cynics, he seemed a strange person, dressed badly, but he was a talented scientist and owner of a large library. Linnaeus admired him and was an active follower of the new mechanistic physiology, which was based on the fact that the entire diversity of the world has a single structure and can be reduced to a relatively small number of rational laws, just as physics is reduced to Newton's laws. The main postulate of this doctrine, “man is a machine” (lat. Homo machina est), in relation to medicine, as presented by Ruberg, looked like this: “The heart is a pump, the lungs are a bellows, the stomach is a trough.” It is known that Linnaeus was an adherent of another thesis - “man is an animal” (Latin homo animal est). In general, such a mechanistic approach to natural phenomena contributed to the drawing of many parallels both between different areas of natural science, and between nature and socio-cultural phenomena. It was on such views that Linnaeus and his friend Peter Artedy built plans for reforming the entire science of nature; their idea was to create a single orderly system of knowledge that would be easy to review May 12, 1732 Linnaeus went to Lapland.

The idea of ​​this journey largely belonged to Professor Olof Rudbek Jr., who traveled precisely in Lapland in 1695 (this trip of Rudbek can be called the first scientific expedition in Sweden), and later, based on the materials collected in Lapland, he wrote and illustrated a book about birds, which he showed to Linnaeus.

Linnaeus returned from Lapland in the autumn, October 10, with collections and records. In the same year, Florula lapponica (“Short Flora of Lapland”) was published, in which the so-called “plant reproductive system” of 24 classes, based on the structure of stamens and pistils, appears for the first time in print.

The universities in Sweden during this period did not issue doctoral degrees, and Linnaeus, without a doctoral degree, could no longer teach in Uppsala.

In 1733, Linnaeus was actively engaged in mineralogy and wrote a textbook on this subject. Around Christmas 1733, he moved to Falun, where he began teaching assaying and mineralogy.

In 1734, Linnaeus made a botanical journey to the province of Dalarna.

Linnaeus in the "Lapland" costume (in the national costume of the Sami) (1737). Painting by Dutch artist Martin Hoffman. It can be seen that in his right hand Linnaeus holds his favorite plant, a little later named after him - Linnaeus. The Sami costume, as well as the herbarium of the Lapland flora, together with the manuscript of the Flora of Lapland, Linnaeus brought to Holland

Dutch period

In the spring of 1735, Linnaeus went to Holland for his doctorate, accompanying one of his students. Before arriving in Holland, Linnaeus visited Hamburg. On June 23, he received his MD from the University of Harderwijk with a dissertation entitled "A New Intermittent Fever Hypothesis" (on the causes of malaria). From Harderwijk, Linnaeus went to Leiden, where he published a short work, Systema naturae (“System of Nature”), which opened the way for him to the circle of learned doctors, naturalists and collectors of Holland, who turned around Hermann Boerhaave (1668-1738), a professor at the University of Leiden, who enjoyed European fame. .

In August 1735, under the patronage of friends, Linnaeus received the post of curator of the collections and the botanical garden, George Clifford (English) Russian. (1685-1760), burgomaster of Amsterdam and director of the Dutch East India Company. The garden was located on the estate of Hartekamp (Nid.) Russian. near the city of Haarlem; Linnaeus was engaged in the description and classification of a large collection of live exotic plants delivered to Holland by the company's ships from all over the world.

Linnaeus's close friend Peter Artedi also moved to Holland. He worked in Amsterdam, putting in order the collections of Albert Seba (1665-1736), traveler, zoologist and pharmacist. Artedi managed to finish his generalizing work on ichthyology, and also identified all the fish from the Seb collection and made a description of them; Unfortunately, on September 27, 1735, Artedi drowned in a canal, having stumbled while returning home at night. Linnaeus and Artedi bequeathed their manuscripts to each other, however, for the issuance of Artedi's manuscripts, the owner of the apartment in which he lived demanded a large ransom, which was paid by Linnaeus thanks to the assistance of George Clifford. Later, Linnaeus prepared his friend's manuscript for printing and published it (Ichtyologia, 1738). Linnaeus also used Artedi's proposals for the classification of fish and umbrellas in his work.

