Russian gene pool in the distorted mirrors of journalism. Balanovskaya E

Genetics clearly showed: who is Aryan and who is not. We are the ancient Aryans.
For us, the ancient god.
Here are our spaces
And our sky.
(Kolovrat)

It is believed that Grandfather considered Aryans only the Nordic race (Norwegians, Swedes, Danes and Germans), he considered all other Europeans to be second-class people, except for Slavs, Jews and Gypsies. The Jews and the Gypsies were supposed to be completely destroyed - well, fuck them, we are not talking about them. But the Slavs were to be destroyed by 2/3, he considered the Slavs to be subhuman, Der Untermenschen. Let's see what genetics tells us, who is Aryan and who is Untermenschen.

And we will return to the issue of race. And here Grandfather turned out to be wrong: the center of origin and distribution area of ​​the Nordic race is an exact copy of the center of origin and distribution area of ​​​​the R1a haplogroup. And, in general, this is a very common misconception - to consider blue-eyed blondes as a Nordic race. Blondinism (white albinism) is a sign of Cro-Manids, an ancient pre-Aryan population of Northern Europe. And the Aryans were fair-haired, and their albinism was not white, but yellow (golden) - that's how this Russian child has.

And we will return to the issue of race.

The Y-chromosome is transmitted from father to son practically unchanged and does not experience "mixing" and "dilution" by maternal heredity. This allows it to be used as a mathematically accurate tool for determining paternal descent. If the term "dynasty" has any biological meaning, then it is the inheritance of the Y chromosome. But from time to time, neutral mutations occur in it, ignored by natural selection. Some of these mutations have proven to be handy markers for ancient ancestral populations that have spread across the Earth. This marker is called the "Y-chromosomal haplogroup" and it defines the totality of men united by the presence of such a marker, i.e., descended from a common ancestor. There are 18 such haplogroups in total, they are named with codes consisting of Latin letters from A to R. At the moment there is not a single people consisting of only one haplogroup. Every modern nation consists of at least 2 haplogroups. The Russian gene pool consists of 7 main haplogroups, the leading place (on average, half) in which belongs to the R1a haplogroup, called "Aryan".

R1a, Aryan haplogroup.

The first common ancestor of modern Aryans lived in the southern Russian steppes several thousand years ago. For Russians, the average percentage of this haplogroup is 47, the further north - the less (due to the admixture of Finno-Ugric genes), the south - the more, in small ancient cities and rural outback, according to scientist Klyosov, max. the percentage of the Aryan haplogroup reaches 85%, but we will take only average figures applicable to central Russia, or central Russia.

according to different data (different scientists, different years, different parts of the country, different sample sizes)

Indo-European peoples of Europe:

Lusatians 63
Poles 49-63
Belarusians 39-60
Russians 47-59
Ukrainians 42-54
Slovaks 47
Lithuanians 36-45
Latvians 38-41
Czechs 29-41
Norwegians 18-31
Germans 6-31
Greeks 5-25
Romanians 6-20
swedes 9-19
Serbs 14-16
Bulgarians 15
Italians 0-10
English 3-9
Spaniards 1-2
French 0

So Grandpa turned out to be a bully! As you can see, the true Aryans are the Slavs (western and eastern) and the Balts. And that's it! Germans and Scandinavians smoke, but I won’t say anything about Anglics, pasta and paddling pools. And the southern Slavs are Slavs only in language and history. There was a story, only little is left of the Aryan genes.

Non-Indo-European peoples of Europe:

mordva 22-39
Estonians 27-37
Tatars 24-34
Hungarians 20-30 (I even saw 60 in one source - which I don’t really believe in)
Finns 2-19

And we will return to the Mordovians and Tatars.

Indo-European peoples of Asia:

Ishkashimi (Pamir Tajiks) 68
Tajiks from Khujand 64
Pashtuns 45
also a very high percentage among the Brahmins (but only among the Brahmins!) of the Indo-Aryan peoples of India

That Tajiks are Indo-European (Aryan people) in terms of race, genes and language, this is true, but far from all. A high percentage of Aryan genes is only in the Khujand and mountain Pamir Tajik peoples, in other Tajiks in its mass it is within 19-25%. But what is bad: the Tajiks smoked under the southern sun, mixed with the surrounding non-Aryan peoples, including the Mongoloids, and what is the worst and decisive thing: they are Muslims. Therefore, although we are related by blood, they are no longer brothers to us.

