The earliest states The oldest countries in Europe: the time of birth

The most ancient states of the world The first states appeared about 6000 years ago, but not all of them could survive to this day. Some have disappeared forever, others have only a name left, but there are those that have retained a connection with the Ancient World. 1. Armenia The history of Armenian statehood dates back about 2500 years, although its origins should be looked for even deeper - in the kingdom of Arme-Shubria (XII century BC), which, according to the historian Boris Piotrovsky, at the turn of the 7th and 6th centuries BC n. e. turned into a Scythian-Armenian association. Ancient Armenia is a motley conglomeration of kingdoms and states that existed simultaneously or replaced one another. Tabal, Melid, the kingdom of Mush, the Hurrian, Luwian and Urartian states - the descendants of their inhabitants eventually joined the Armenian people. The term "Armenia" is first found in the Behistun inscription (521 BC) of the Persian king Darius I, who thus designated the Persian satrapy on the territory of the disappeared Urartu. Later, in the valley of the Araks River, the Ararat kingdom arose, which served as the basis for the formation of the other three - Sofen, Lesser Armenia and Greater Armenia. Around the 3rd century BC. e. the center of the political and cultural life of the Armenian people moves to the Ararat valley. 2. Iran The history of Iran is one of the most ancient and eventful. Based on written sources, scientists suggest that the age of Iran is at least 5000 years. However, in Iranian history they include such a proto-state formation as Elam, located in the southwest of modern Iran and mentioned in the Bible. The first most significant Iranian state was the Median kingdom, founded in the 7th century BC. e. During its heyday, the Median kingdom significantly exceeded the size of the ethnographic region of modern Iran, Media. In the Avesta, this region was called the "Country of the Aryans". The Iranian-speaking tribes of the Medes, according to one version, moved here from Central Asia, according to another - from the North Caucasus and gradually assimilated the local non-Aryan tribes. The Medes very quickly settled throughout western Iran and established control over it. Over time, having grown stronger, they were able to defeat the Assyrian Empire. The beginnings of the Medes were continued by the Persian Empire, spreading its influence over vast territories from Greece to India. 3. China According to Chinese scientists, the civilization of China is about 5,000 years old. But written sources speak of a slightly lower age - 3600 years. This is the beginning of the Shang Dynasty. Then the system of administrative management was laid, which was developed and improved by successive dynasties. Chinese civilization developed in the basin of two large rivers - the Yellow River and the Yangtze, which determined its agrarian character. It was developed agriculture that distinguished China from its neighbors, who lived in not so favorable steppe and mountainous regions. The state of the Shang dynasty pursued a rather active military policy, which allowed it to expand its territories to the limits, which included the modern Chinese provinces of Henan and Shanxi. By the 11th century BC, the Chinese were already using the lunar calendar and had invented the first examples of hieroglyphic writing. At the same time, a professional army was formed in China, using bronze weapons and war chariots. 4. Greece Greece has every reason to be considered the cradle of European civilization. About 5000 years ago, the Minoan culture was born on the island of Crete, which later spread through the Greeks to the mainland. It is on the island that the beginnings of statehood are indicated, in particular, the first written language appears, diplomatic and trade relations with the East arise. Appeared at the end of the III millennium BC. e. The Aegean civilization already fully demonstrates state formations. Thus, the first states in the Aegean Sea basin - on Crete and the Peloponnese - were built according to the type of eastern despotisms with a developed bureaucratic apparatus. Ancient Greece is growing rapidly and extending its influence to the Northern Black Sea region, Asia Minor and Southern Italy. Ancient Greece is often called Hellas, but the locals also extend the self-name to the modern state. For them, it is important to emphasize the historical connection with that era and culture, which essentially shaped the entire European civilization. 5. Egypt At the turn of the IV-III millennium BC, several dozen cities of the upper and lower reaches of the Nile were united under the rule of two rulers. From this moment begins the 5000-year history of Egypt. Soon a war arose between Upper and Lower Egypt, the result of which was the victory of the king of Upper Egypt. Under the rule of the pharaoh, a strong state is formed here, gradually spreading its influence to neighboring lands. The 27-century dynastic period of Ancient Egypt is the golden age of ancient Egyptian civilization. A clear administrative and managerial structure is being formed in the state, advanced technologies for that time are being developed, and art and architecture are rising to unattainable heights. Over the past centuries, much has changed in Egypt - religion, language, culture. The Arab conquest of the country of the pharaohs radically turned the vector of development of the state. However, it is the ancient Egyptian heritage that is the hallmark of modern Egypt. 6. Japan The first mention of Ancient Japan is contained in Chinese historical chronicles of the 1st century AD. e. In particular, it says that there were 100 small countries in the archipelago, 30 of which established relations with China. Supposedly, the reign of the first Japanese emperor Jimmu began in 660 BC. e. It was he who wanted to establish power over the entire archipelago. However, some historians consider Jimma a semi-legendary figure. Japan is a unique country that, unlike Europe and the Middle East, has been developing for many centuries without any serious social and political upheavals. This is largely due to its geographical isolation, which, in particular, secured Japan from the Mongol invasion. If we take into account the dynastic succession that has been uninterrupted for more than 2.5 thousand years and the absence of fundamental changes in the country's borders, Japan can be called a state with the most ancient origin.

Ancient States

TOPIC 2 CIVILIZATIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD

Ancient Egypt. The inhabitants of Egypt created one of the first civilizations. The Egyptian state was located in the Nile Valley - a narrow strip of land on both banks of the river from 1 to 20 km wide, expanding in the delta.

Once a year, the Nile overflowed its banks, and a stream of water, destroying everything in its path, filled the valley. The floods were a disaster for the inhabitants of the valley, but they brought particles of fertile silt. The land here gave unprecedented yields, but for this it was extremely important to create complex irrigation facilities.