In the summer of 1736, Linnaeus lived for several months in England, where he met with the famous botanists of the time, Hans Sloan (1660-1753) and Johan Jacob Dillenius (1687-1747). Three years spent by Linnaeus in Holland is one of the most productive periods of his scientific biography. During this time, his main works came out: in addition to the first edition of Systema naturae (“System of Nature”), Linnaeus managed to publish Bibliotheca Botanica (“Botanical Library” - a systematic catalog of literature on botany), Fundamenta Botanica (“Foundations of Botany” - a collection of aphorisms about the principles descriptions and classifications of plants), Musa Cliffordiana ("Clifford's Banana" - a description of a banana growing in Clifford's garden, in this work Linnaeus makes one of the first sketches of the natural plant system), Hortus Cliffortianus (German) Russian. ("Clifford's Garden" - a description of the garden), Flora Lapponica ("The Lapland flora" - a complete edition; an abridged version of this work, Florula lapponica, was published in 1732), Genera plantarum ("Plant genera" - characteristics of plant genera), Classes plantarum ("Classes of Plants" - a comparison of all plant systems known at that time with the system of Linnaeus himself and the first publication of the natural system of plants of Linnaeus in full), Critica botanica (a set of rules for the formation of names of plant genera). Some of these books came out with wonderful illustrations by artist George Ehret. (1708-1770).

In 1738, Linnaeus traveled back to Sweden, visiting Paris along the way, where he met with the botanists, the Jussieu brothers.

Linnaeus family

In 1734, on Christmas Day, Linnaeus met his future wife: her name was Sara Lisa Morea (Swed. Sara Elisabeth (Elisabet, Lisa) Moraea (Moræa), 1716-1806), she was the daughter of Johan Hansson Moreus (Swed. Johan Hansson Moraeus (Moræus), 1672-1742), city physician in Falun. Two weeks after they met, Linnaeus proposed to her. In the spring of 1735, shortly before leaving for Europe, Linnaeus and Sarah became engaged (without a formal ceremony). Linnaeus partially received money for the trip from his future father-in-law.

In 1738, after returning from Europe, Linnaeus and Sarah became officially engaged, and in September 1739, a wedding took place in the Moreus family farm.

Their first child (later known as Carl Linnaeus Jr.) was born in 1741. They had seven children in total (two boys and five girls), of whom two (a boy and a girl) died in infancy.

The genus of flowering South African perennials from the Iridaceae family was named Moraea (Morea) by Linnaeus - in honor of his wife and her father.

Coat of arms of Linnaeus

Morea flower - a plant named by Linnaeus in honor of his wife Sarah Lisa Morea and her father

Mature years in Stockholm and Uppsala

Returning to his homeland, Linnaeus opened a medical practice in Stockholm (1738). Having cured several ladies-in-waiting from coughs with a decoction of fresh yarrow leaves, he soon became a court physician and one of the most fashionable doctors in the capital. It is known that in his medical work, Linnaeus actively used strawberries - both for the treatment of gout, and for blood purification, improving complexion, and reducing weight. In 1739, Linnaeus, heading the naval hospital, obtained permission to open the corpses of the dead to determine the cause of death.

In addition to medical practice, Linnaeus taught in Stockholm at the mining school.

In 1739, Linnaeus took part in the formation of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences (which was a private society in its early years) and became its first chairman.

In October 1741, Linnaeus took up the position of professor of medicine at Uppsala University and moved to the professorial house, located in the University Botanical Garden (now the Linnaeus Garden). The position of professor allowed him to concentrate on writing books and dissertations on natural history. Linnaeus worked at Uppsala University until the end of his life.