Non-Indo-European peoples of Asia:

Kyrgyz 64
Altaians 38-53
as well as Uzbeks, Uighurs and some peoples of Western China (! How can I not mention the Yuezhi here)

And this is totally fucked up! I'll try to explain. The ancient Aryans lived throughout the steppe from the Black Sea in the west to the Altai Mountains in the east. In the east they coexisted with the ancient Turkic tribes. It turns out that part of the Aryan tribes went east and mixed with them, since every two out of three Kyrgyz had an ancient Aryan ancestor. In addition to genetic data, this is also confirmed by archeology: Aryan burials in the steppe expanses of Asia, and long after the Aryans, the ancient Kirghiz and Altaians also poured barrows, as they had learned from the Aryans. Why did the descendants of the Aryans and Kyrgyz women become numb? Further, the descendants of the Aryans constantly married moon-faced oriental beauties - so from generation to generation all subsequent descendants became numb, plus the constant feeding of cross-eyed Asian hordes from the expanses of Central Asia and Siberia. Maybe it is, though, xs. It is strange, of course, to realize that every two out of three Kyrgyz had an ancient Aryan ancestor, and these slanting insidious Asians are our relatives by genes ...

Russian gene pool

(average values, in relation to the Center of Russia)

1) R1a, Aryan haplogroup

Percentage: 47

Where the ancestor lived: South Russian steppes

Ancient speakers: Aryans

Modern speakers: Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Poles, Lusatians, Slovaks, Lithuanians, Latvians, etc.

How did it get into the gene pool of the Slavs: we, the Russians, are the direct descendants of the ancient Aryans-Proto-Slavs + the ancient Iranian peoples assimilated by the Slavs (Scythians, Sarmatians, Roxolans) and the ancient Baltic tribes.

Distribution: worldwide. Decreases to the north (Astrakhan, Vologda, Kostroma regions - drops to 35%), increases to the southwest (Chernozem region, Rostov region - more than 60%).

2) N1, Finno-Ugric haplogroup

Percentage: 17

Where the ancestor lived: originally - Siberia, later - north, northeast of the East European Plain

Ancient carriers: Chud, whole, Merya, Meshchera, Murom, etc.

Modern speakers: Finns, Estonians, Mordovians, Mari, etc.

How it got into the gene pool of the Slavs: the assimilation of the Finno-Ugric population during the expansion of the territory of Russia to the north and east.

Distribution: increases to the north (in the northern regions of Russia up to 36%), sharply decreases to the south (4-6%).

I, the prehistoric pre-Aryan population of Europe, the descendants of the Cro-Magnons - the first people of Europe after the departure of the glacier

3) I2, Balkan haplogroup

Percentage: 11

Where the ancestor lived: Adriatic coast of the Balkans

Ancient speakers: unknown. In already historical time - these are the Thracians, Illyrians, etc.

Modern speakers: South Slavs (Bosnians, Croats, Slovenes, Serbs, Montenegrins, Macedonians, Bulgarians), Sardis

How did it get into the gene pool of the Slavs: assimilation of the most ancient population of the Balkans in the process of ethnogenesis of the ancient Slavic tribes, migration from the Balkans in ancient times, expansion of the Slavs to the Balkan Peninsula in already historical time (VI-X centuries), contacts with the Bulgarians, part of the Balkan peoples probably joined to the army of the Slavs in the fight against Byzantium and went with them to Russia, migration from the Balkans at a later time.

Distribution: decreases to the north (~5%), increases to the south, southwest (up to 16-18%).

5) I1, Scandinavian haplogroup

Percentage: 5.5

Where the ancestor lived: south of the Scandinavian Peninsula

Ancient speakers: unknown. In historical times, these are the Normans (Vikings)

Modern speakers: Swedes, Norwegians, Icelanders, Danes, Germans, etc.