The first states in Egypt are called nomes. In the 4th millennium, about 40 nomes were formed in Egypt. The needs of the development of agriculture led to the unification of the entire Nile Valley. Gradually, only two large states remained - Upper and Lower Egypt. Upper Egypt (southern kingdom) was in the upper reaches of the Nile, Lower Egypt (northern kingdom) - in the lower reaches of the Nile. At about 3000 ᴦ. BC. ruler of Upper Egypt Mine managed to unite the country. The rulers of Egypt are called pharaohs.

The history of ancient Egypt is divided into Early(3000 - 2800 gᴦ. BC), ancient(2800 - 2250 gᴦ. BC), Average(2050-1750 gᴦ. BC), New(1580-1085 gᴦ. BC) and Later(1085-525 gᴦ. BC) kingdoms, ruled by pharaohs for about 30 dynasties.

The main occupation of the Egyptians was agriculture. Soft Nile silt was loosened with a hoe or a light plow. The Egyptians used a wooden sickle with microliths for a long time. Later, tools made of copper and bronze appeared.

Egyptian documents speak of artisans of many dozens of professions. Their work was considered more difficult than that of farmers.

Even in ancient times, communities in Egypt disappeared, and the entire population was united under the rule of the pharaoh. Every year, officials held a review of children who had reached working age. They selected strong young men into the army, and appointed the smartest young men as junior priests. The rest were divided into various specialties. Someone became a farmer, someone a builder, someone a craftsman.

Initially, farmers worked on the farms of the pharaoh, the nobility and temples as part of work groups. Later they became

pi, arable land. The work of artisans was also organized. And the households of the pharaoh, the nobility and temples, there were also slaves, as a rule

10, foreigners. For a long time there were few of them. Only during the New Kingdom did the number of slaves increase, they became laborers.

to live in craft workshops and in the fields.

The state power in Egypt was despotism. The pharaoh disposed of the construction of irrigation facilities, the construction of cities, fortresses, temples,

shnal laws, was the high priest. He commanded the army And at the head of it fought with the enemies. The pharaoh was revered as a living god.

The period of the Old Kingdom was the time of the greatest power of the pharaohs. At the same time, over time, the central government weakened, and the state broke up into nomes. After 200 years, Egypt was united under the rule of the ruler of one of the southern nomes with the capital in Thebes. The period of the Middle Kingdom began. The central power was significantly strengthened under the pharaohs of the 12th dynasty. Aggressive campaigns began to south to rich in gold Nubia. About 1680 ᴦ. BC. hordes of nomadic geeksos fell upon Egypt from Asia. The Middle Kingdom broke up into separate nomes who paid tribute to the Hyksos. Only Thebes did not submit.

In the fight against the Hyksos, the Theban pharaohs relied on ordinary warriors, who were provided with small plots of land. Pharaoh Ahmose managed to expel the nomads from Egypt. Ahmose became the founder of the 18th dynasty. With this dynasty begins the period of the New Kingdom. The pharaohs of the New Kingdom waged constant wars. As a result of the campaigns, almost all of Nubia was annexed. In Asia, the search for pharaohs came to the Euphrates. Egypt received a huge tribute, slaves. The state reached its greatest power under the pharaoh of the 18th dynasty AmenhotepeIII. At the same time, over time, powerful powers appeared in Western Asia, which began the fight against Egypt. With varying success, this struggle continued for about two centuries. Eventually the Egyptian forces were exhausted. In the country itself there was a struggle between pharaohs, nobles and priests. As a result to VIII in. BC. Egypt again broke up into nomes. In the VI century. BC. he was conquered by Persia.

City-states of Sumer. At the same time or even a little earlier than in Egypt, a civilization developed in southern Mesopotamia (Mesopotamia) - in the lower reaches of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers. This land was extremely fertile. The origin of civilization here was associated with the extreme importance of the construction and use of irrigation facilities.

Mesopotamia was inhabited by different peoples. Semitic tribes lived in the north. In the south, the first tribes appeared, whose linguistic affiliation scientists cannot establish, since they did not leave a written language. These tribes began agriculturaldevelopment of southern Mesopotamia. In the V-IV millennia BC. came here Sumerians - people also of unknown origin. Οʜᴎ built cities, created the oldest written language in the world - cuneiform. Sumerians are considered wheel inventors.

In the IV millennium BC. Sumerian cities became the centers of small states, similar to the Egyptian nomes. Sometimes they are called city-states. Among them, the largest were Uruk, Kish, Lagash, Umma, Ur.
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The history of Sumer is divided into three periods: Early Dynastic, Akkadian and late Sumerian.

In the early dynastic period, the center of power in each city was the temple of the main god. The high priest (ensi) was the ruler of the city. The popular assembly continued to play a significant role. During the wars, a leader (lugal) was elected. The role of the lugals increased, which was facilitated by frequent wars between city-states.

Sometimes the Lugals managed to subdue neighboring states, but unlike Egypt, the unity of Sumer was fragile. The first serious attempt to create a unified state was made in the 24th century. BC. Sargon. He came from the lower classes of society, was a Semite who settled more and more in Sumer. Sargon became the founder and ruler of the city of Akkad. He relied on the inhabitants of the Sumerian city-states, dissatisfied with the omnipotence of priests and nobility. The Akkadian king united all these cities under his rule, and then conquered vast lands to the Mediterranean coast. Sargon introduced uniform measures of length, area and weight for all cities. Canals and dams were built throughout the country. The kingdom of Sargon and his descendants lasted about 150 years. Further, Sumer was conquered by the tribes of mountaineers who lived east of Mesopotamia.