On behalf of the Swedish Parliament, Linnaeus participated in scientific expeditions - in 1741 to Öland and Gotland, the Swedish islands in the Baltic Sea, in 1746 - to the province of Västergötland (Swedish) Russian. (Western Sweden), and in 1749 - to the province of Skåne (Southern Sweden).

In 1750, Carl Linnaeus was appointed rector of Uppsala University.

The most significant publications of the 1750s:
Philosophia botanica ("Philosophy of Botany", 1751) is a textbook on botany, translated into many European languages ​​and remaining a model for other textbooks until the beginning of the 19th century.
Species plantarum ("Plant Species"). The date of publication of the work - May 1, 1753 - is taken as the starting point for botanical nomenclature.
10th edition of Systema naturae ("The System of Nature"). The date of publication of this edition, January 1, 1758, is taken as the starting point for zoological nomenclature.
Amoenitates academicae ("Academic leisure", 1751-1790). A collection of dissertations written by Linnaeus for his students and partly by the students themselves.

In 1758, Linnaeus acquired the farm of Hammarby (Swed. Hammarby) about ten kilometers southeast of Uppsala (now Linnaeus Hammarby). The country house in Hammarby became his summer estate.

In 1774, Linnaeus suffered the first stroke (a cerebral hemorrhage), as a result of which he was partially paralyzed. In the winter of 1776-1777 there was a second blow. On December 30, 1777, Linnaeus became much worse, and on January 10, 1778, he died at his home in Uppsala.

As one of the prominent citizens of Uppsala, Linnaeus was buried in Uppsala Cathedral.

Apostles of Linnaeus
Main article: Linnaean apostles

The Apostles of Linnaeus were his students, who participated in botanical and zoological expeditions in various parts of the world, starting in the late 1740s. The plans for some of them were developed by Linnaeus himself or with his participation. From their travels, most of the "apostles" brought to their teacher or sent plant seeds, herbarium and zoological specimens. Expeditions were associated with great dangers; of the 17 disciples who are usually referred to as "apostles", seven died during their travels, among them was the first "apostle of Linnaeus", Christopher Tärnström (Swedish) Russian. (1703-1746). After his widow accused Linnaeus of the fact that it was his fault that her children would grow up as orphans, he began to send on expeditions only those of his students who were unmarried.

Contribution to science

Linnaeus laid the foundations of modern binominal (binary) nomenclature by introducing the so-called nomina trivialia into the practice of systematics, which later began to be used as specific epithets in the binomial names of living organisms. The method of forming a scientific name introduced by Linnaeus for each of the species is still used (the previously used long names, consisting of a large number of words, gave a description of the species, but were not strictly formalized). The use of the Latin name of two words - the name of the genus, then the specific name - made it possible to separate the nomenclature from the taxonomy.

Carl Linnaeus is the author of the most successful artificial classification of plants and animals, which has become the basis for the scientific classification of living organisms. He divided the natural world into three "kingdoms": mineral, vegetable and animal, using four levels ("ranks"): classes, orders, genera and species.

He described about one and a half thousand new plant species (the total number of plant species described by him is more than ten thousand) and a large number of animal species.

In part, Linnaeus owes humanity the current Celsius scale. Initially, the scale of the thermometer, invented by Linnaeus's colleague at Uppsala University, Professor Anders Celsius (1701–1744), had zero at the boiling point of water and 100 degrees at the freezing point. Linnaeus, who used thermometers to measure conditions in greenhouses and greenhouses, found this inconvenient and in 1745, after the death of Celsius, “turned over” the scale.

Linnaeus Collection

Carl Linnaeus left a huge collection, which included two herbaria, a collection of shells, a collection of insects and a collection of minerals, as well as a large library. “This is the greatest collection the world has ever seen,” he wrote to his wife in a letter that he bequeathed to be read after his death.