How it got into the gene pool of the Slavs: assimilation of the most ancient population of the North of Europe, contacts with the ancient Germanic tribes.

Distribution: slightly increases to the north (~6%, and in some areas reaches 18%), decreases to the south (~4%).

4) R1b, Celtic haplogroup. The related Aryan Celtic branch of the peoples broke away early from the Proto-Indo-Europeans (Proto-Aryans) and developed in its own way.

Percentage: 7.7

Where the ancestor lived: Iberia Peninsula

Ancient speakers: Celts

Modern speakers: Portuguese, Spaniards, French, English, Scots, Welsh, Irish, Bretons, Germans, Danes, Dutch, Basques (Basques are Celtic in genes, but non-Indo-European in language - probably the most ancient people in Europe), Italians, population of Switzerland, etc.

How it got into the gene pool of the Slavs: contacts with the Celtic and ancient Germanic tribes of Central Europe (on the western borders of the settlement of the Slavs), assimilation of the Ostrogoths.

Distribution: increases towards the south.

6) E1b1b, Mediterranean haplogroup

Percentage: 5.2

Where the ancestor lived: originally - East Africa or Western Asia (the area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe "Golden Crescent"), later - the Mediterranean region, the Balkans

Ancient speakers: ancient Egyptians, Phoenicians, ancient Greeks

Modern speakers: Berbers, Arabs of North Africa, Greeks, Portuguese, Italians, Albanians, Serbs, etc.

Distribution: uneven. It is not typical for the North of Russia at all. More found in the Center.

7) J2, Eastern Mediterranean haplogroup

Percentage: 3.3

Where the ancestor lived: initially - Western Asia, later - the Aegean Sea basin, the Balkans, Asia Minor

Ancient speakers: Minoans (inhabitants of Ancient Crete), Phoenicians, ancient Greeks

Modern speakers: Arabs, Kurds, Georgians, Azerbaijanis, Greeks, Italians, Turks, Ossetians, Armenians, Albanians, Romanians, Bulgarians

How it got into the gene pool of the Slavs: assimilation of the most ancient agricultural tribes who moved to the Balkans from the Golden Crescent region, migration from the Balkans, contacts with Byzantium.

Distribution: uneven, almost never occurs in many regions of Russia, and separate foci with centers in Vologda (7.5%), Smolensk (7%), Belgorod (4%) and Kuban (4%).

Other haplogroups(with a negligible amount of impurities).

g, Caucasian haplogroup. Found in half of the Terek Cossacks. It is also found in some places in very small quantities among Russians in the south of Russia (in the Kuban - 1%).

Mongoloid haplogroups. FROM, a Mongolian haplogroup, and Q, East Siberian, one might say, do not occur among Russians (they are found only in some places and in microscopic quantities: 0.2% -0.3%). Only among the Cossacks, about 1% of the Q haplogroup is observed - traces of the Cossacks of the Turkic-speaking peoples assimilated at the early stages of ethnogenesis (torks, berendeys, black hoods). Therefore, the saying "Scratch a Russian - you will find a Tatar" is incorrect. The Tatar-Mongol yoke had no effect on the Russian gene pool. But Russians still found 1.5% of Mongoloid genes - on the maternal line (on mitochondrial DNA), while the rest of the maternal lines are purely European.

Of course, the Russian gene pool is not a "hodgepodge", but a synthesis with the formation of a new unity. The genetic sets of the original groups are completely mixed, with the exception of those traits that are transmitted through the Y chromosome and indicate who your ancestor was in the direct paternal line.

It is also worth noting that the Russians are a homogeneous (homogeneous, internally clean) nation. For example, a Russian from Moscow, from Stavropol and from the Far East have the same, the same structure of a set of haplogroups. What cannot be said about other peoples of Europe - for example, a German from Mecklenburg and a German from Bavaria or an Englishman from Essex and an Englishman from Sussex or an Italian from the north of Italy and an Italian from the south - these will be people very different in the structure of the set of haplogroups.