In the 21st century BC e. the inhabitants of Mesopotamia managed to throw off the heavy yoke of the highlanders. The kingdom of Sumer and Akkad arose (the so-called III dynasty of Ur). This kingdom is known for its centralized organization of power and economic life. All workers in the state were united in groups according to professions. Οʜᴎ worked on state land under the control of officials. Kingdom of Sumer and Akkad around 2000 ᴦ. BC. was captured by the nomadic Semitic tribes of the Amorites.

Soon the Sumerians merged with the Semites and other peoples of Mesopotamia. The Sumerian language remained the language of writing, science, and culture for many more centuries.

Babylonian kingdom. Laws of Hammurabi. At the beginning of the 11th millennium B.C. the city of Babylon on the Euphrates is strengthened, where the kings of one of the Amorite dynasties ruled. Under the king Hammurabi(1992 - 1750 BC) the Babylonians conquered most of Mesopotamia. Babylon has become a huge city with magnificent temples and temples, multi-storey buildings and wide streets. We have detailed information about the life of the Babylonian kingdom thanks to the famous laws of Hammurabi. This is an extensive and well-thought-out code of laws, which served as a model for the subsequent legislation of many countries of Western Asia. At the root of the law lay talion principle - the punishment is equal to the crime (ʼʼan eye for an eyeʼʼ).

According to the laws of Hammurabi, all land in the country belonged to the king. Communities and nobility were considered users of the land. Quite a large role in economic life was played by completely disenfranchised slaves from among the prisoners. There was another source of slavery: for debts they sold their children, and sometimes themselves into slavery. At the same time, the law limited debt slavery. The free were divided into two categories - full-fledged and dependent people. It is assumed that the full were members of the communities, and dependent people worked on the allotments received from the king. In 1518 ᴦ. BC. Babylonia was conquered by the Kassite nomads.

Eastern Mediterranean in antiquity. The ancient oriental civilization had a peculiar form in the areas adjacent to the coastal coast of the Mediterranean Sea. The most important trade routes ran here - from Egypt to Mesopotamia, from Asia and Africa to Europe.

A narrow strip of the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea in the territory of modern Lebanon and part of Syria was called Phenicia. Here was one of the oldest centers of agriculture. Thanks to the presence of many minerals, handicraft flourished. But over time, the main occupation of the inhabitants of Phoenicia became international trade. The Phoenicians sold their goods - wood, resin, purple fabrics, glass, metals. Intermediary trade was even more important for them.

In Phenicia, several city-states arose, headed by kings. Originally dominated by the city Bible, having ancient connections with Egypt. Later the city rose Tyr.
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Its king extended his influence to other cities, although the Phoenicians did not have a single state. Phoenician cities throughout a significant part of their history were dependent on Egypt and later on the states of Western Asia, but retained internal autonomy.

The Phoenicians became famous as brave sailors. Back in the II millennium BC. they reached the Iberian Peninsula, where the city of Gades arose, which became the center of mining and trade in silver and tin. At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. Phoenician colonies spread throughout the Mediterranean coast. The inhabitants of Tyre mostly moved to the colony, but they became

were independent states, although they retained ties with Tyre. The largest of these states was Carthage.

The Phoenicians are the creators of the world's first alphabet. The letters of the Phoenician alphabet denoted only consonants. The Phoenician alphabet was borrowed and improved by the ancient Greeks. Through them, the alphabet came to the Romans, becoming the basis of most modern writing systems. Slavic and later Russian alphabets were created on the basis of the Greek alphabet.

The Phoenicians had comprehensive connections with other peoples of the Eastern Mediterranean - the ancient Jews. In the middle II millennium BC part of the Amorite tribes of Mesopotamia moved west. The settlers formed a new people, calling themselves ʼʼibrimʼʼ (Jews), which meant ʼʼcrossing the riverʼʼ. The farmers of the Eastern Mediterranean struggled with these nomadic newcomers, partly mixed with them. Later, the Jews encountered here with Philistines- newcomers from Europe. From the name ʼʼPhilistinesʼʼ came the word ʼʼPalestineʼʼ.

Since about XIII in. BC. Jewish (Israeli) tribes have become the dominant force in Palestine. In addition to cattle breeding, they also began to engage in agriculture. In the end XI in. develops Israelite-Jewish kingdom led by the king Saul. It flourished in the 10th century. BC. under the kings Davide and his son Solomon. Then it broke up into the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Later, powerful neighbors dealt severe blows to these states. VIII in. BC. the kingdom of Israel perished. In 587 ᴦ. BC. capital of Judea Jerusalem was captured by the king of Babylon, and many Jews were taken to Babylonian captivity. Later, the Kingdom of Judah was reborn as a dependent state.

During the existence of the Kingdom of Israel, the legends of the ancient Jews began to be recorded in special books. The collection of these books was later called the Bible.

The most ancient states - the concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Ancient States" 2017, 2018.

The first states appeared in the southern regions of our planet, where there were the most favorable natural and geographical conditions for this. They originated in approximately the same period, about five thousand years ago.

What is the reason for the emergence of a new type of social relations

When and why the first states appeared, that is, their origin, is one of the controversial issues in science. According to the version of the famous German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, the state arises in the process of strengthening the increasing role of property and the emergence of a class of wealthy people. They, in turn, need a special apparatus to protect their interests and maintain influence on their fellow tribesmen. Undoubtedly, this phenomenon took place, but not only it contributed to the emergence of the state. There is also a theory according to which a new type of organization of society was the result of the need to control and distribute resources, a kind of supreme manager of economic objects, in order to effectively develop them, this way of organizing the state is most applicable to Ancient Egypt, where the irrigation system was the main economic object.