After long family disputes and against the instructions of Carl Linnaeus, the entire collection went to his son, Carl Linnaeus Jr. collection of insects by that time had already suffered from pests and dampness). The English naturalist Sir Joseph Banks (1743–1820) offered to sell his collection, but he refused.

But shortly after the sudden death of Carl Linnaeus Jr. from a stroke in late 1783, his mother (the widow of Carl Linnaeus) wrote to Banks that she was ready to sell him the collection. He did not buy it himself, but convinced the young English naturalist James Edward Smith (1759-1828) to do so. Potential buyers were also a student of Carl Linnaeus, Baron Claes Alströmer (1736-1894), the Russian Empress Catherine the Great, and the English botanist John Sibthorpe (English) Russian. (1758-1796) and others, but Smith was quicker: quickly approving the inventory sent to him, he approved the deal. Scientists and students of Uppsala University demanded that the authorities do everything to leave the legacy of Linnaeus in their homeland, but King Gustav III of Sweden was in Italy at that time, and government officials replied that they could not resolve this issue without his intervention ...

In September 1784, the collection left Stockholm on an English brig and was soon safely delivered to England. The legend according to which the Swedes sent their warship to intercept the English brig that was taking out the Linnaeus collection has no scientific basis, although it is depicted in an engraving from R. Thornton's book "A New Illustration of the Linnaeus System".

The collection received by Smith included 19 thousand herbarium sheets, more than three thousand specimens of insects, more than one and a half thousand shells, over seven hundred coral specimens, two and a half thousand specimens of minerals; the library consisted of two and a half thousand books, over three thousand letters, as well as manuscripts of Carl Linnaeus, his son and other scientists.

Linneanism

Even during his lifetime, Linnaeus gained worldwide fame, following his teachings, conventionally called Linneanism, became widespread at the end of the 18th century. And although Linnaeus's concentration in the study of phenomena on the collection of material and its further classification looks excessive from the point of view of today, and the approach itself seems to be very one-sided, for their time the activities of Linnaeus and his followers became very important. The spirit of systematization that permeated this activity helped biology to become a full-fledged science in a fairly short time and, in a sense, to catch up with physics, which was actively developing during the 18th century as a result of the scientific revolution.

In 1788, Smith founded in London the Linnean Society of London ("Lonnean Society of London"), the purpose of which was declared "the development of science in all its manifestations", including the preservation and development of the teachings of Linnaeus. Today this society is one of the most authoritative scientific centers, especially in the field of biological systematics. A significant part of the Linnaean collection is still kept in a special repository of the society (and is available to researchers).

Soon after the London Society, a similar society appeared in Paris - Société linnéenne de Paris ("Paris Linnean Society") (fr.) Russian .. Its heyday came in the first years after the French Revolution.

Later, similar Linnean societies (fr.) Russian. appeared in Australia, Belgium, Spain, Canada, USA, Sweden and other countries.

Honors

Even during his lifetime, Linnaeus was given metaphorical names emphasizing his unique significance for world science. He was called Princeps botanicorum (there are several translations into Russian - “First among botanists”, “Prince of botanists”, “Prince of botanists”), “Northern Pliny” (in this name Linnaeus is compared with Pliny the Elder, author of Natural History), “Second Adam", as well as "Lord of Paradise" and "Giving Names to the Animal World". As Linnaeus himself wrote in one of his autobiographies, “a great man can come out of a small hut.”

Awards and nobility

In 1753, Linnaeus was made a Knight of the Order of the Polar Star, Sweden's civil merit order.

On April 20, 1757, Linnaeus was granted a title of nobility, his name as a nobleman was now recorded as Carl von Linné (the decision to raise him to the nobility was approved in 1761). On the family coat of arms, which he invented for himself, there was a shield divided into three parts, painted in three colors, black, green and red, symbolizing the three kingdoms of nature (minerals, plants and animals). In the center of the shield was an egg. The top of the shield was entwined with a shoot of northern linnaea, a favorite plant of Carl Linnaeus. Under the shield was the motto in Latin: Famam extendere factis (“multiply glory with deeds”).