Mordovian layout:

E1b1b=0; N2=2.4; N1=16.9; R1a=26.5 (Erzya R1a=39.1, moksha R1a=21.7); R1b=13.3; I1a=12; I1b=2.4; J2=0
N2 is also a Finno-Ugric haplogroup (Western Siberia), I did not find data on the Mongoloid haplogroups C and Q. A significant percentage of the Aryan haplogroup is explained by the influence of Aryan blood, not otherwise. And the fact that Erzya always put herself above moksha, considering moksha Mordovians of the 2nd grade, now finds its confirmation :)
Russian Mordovia - R1a = 50 to 60%.

For the first time in history, Russian scientists conducted an unprecedented study of the Russian gene pool - and were shocked by its results. In particular, this study fully confirmed the idea expressed in our articles “Country Moksel” (No. 14) and “Non-Russian Russian Language” (No. 12) that Russians are not Slavs, but only Russian-speaking Finns.

“Russian scientists have completed and are preparing for publication the first large-scale study of the gene pool of the Russian people. The publication of the results may have unpredictable consequences for Russia and the world order,” this is how the publication on this topic begins sensationally in the Russian edition of Vlast. And the sensation really turned out to be incredible - many myths about Russian nationality turned out to be false. Among other things, it turned out that genetically Russians are not “Eastern Slavs” at all, but Finns.

RUSSIANS TURNED OUT TO BE FINNS

Anthropologists have been able, over several decades of intense research, to reveal the appearance of a typical Russian person. These are of medium build and medium height, light brown-haired with light eyes - gray or blue. By the way, in the course of the research, a verbal portrait of a typical Ukrainian was also obtained. The reference Ukrainian differs from the Russian in the color of his skin, hair and eyes - he is a swarthy brunette with regular features and brown eyes. However, anthropological measurements of the proportions of the human body are not even the last, but the century before last, of science, which has long received at its disposal the most accurate methods of molecular biology, which allow you to read all human genes. And the most advanced methods of DNA analysis today are sequencing (reading by letter of the genetic code) of mitochondrial DNA and DNA of the human Y-chromosome. Mitochondrial DNA has been passed down the female line from generation to generation, virtually unchanged since Eve, the progenitor of mankind, climbed down from a tree in East Africa. And the Y-chromosome is present only in men and, therefore, is also transmitted almost unchanged to male offspring, while all other chromosomes, when transmitted from father and mother to their children, are shuffled by nature, like a deck of cards before distribution. Thus, unlike indirect signs (appearance, body proportions), sequencing of mitochondrial DNA and DNA of the Y-chromosome indisputably and directly indicates the degree of kinship between people, writes the Vlast magazine.

In the West, human population geneticists have been successfully using these methods for two decades. In Russia, they were used only once, in the mid-1990s, when identifying the royal remains. The turning point in the situation with the use of the most modern methods for studying the titular nation of Russia occurred only in 2000. The Russian Foundation for Basic Research allocated a grant to scientists from the Laboratory of Human Population Genetics of the Medical Genetic Center of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences. For the first time in the history of Russia, scientists were able to fully concentrate on studying the gene pool of the Russian people for several years. They supplemented their molecular genetic studies with an analysis of the frequency distribution of Russian surnames in the country. This method was very cheap, but its information content exceeded all expectations: a comparison of the geography of surnames with the geography of genetic DNA markers showed their almost complete coincidence.