Criteria for their appearance

When and why did the first natural process arise, which took place everywhere, but in different periods. In ancient times, the basis of life for all people was agriculture and cattle breeding. In order for it to develop successfully, appropriate natural and climatic conditions were necessary. Therefore, they settled mainly along the banks of large rivers, which made it possible to fully satisfy the needs of people in this important resource. The location of the water source was of particular importance: the further south it is located, the warmer the climate and, accordingly, the more favorable opportunities for agriculture. Here you can harvest not once, as in most of the world, but several times a year. This gave the peoples living in these regions an undoubted advantage in developing ways of life support and obtaining a surplus product.

The oldest regions of state building

Mesopotamia, or Mesopotamia, is a very favorable region for agriculture, a mild, warm climate, an excellent location and the presence of two large rivers in Western Asia - the Tigris and Euphrates - provided the necessary amount of water for the development of an irrigation system and an irrigation method of land use. The people inhabiting these lands were less dependent on the vagaries of the weather than others, so they could get stable and rich harvests. Approximately the same situation developed in the valley of the largest river in Africa - the Nile. But in order to build complexes, it was necessary to establish the collective work of a large number of people, otherwise it was simply impossible to create effective agriculture. So, the first prototypes originate, and this is where the first states appeared, but these, in fact, were not yet not quite state formations. These were their embryos, from which the most ancient countries of the world subsequently formed.

The vicissitudes of socio-economic and political components in ancient countries

The city-states that arise in these territories begin to control a strictly defined area. Relations between neighbors were always tense and often led to conflicts. Many independent associations hindered the economic development of this region and the stronger rulers were aware of this, so they gradually try to subjugate a large territory to their power, on which they establish uniform orders. It is according to this scheme that two strong and large kingdoms appear in the Nile Valley - Northern, or Upper, Egypt and Southern, or Lower, Egypt. The rulers of both kingdoms had a fairly strong power and army. However, luck smiled at the king of Upper Egypt, in a fierce struggle he defeated his southern rival, and around 3118 he conquered the lower Egyptian kingdom, and Mina becomes the first pharaoh of a united Egypt and the founder of the state, that's when and why the first states appeared.

Egypt - the first state

Now all the fruitful resources of the Nile were concentrated in the hands of one ruler, all the conditions appeared for the development of a unified state system of irrigated agriculture, and now the one who controlled it had significant material resources. The fragmentation that weakened the country was replaced by a strong, united state, and the further development of Egypt perfectly demonstrates all the positive aspects of this process. For many years, this country dominated the entire Middle East region. Another favorable region of the Earth, Mesopotamia, could not overcome the centrifugal forces, the city-states that existed here could not unite under the rule of a single monarch. Therefore, constant conflicts destabilized the political and economic situation, which made it possible for Egypt to get ahead, and soon the Sumerian states fell into the sphere of influence of the Egyptian state, and then other strong states of the region. And it is not possible to say which state appeared first with chronological accuracy, therefore Egypt is considered the first state on the planet.

Theories of the genesis of political formations

The most objective theory on the question of when and why the first states appeared is the one according to which a fairly stable social structure of society has already been formed, and the state that is formed as a result of these processes and phenomena is only a pattern designed to ensure the necessary stability of the entire social structure. system. That's when and why the first states appeared. This path applies to all power relationships in human history. But much more, it can be a hostile environment that contributes to the consolidation of society, strengthening the role of the individual, which is the ruler. Borrowings from the surrounding more developed peoples also play an important role. The religious and ideological component also contributes to this, it is enough to recall Muhammad, the founder of the new religion of Islam, and the importance it played in the formation. Therefore, the first states appeared as a result of a set of conditions, but the main criterion was still the level of economic development.

Summing up

The first states were mainly based on force, power always implies submission. And in the conditions of the ancient world, it was the only way to preserve vast territories, often inhabited by very different and dissimilar tribes. Therefore, many states arose as a kind of organization for fruitful development, but did not interfere in local affairs, requiring only the performance of certain duties and obedience. Often it was of a formal nature, because of this, the first states were extremely unstable.

As you know, the state and law did not always exist, but appear only at a certain stage in the development of society.

The basis of the social organization of the primitive communal system was the genus, which was an association of people who were in consanguineous relations with each other. The clan headed the council - a meeting of all adult members of the clan, men and women with equal voting rights - who chose their elder.

As it developed, the original clan grew and broke up into several daughter clans, in relation to which the original clan acts as a phratry. The associations of clans formed tribes.

Relations between members of primitive society were regulated by special rules of conduct - customs. Customs expressed the interests of all members of society and consolidated their equality among themselves.

The reasons for the emergence of the state and law can be considered: three major social divisions of labor (separation of cattle breeding from agriculture; separation of crafts; the emergence of merchants), the emergence of private property and the split of society into antagonistic classes.

Specific forms of the emergence of the state

The transition to the state took place in various historical forms. The first states known to mankind arose from 6 to 2 thousand years ago in various geographical regions independently of each other (as a rule, in the valleys of large rivers) and became centers of independent cultural civilizations.

In the East, such a form as the "Asiatic mode of production" (Egypt, Babylon, China, etc.) has become most widespread. Here, the socio-economic structures of the tribal system turned out to be stable - the land community, collective property, etc.

Athens is a classic form of the emergence of the state as a result of the development and exacerbation of contradictions within the tribal system.

The Roman state, on the contrary, arose not from internal contradictions, but as a result of the struggle between the patricians - members of the patrician family and the newcomers - the plebeians.

The German form of the emergence of the state was also not classical, because. associated with the conquest of foreign territories, for domination over which the tribal organization was not adapted.

Most scientists note the most characteristic first states:

~ Ancient Egypt;

~ states of ancient Mesopotamia (interfluve of the Tigris and Euphrates);

~ Sumer and Akkad;

~ Assyria;

~ Babylon;

~ states of the Indus and Ganges valleys (territory of India);

~ Ancient China;

~ ancient Greek policies;

~ Ancient Rome;

~ States of the indigenous peoples of the Americas (Maya, Incas, Aztecs).