Giving the son of a poor priest a title of nobility, even after he became a professor and a famous scientist, was by no means a common occurrence in Sweden.

Named after Linnaeus

taxa

Linnaea (Linnaea Gronov.) is a genus of northern evergreen creeping shrubs, later separated into a separate family Linnaeaceae - Linnaeaceae (Raf.) Backlund. The plant is named after Linnaeus by the Dutch botanist Jan Gronovius. The only species of this genus, Linnaea northern (Linnaea borealis), is the official flower symbol of Linnaeus' native province of Småland.
One of the most large-flowered hybrid varieties of peony (Paeonia) is ‘Linné’.
Malva Linnaeus (Malva linnaei M.F. Ray). A type of annual or biennial herb with pink, blue or purple flowers, native to the Mediterranean, and often found wild in Australia.
Linnaeus hawthorn (Crataegus linnaeana Pojark.). A tree growing wild in southern Italy; as a fruit plant cultivated in the Western Mediterranean, including in France

Linnaeus northern

Peony ‘Linné’

Linnaeus and Modernity

As Professor G. Bruberg, a modern researcher of Linnaeus's life, writes, Karl Linnaeus, who, despite his modest origin, became a world-famous scientist, is "an important element of Swedish national mythology", "a symbol of the entry of a poor and exhausted nation into a stage of maturity, strength and power" . This attitude towards Linnaeus becomes all the more understandable because the scientist’s youth fell on the period when Sweden, along with the death of King Charles XII in 1718, lost the status of a great power.

In 2007, on the territory of the Skansen ethnographic park in Stockholm, on the occasion of the 300th anniversary of the scientist's birth, the "Linnaeus trail" was created. It has 12 stops, including the Herb Garden (in which you can find representatives of various classes of Linnaeus's "sexual" classification system), "Krunan Pharmacy" (dedicated to the medical stage in his life), as well as those areas of Skansen - "Sweden", which Linnaeus once visited: Lapland, Central Sweden, Småland.

Banknotes in denominations of 100 Swedish kronor with a portrait of Linnaeus

The modern Swedish 100-krona banknote features a portrait of Linnaeus by Alexander Roslin (1775). The reverse side of the banknote features a bee pollinating a flower.

(1707-1778) Swedish biologist

Carl Linnaeus was born on May 23, 1707 in the small Swedish village of Roskhult into the family of a village priest.

The father tried to give his son a good education in the hope that Charles would also become a clergyman. But the boy was most attracted to wildlife. He graduated from elementary school, and in the gymnasium he was not given Latin and Greek. Teachers considered him an incapable child, although the boy showed an extraordinary interest in all kinds of plants.

The city doctor Rothman took Linnaeus into his house, worked with him a lot and even weakened his aversion to Latin by reading the works of Pliny the Elder on natural science. Rothman was a good teacher. He got down to business so skillfully that Karl did not notice how he fell in love with the very Latin that he did not want to hear about before.

After graduating from high school, Carl Linnaeus studied medicine and biology at the universities of the Swedish cities of Lund and Uppsala. The father could only send a small amount of money to his son. But despite the hardships, the young man still collected a herbarium and sought to understand the whole variety of flowers, the number and arrangement of their stamens and pistils. Karl was only 23 years old when the famous professor Rudbeck took him on as his assistant. Carl Linnaeus becomes his assistant, and sometimes even lectures for him. In the spring of 1732, the leadership of Uppsala University invited him to go on a trip to northern Scandinavia - Lapland, to explore its nature. Very little money was allocated for the expedition, but this did not bother the naturalist. Linnaeus traveled almost the entire north of Scandinavia, observed nature, studied it, and wrote it down. Upon his return from the expedition, he published his first book, Flora of Lapland.