Currently, there is no unity among the theorists of the state and law on the issue of the origin of the state; discussions continue among scientists on the theory of the formation of the state. The opinion of individual scientists regarding the state as an instrument of suppression, a machine of violence against the people, is preserved. One can often encounter the position of considering the state as the property of political forces or individuals who hold power at a given historical stage. Others are of the opinion that the state is an instrument capable of bringing good to a person and is a structure of prosperity. Approaches to the emergence of the state were formed over the centuries, at various historical stages the assessment of the state was different. This is natural, since there are many theories of the emergence of the state.

The difference between theories of the emergence of the state is due to the fact that:

The emergence of the state is in itself a complex and lengthy process that cannot be explained from any one point of view;

This process (originally the emergence of the state) took place millennia ago, and it is difficult to study it in detail due to its historical remoteness;

The influence of the era on the authors of theories (each era (church domination in the Middle Ages (theological), the birth of capitalism, modern, etc.) left an imprint both on the general worldview and on the authors of theories about the origin of the state, since they lived in a specific historical time and in a particular society);

It is impossible to ignore the subjective factor - the personal beliefs of the authors of the theories, the peculiarities of their professional and personal worldview.

The main theories of the emergence of the state are usually attributed to:

♦ theological (religious, divine);

♦patriarchal (paternal);

♦ contractual (natural law);

♦ organic;

♦ psychological;

♦ irrigation;

♦ violence (internal and external);

♦ economic (class).

Theological theory of the emergence of the state

Theological (religious) theorydominated in the Middle Ages. At present, along with other theories, it is widespread in Europe and other continents, and in a number of Islamic states (Iran, Saudi Arabia, etc.) it is official.

At the origins of this theory were: Aurelius Augustine (Blessed) (354 - 430 AD), Thomas Aquinas (1225 - 1274) - Christian philosophers and theologians.

In modern times, it was developed by the ideologists of the Catholic Church Maristen, Mercier and others.

In all religions, the idea of ​​God-established state power is upheld. For example, the letter of the Apostle Paul to the Romans says: "Let every soul be subject to the higher authorities, for there is no authority except from God, the existing authorities are established by God."

The theocratic theory was based on real facts: the first states had religious forms, since they were the rule of priests. Divine law gave authority to state power, and the decisions of the state - binding. So, in the Laws of the ancient Babylonian king Hammurabi, it was said about the divine origin of the power of the king: "The gods put Hammurabi to rule the" black-headed ".

Patriarchal theory of the emergence of the state

The founder of the patriarchal theory is the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BC).

Aristotle believed that people, as collective beings, strive for communication and the formation of families, and the development of families leads to the formation of a state. Aristotle interpreted the state as a product of the reproduction of families, their settlement and association. According to Aristotle, state power is the continuation and development of paternal power. He identified state power with the patriarchal power of the head of the family.

In China, this theory of the state as a large family was developed by Confucius (551 - 479 BC). He likened the power of the emperor to the power of the father, and the relationship between the ruling and subjects - family relations, where the younger ones depend on the elders and must be loyal to the rulers, respectful and obey the elders in everything. Rulers should take care of their subjects like children.

In a more modern era, it was developed by Filmer and Mikhailovsky.

R. Filmer (XVII century) in his work "Patriarch" argued that the power of the monarch is unlimited, since it comes from Adam, who received his power from God. Therefore, Adam is not only the father of mankind, but also its ruler. The monarchs, as Adam's successors, inherited their power from him.

The contractual theory of the emergence of the state

The essence of the contractual (natural-legal) theory is that, according to its authors, the state is based on the so-called "social contract". The contractual theory of the emergence of the state became widespread in the 17th - 18th centuries. Its authors at different times were:

Hugo Grotius (1583 - 1646) - Dutch thinker and jurist;

John Locke (1632 - 1704), Thomas Hobbes (1588 - 1679) - English philosophers;

Charles-Louis Montesquieu (1689 - 1755), Denis Diderot (1713 -1783), Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712 - 1778) - French enlightening philosophers;

A. N. Radishchev (1749 - 1802) - Russian philosopher and revolutionary writer.

The meaning of the idea of ​​"social contract" is as follows:

Initially, people were in a pre-state (primitive) state;

Everyone pursued only their own interests and did not take into account the interests of others, which led to a "war of all against all";

As a result of the "war of all against all," an unorganized society could destroy itself;

To prevent this from happening, people entered into a "social contract", by virtue of which everyone gave up part of their interests for the sake of mutual survival;

As a result, an institution was created for coordinating interests, living together, mutual protection - the state.

The social contract theory had progressive significance:

~ a step has been taken towards the creation of a civil society;

~ actually nominated principle of popular sovereignty power is derived from the people and belongs to the people;

~ state structures, power do not exist on their own, but must express the interests of the people, be in their service;

~ according to the theory, the state and the people have mutual obligations- the people observe the laws, pay taxes, perform military and other duties; the state regulates relations between people, punishes criminals, creates conditions for the life and activities of people, protects from external danger;

~ if the state violates its obligations, the people can break the social contract and find other rulers; the right of the people to revolt, progressive for that time, was justified, in modern terms - the right to change the government if it ceased to express the interests of the people.

Organic theory of the emergence of the state

The organic theory of the emergence of the state was put forward in the second half of the 19th century by the English philosopher and sociologist Herbert Spencer (1820 - 1903), as well as by the scientists Worms and Preuss.

The essence of the organic theory is that the state arises and develops like a biological organism:

People form a state, as cells form a living organism;

State institutions are like parts of the body: rulers - to the brain, communications (post, transport) and finance - to the circulatory system, which ensures the activity of the body, workers and peasants (manufacturers) - to the hands, etc.;

There is competition between states, as in a living environment, and as a result of natural selection, the fittest survive (that is, the most reasonably organized, as in the 7th century BC - 4th century AD - the Roman Empire, in the 18th century ~ Great Britain, in the 19th century - the USA). In the course of natural selection, the state is being improved, everything unnecessary is cut off (absolute monarchy, the church that has torn itself away from the people, etc.).

Psychological theory

The Russian-Polish lawyer and sociologist L. I. Petrazhitsky (1867 - 1931) is considered the founder of this theory. This theory was developed by 3. Freud and G. Tarde.

According to the supporters of the psychological theory, the state arose due to the special properties of the human psyche:

The desire of the majority of the population to be protected and obey the stronger;

The desire of the strong to command other people, to subordinate them to their will;

The desire of individual members of society not to obey society and to challenge it - to resist authority, to commit crimes, etc. - and the need to curb them.

The authors of the theory believe that the predecessor of state power was the power of the top of primitive society - leaders, shamans, priests, which was based on their special psychological energy, with the help of which they influenced other members of society.

Theory of Violence

Violence as the main factor in the emergence of the state has been put forward by various authors over the centuries. One of the first to put forward it was Shang Yang (390 - 338 BC) - a Chinese politician.

In the modern era, this theory was developed by: Eugene Dühring (1833 - 1921) - German philosopher; Ludwig Gumplovich (1838 - 1909) - Austrian jurist and sociologist; Karl Kautsky (1854 - 1938). According to them, the state arose through violence:

* some members of society over other members of society within one state;

* some states over others (conquests, enslavement, colonial policy).

Violence is usually expressed in appropriation of material goods and means of production by a strong (armed) minority:

Collection of tribute by combatants;

Expansion of territories subject to the king (feudal lord);

Fencing (drive of peasants and appropriation of land);

Other forms of violence.

To maintain the established order violence was also required (officials, the army, etc.), and it became necessary to create a "protective apparatus" for the won goods.

Many states were created through violence (for example, overcoming feudal fragmentation in Germany ("with iron and blood - Bismarck"), in France, gathering Russian lands around Moscow (Ivan III, Ivan IV, etc.).

A number of large states were created by conquering and annexing other states: the Roman Empire; the state of the Franks, the Tatar-Mongolian state; Great Britain; USA and others.

Irrigation theory of the emergence of the state

Irrigation The (water) theory of the emergence of the state was put forward by many thinkers of the Ancient East (China, Mesopotamia, Egypt), partly by K. Marx ("the Asian mode of production"). Its essence is that the state arose in the process of farming using rivers for irrigating land (irrigation).

The construction of irrigation canals required the efforts of many people. As a result of this, the first states arose - Ancient Egypt, Ancient China, Babylon.

This theory is supported by the fact that the first states arose in the valleys of large rivers (Egypt - in the Nile Valley, China - in the Huang He and Yangtze valleys) and had an irrigation basis in their appearance.

Economic (class) theory of the emergence of the state

According to this theory, the state arose on a class-economic basis:

There was a division of labor (agriculture, cattle breeding, handicraft and trade);

A surplus product arose;

As a result of the appropriation of other people's labor, society was stratified into classes - the exploited and the exploiters;

Private property and public authority appeared;

To maintain the rule of the exploiters, a special apparatus of coercion was created - the state.

The considered theories make it possible to single out two variants of the emergence of the state: initial and derivative.

Initial- this is the gradual creation in the tribal communities of people of a special institution that is an integral part of it and at the same time stands out from society due to its special influence on society.

This group of theories of state formation includes the view that prevailed in the Middle Ages about divine establishment state and was considered as given to people by God (A. Augustine, F. Aquinas).

The theory comes later. personal character. Some representatives of this approach considered a person to be evil by nature, constantly striving to win back his living space at the expense of others, and in order to limit detailed behavior, the state was necessary as a restraining force (T. Hobbes). Other philosophers (J.J. Rousseau), on the contrary, considered a person to be kind, striving for universal equality, in connection with which they concluded an agreement among themselves for the common good.

Among some modern theorists, it has become widespread oligarchic theory of state formation (power of the few). It is based on the dissimilarity of people, their different personal qualities and abilities, etc., which leads to the formation of the elite of society, which rises above society and arrogates power to itself. From the standpoint of the oligarchic theory, the emergence of the state occurs in three ways:

Military- in the course of constant predatory raids and protection from other tribes, communities, capturing large booty during hostilities, like the Mongols or Franks;

Aristocratic- the power of the nobility as in Ancient Rome;

Plutocratic- a small group stands out in society, a layer of rich people who appropriate power for themselves (plutocracy - the power of wealth).

Derivative- Events that radically change the former social structure and statehood lead to the emergence of the state.

Such an option for the formation of a state includes:

» revolutionary transformations, as a result of which there is a complete break with the former statehood (France - 1789, Russia - 1917, China - 1947).

» organizational changes: 1922 - the USSR and its collapse, the unification of Tanganyika and Zanzibar into Tanzania - 1964, the unification of West and East Germany, etc.).

» collapse of the colonies after World War II, more than 100 new states arose in this way. At the same time, the formation of the state went either in peaceful way- as a result of a referendum, or as a result of armed struggle the population of the colonies for their independence (Zimbabwe, Angola, Vietnam, etc.), or both were present.

Ways of the emergence of the state

In addition to theories of the origin of the state, there is also such a thing as the ways of their emergence: Asian and European.

For Asian path is typical:

› emergence from tribal nobility (nobility transformation). The leader, the elders become directly the state when power structures appear, natural ways of occurrence;

› economic basis - public and state property;

› political dominance is not based on wealth, but on position;

› the bureaucracy is formed before the appearance of private property, reserve funds with products required officials to monitor them;

For European The path is characterized by the following:

The state arose before the advent of classes.