After graduating from the university, Carl Linnaeus was going to stay here as a teacher, but this required a scientific degree, and Carl went to Holland.

The Dutch period of Linnaeus's life was both happy and fruitful. It was here that he received his doctorate, conducted scientific work for about a year in one of the best botanical gardens in the country.

In Holland, in 1735, the Swedish scientist published his most famous work, The System of Nature. Despite the small volume - only 12 pages, his work was of epochal significance. In it, Carl Linnaeus proposed a binary nomenclature - a system for the scientific naming of plants and animals. In his opinion, each name should have consisted of two words - a generic and a specific designation. A species consists of many similar individuals that produce fertile offspring. The scientist was convinced that species are eternal and cannot change. But already in his later works, he noted some examples of the variability of organisms and the emergence of new species from old ones. Linnaeus gave names to species in Latin, the same one that was poorly given to him in his school years. At that time, Latin was the international language of science. Thus, Linnaeus solved a difficult problem: after all, if the names were given in different languages, then the same species could be described under many names.

Characterizing any plant, Carl Linnaeus used a double name - generic and specific. The genus name is common to all species belonging to it; the species name refers to plants of that species. For example, the name of the genus is currant, the species are red, black, white, and the full names are red currant, etc. He based the classification of plants on the structure of the flower. Plants were divided by Karl Linn into 24 classes, the first 13 being determined simply by the number of stamens in a flower, the next 7 classes were determined by their location and length. Mushrooms, lichens, algae - in general, all devoid of flowers, were, according to his classification, in the 24th class ("mystery"). The ease of determining belonging to a particular class and the brevity of the system are the captivating advantages of Linnaeus's classification. Of course, he understood the primitiveness and inaccuracy of the division he proposed: cereals were distributed among different classes, trees were adjacent to wildflowers. Nevertheless, the merit of the Swedish scientist was great, because he introduced clear and unified rules for describing plants.

And in the classification of animals, Carl Linnaeus applied a clear system (class - detachment - genus - variety), which, with some additions, is still used in our time. The division of the animal world into classes by Linnaeus is based on the features of the circulatory system. He singled out only 6 classes: mammals, birds, amphibians, fish, insects and worms. Almost all invertebrates fell into the class of worms. Linnaeus correctly placed man and the great apes in the same order on the basis of similarities in their structure, although such thoughts were then considered criminal. Of course, Linnaeus understood the artificiality of his system. “An artificial system,” he said, “serves only until a natural one is found; the first teaches only to recognize plants, the second teaches on the very nature of plants.

A few years later, Carl Linnaeus returned to his homeland not only as a doctor, but also as a botanist with a European name, although at first life in his homeland turned out to be difficult. The young doctor did not yet have patients, and the fame of a naturalist did not bring money. Linnaeus was even going to leave for Holland: in the country of flower growers, he could get a good job as a botanist. And suddenly he was lucky: he managed to cure the patient, who was considered hopeless. Suddenly, medical fame also came, and with it a large number of patients. But the young scientist wanted to do scientific work. In 1741 he became a professor at his native Uppsala University, and soon after became the first president of the Swedish Academy of Sciences. Carl Linnaeus was awarded the title of nobility. He could justly be proud of himself, for everything he became famous for was achieved by his own will and his own work.

By this time, Linnaeus was known to the entire scientific world. Among his students were Russians. He carried on extensive correspondence with many St. Petersburg botanists, received herbariums from Russia with descriptions of plants growing in different parts of the country, and in 1754 he was elected an honorary member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences.

Linnaeus was an exceptionally efficient and industrious person. Avaricious, stubborn in achieving his goal, he had an enterprising and lively character. A brilliant lecturer, he was popular with the students.

All his life he supplemented and republished his works, which gradually turned from a small book into a multi-volume publication.

After his death, old books and herbariums of Carl Linnaeus are kept in the British Museum.