» violent way of transfer of power from the tribal nobility to the rich aristocracy;

» the foundation of the state is private property;

» class differentiation in relation to property occupied;

» definition of political dominance through wealth;

» the administrative structure is formed after the appearance of private property;

» the state separates from society, rises above it, a contradictory political structure arises;

In the European way, several forms of the emergence of the state are distinguished:

a) Athenian - a natural, non-violent path, divided into three stages (the establishment of a central government, the coming to power of the rich, division into classes)

b) Roman - the separation of the tribal nobility through violence, the division of society into six classes;

c) German - external violence.

AT output we can say that in both models of the state - "Asian" and "European" there is a different combination of the two most important factors that express the fundamental nature of mankind: power and property (property refers to both private and collective). The specific features of the process of state formation depend on the content of the subjects and the characteristics of the combination of these two factors in different conditions.

The "Asian" model is characterized by the fact that such a combination results in the phenomenon of "power-property" (that is, power becomes the property of the one who possesses it). Here it is appropriate to figuratively speak of such a "formula" of the genesis of statehood: "I have power, which means that I also have property (collective, first of all, and private"). In the "European" model, the formula is somewhat different: "I own property (primarily private property), which means that I have (can or should have) power."

Based on the foregoing, we can list the general main reasons for the emergence of the state as a social institution.

The main reasons for the emergence of the state were the following:

1. the need to improve the management of society, associated with its complication. The old apparatus for managing the clan-tribe could not ensure the successful management of these processes; 2. the need to organize large-scale public works (irrigated agriculture, construction, roads for defensive structures), to unite large masses of people for these purposes. 3. the need to suppress the resistance of the exploited, in connection with the division of society into rich and poor, slaves and free; 4. the need to maintain order in society for its stability and the functioning of social production; 5. the need to wage wars, both defensive and predatory. The ongoing accumulation of social wealth led to the fact that it became profitable to live off the robbery of neighbors, capturing valuables, cattle, slaves, taxing neighbors, enslaving them.

In most cases, the above reasons acted cumulatively, in various combinations. At the same time, under different conditions (historical, social, geographical, natural, demographic, and others), various of the indicated reasons could become the main, decisive ones.

Today there are 257 countries in the world, 193 of which are members of the UN, while others have a certain status. Many of these countries have only recently become independent, while others are only fighting for their right to be sovereign.
Historians are well aware of the dates of the founding of young states, and as for the first countries on the planet Earth, their history is shrouded in the darkness of millennia, hidden under a layer of ancient dust.
There is a lot of controversy over the very methodology for determining the most ancient states. After all, each nation has its own myths and legends of the foundation of their state. For example, the legendary founding of one of the smallest modern states of San Marino dates back to the beginning of the 4th century. According to legend, in 301, a member of one of the first Christian communities found refuge in the Apennines, on top of Mount Titano. Thus, formally, San Marino has been considered an independent state since September 3, 301. In fact, one can speak of some kind of independence of a founded settlement only starting from the 6th century, when Italy broke up into many dependent and independent territories.
According to Japanese mythology, the Land of the Rising Sun was founded in 660 BC. e., but the first state in Japan - Yamato arose during the Kofu period, which dates back to 250 - 538 years.
Ancient Greece is considered one of the most ancient civilizations, the cradle of philosophy, culture and science. But Greece became a truly independent country only in 1821 after it left the Ottoman Empire.
Therefore, in order to compile a correct rating, we took into account only those forms of organization of society that correspond to the modern features of the state: sovereignty, own territory, state symbols, language, and so on. In addition, only those states that are on the modern map of the world were taken into account.
So, the rating of the most ancient states was made up of 10 modern countries from three continents.

1. Elam, 3200 BC e. (Iran)

The modern state in southwestern Asia - the Islamic Republic of Iran was founded on April 1, 1979 as a result of the Islamic Revolution. But the history of statehood in Iran is one of the oldest in the world. For centuries, this country has played a key role in the East. The first state on the territory of Iran - Elam - arose in 3200 BC. e. The Persian Empire under Darius I stretched from Greece and Libya to the Indus River. In the Middle Ages, Persia was a strong and influential state.

2. Egypt, 3000 BC e.

Egypt is the oldest state in the world, about the history of which a lot of interesting information has been preserved. It was in this mysterious and mysterious country of the pharaohs that many types and forms of art were born, which later developed in Asia and Europe. They served as the basis for ancient aesthetics - the starting point of all the arts of our time.
Egypt is the largest country of the Arab East, one of the centers of its political and cultural life, the "tourist Mecca" of the world. Egypt occupies a unique geographical position, located at the junction of three continents - Africa, Asia and Europe and the two largest world civilizations - Christian and Islamic.
Egypt arose on the territory where one of the most powerful and mysterious civilizations once existed, the history of which is calculated for centuries and millennia. In 3000 BC. e. Pharaoh Mines united the Egyptian lands and created a state that Egyptologists today call the Early Kingdom.
Echoes of that era - the Great Egyptian Pyramids, the mysterious Sphinxes and the grandiose Temples of the pharaohs.

3. Vanlang, 2897 BC e. (Vietnam)

Vietnam is a country in Southeast Asia, located on the Indochina peninsula. The name of the country consists of two words and is translated as "the country of the Viet in the South." The Viet civilization arose in the Red River basin. According to legend, the Viet descended from a dragon and a fairy bird. The first state in Vietnam, Vanlang, appeared in 2897 BC. e. For some time Vietnam was part of China. In the second half of the 19th century, Vietnam fell into colonial dependence on France. In the summer of 1954, Vietnam became an independent state.

4. Shang-Yin, 1600 B.C. e. (China)

China is a state in East Asia, the largest state in the world in terms of population (over 1.3 billion); ranks third in the world in terms of territory, behind Russia and Canada.
Chinese civilization is one of the oldest in the world. According to Chinese scientists, its age may be five thousand years, while the available written sources cover a period of at least 3500 years. The longstanding existence of systems of administrative control, which were improved by successive dynasties, created obvious advantages for the Chinese state, whose economy was based on developed agriculture, in comparison with more backward neighbors, nomads and mountaineers. The introduction of Confucianism as a state ideology (1st century BC) and a unified writing system (2nd century BC) further strengthened Chinese civilization.
The state of Shang-Yin, which existed from 1600 to 1027 BC on the territory of modern China, is the first state formation, the reality of whose existence is confirmed not only by archaeological finds, but also by narrative and epigraphic written sources.
In 221 BC. e. Emperor Qin Shi Huang united all Chinese lands and created the Qin Empire, the territory of which corresponds to modern China.

5. Kush, 1070 BC e. (Sudan)

The modern state of Sudan in northeast Africa is equal in area to the whole of Western Europe, and its population is only 29.5 million people. The country is located in the middle reaches of the Nile River on the surrounding plains, plateaus and the adjacent coast of the Red Sea.
Kush (Meroitic Kingdom) - an ancient kingdom that existed in the northern part of the territory of modern Sudan from 1070 to 350 BC. e. The existence of the kingdom of Kush is confirmed in the remains of temples, sculptures of gods and kings. There is evidence that already at that time writing, astronomy and medicine were developed in Kush.

6. Sri Lanka, 377 BC e.

Sri Lanka (“Blessed Land”) is a state in South Asia, on the island of the same name off the southeastern coast of Hindustan. The history of Sri Lanka begins with the Neolithic period, when the first settlements were discovered in Sri Lanka. Written history begins with the arrival of the Aryans from India, who spread among the local population the rudiments of knowledge in metallurgy, navigation, and writing.
In 247 BC. e. Buddhism penetrated Sri Lanka, which had a decisive influence on the formation of the country and its political system.
In 377 B.C. a kingdom arose on the island with its capital in the ancient city of Anuradhapura.

7. Chin, 300 BC e. (Democratic People's Republic of Korea and Republic of Korea)

Korea is a geographical area that includes the Korean Peninsula and adjacent islands and is united by a common cultural and historical heritage. In the past, a single state. In 1945, after the defeat of Japan in World War II, the territory of Korea, which at that time was a Japanese colony, was divided into two zones of military responsibility: the Soviet one - north of the parallel 38 ° N. sh. and American - to the south of it. Subsequently, in 1948, two states emerged on the territory of these zones: the Republic of Korea in the south and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea in the north.
According to legend, the first Korean state was founded by the son of a bear woman and a celestial, Tangun, in 2333 BC. e. Historians refer to the earliest stage of Korean history as the period of the state of Ko Joseon. Most modern historians agree that the date 2333 B.C. e. is greatly exaggerated, since it is not confirmed by any historical documents other than individual medieval Korean chronicles.
It is believed that at the dawn of its development, Ancient Joseon was a tribal union, consisting of separately controlled city-states, and it became a centralized state in 300 BC. e. Around the same time, the proto-state of Chin was formed in the south of the peninsula.

7. Iberia, 299 BC e. (Georgia)

Modern Georgia is considered a young independent state. But the history of the formation of Georgian statehood is rooted in antiquity. Georgia is among the places of discovery of the most ancient monuments of human civilization.
Historians believe that the first states on the territory of Georgia were formed in the III-II millennium BC. e. These were the Kingdom of Colchis, located on the eastern coast of the Black Sea, and Iberia, modern eastern Georgia. In 299 BC. e. Pharnavaz came to power in Iberia. During the reign of Pharnavaz and his immediate descendants, Iberia reached great power and became a state with significant territories. In the 9th century, a new united state arose on the territory of Georgia, the ruler of which was the king from the Bagrationi dynasty.

8. Great Armenia, 190 BC e. (Armenia)

The first mentions of Armenia are found in the cuneiform writings of the Persian king Darius I, who ruled in 522-486. BC e., also in Herodotus (V in BC) and in Xenophon (V in BC). On the maps of the greatest historians and geographers of antiquity, Armenia is marked along with Persia, Syria and other ancient states. After the collapse of the empire of Alexander the Great, Armenian kingdoms arose: Greater Armenia, Lesser Armenia and Sophena.
Great Armenia, a large state stretching from Palestine to the Caspian Sea, created in 190 BC. historians call it the first state on the territory of the modern republic.

9. Yamato, 250 (Japan)

Japan is an island state in East Asia, located in the Pacific Ocean on the Japanese archipelago, consisting of 6,852 islands. According to Japanese legend in 660 BC. e. Jimmu founded the Land of the Rising Sun and became its first emperor.
The first written references to ancient Japan as a single state are contained in the historical chronicles of the 1st century AD. e. Chinese Han Empire. In the code of the 3rd century of the Chinese empire of Wei, 30 Japanese countries are mentioned, among which the most powerful is Yamatai. Its ruler, Himiko, is reported to have maintained power using "charms".
From 250 - 538 , the Kofun period, the state of Yamato arises. It is believed that Yamato was a federation.
The kofun period is so named because of the kofun mound culture that has been common in Japan for five centuries. The photo shows the Daisenryo Mound, the tomb of Emperor Nintoku, early 5th century.

10. Great Bulgaria, 632 (Bulgaria)

Bulgaria is a state in Southeastern Europe, in the eastern part of the Balkan Peninsula. The first state of the Bulgarians, about which accurate historical information has been preserved, was Great Bulgaria, a state that united the tribes of the Proto-Bulgarians and existed in the Black Sea and Azov steppes for only a few decades from 632 to 671. The capital of the state was the city of Phanagoria, and its founder and ruler was Khan Kubrat. From this began the history of Bulgaria as a state.