The molecular genetic results of the first study in Russia of the gene pool of the titular nationality are now being prepared for publication in the form of a monograph "Russian Gene Pool", which will be published at the end of the year by the Luch publishing house. The journal "Vlast" cites some research data. So, it turned out that Russians are not “Eastern Slavs” at all, but Finns. By the way, these studies completely destroyed the notorious myth about the "Eastern Slavs" - that allegedly Belarusians, Ukrainians and Russians "make up a group of Eastern Slavs." The only Slavs of these three peoples were only Belarusians, but it turned out that Belarusians are not “Eastern Slavs” at all, but Western ones, because they practically do not differ genetically from the Poles. So the myth about “kindred blood of Belarusians and Russians” was completely destroyed: Belarusians turned out to be virtually identical to Poles, Belarusians are genetically very far from Russians, but very close to Czechs and Slovaks. But the Finns of Finland turned out to be genetically closer to the Russians than the Belarusians. So, according to the Y-chromosome, the genetic distance between the Russians and the Finns of Finland is only 30 conventional units (close relationship). And the genetic distance between a Russian person and the so-called Finno-Ugric peoples (Mari, Veps, Mordovians, etc.) living on the territory of the Russian Federation is 2-3 units. Simply put, they are genetically IDENTICAL. In this regard, the Vlast magazine notes: “And the harsh statement of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Estonia on September 1 at the EU Council in Brussels (after the Russian side denounced the state border treaty with Estonia) about discrimination against Finno-Ugric peoples allegedly related to Finns in the Russian Federation loses its meaningful meaning. . But due to the moratorium of Western scientists, the Russian Foreign Ministry could not reasonably accuse Estonia of interfering in our internal, one might even say closely related, affairs.” This philippic is only one facet of the mass of contradictions that have arisen. Since the closest relatives for Russians are Finno-Ugric peoples and Estonians (in fact, these are the same people, because the difference of 2-3 units is inherent in only one people), then Russian jokes about “inhibited Estonians” are strange when the Russians themselves are these Estonians. A huge problem arises for Russia in self-identification as supposedly “Slavs”, because genetically the Russian people have nothing to do with the Slavs. In the myth about the “Slavic roots of Russians”, Russian scientists put a bold point: there is nothing from the Slavs in Russians. There is only a near-Slavic Russian language, but it also contains 60-70% of non-Slavic vocabulary, so a Russian person is not able to understand the languages ​​\u200b\u200bof the Slavs, although a real Slav understands Slavic languages ​​\u200b\u200bbecause of the similarity - any (except Russian). The results of the analysis of mitochondrial DNA showed that another closest relative of Russians, except for the Finns of Finland, is the Tatars: Russians from the Tatars are at the same genetic distance of 30 conventional units that separate them from the Finns. No less sensational were the data on Ukraine. It turned out that genetically the population of Eastern Ukraine is Finno-Ugric: Eastern Ukrainians are practically no different from Russians, Komi, Mordovians, Mari. This is one Finnish people, who once had their own common Finnish language. But with the Ukrainians of Western Ukraine, everything turned out to be even more unexpected. These are not Slavs at all, just as they are not “Russo-Finns” of Russia and Eastern Ukraine, but a completely different ethnic group: the genetic distance between Ukrainians from Lvov and Tatars is only 10 units.

Such a close relationship of Western Ukrainians with the Tatars may be explained by the Sarmatian roots of the ancient inhabitants of Kievan Rus. Of course, there is a certain Slavic component in the blood of Western Ukrainians (they are more genetically close to Slavs than Russians), but they are still not Slavs, but Sarmatians. Anthropologically, they are characterized by wide cheekbones, dark hair and brown eyes, dark (and not pink, like Caucasians) nipples. The magazine writes: “You can react in any way you like to these strictly scientific facts that show the natural essence of the reference electorates of Viktor Yushchenko and Viktor Yanukovych. But it will not be possible to accuse Russian scientists of falsifying these data: then the accusation will automatically extend to their Western colleagues, who have been delaying the publication of these results for more than a year, each time extending the moratorium.” The journal is right: these data clearly explain the deep and permanent split in Ukrainian society, where two completely different ethnic groups live under the name "Ukrainians". Moreover, Russian imperialism will take these scientific data into service as another (already weighty and scientific) argument to “grow” the territory of Russia with Eastern Ukraine. But what about the myth about the "Slavs-Russians"?

Recognizing this data and trying to use it, Russian strategists here are faced with what the people call a “double-edged sword”: in this case, they will have to reconsider the entire national self-identification of the Russian people as “Slavic” and abandon the concept of “kinship” with Belarusians and the entire Slavic World - no longer at the level of scientific research, but at the political level. The magazine also publishes a map indicating the area where "true Russian genes" (that is, Finnish) are still preserved. Geographically, this territory “coincides with Russia during the time of Ivan the Terrible” and “clearly shows the conditionality of some state borders,” writes the magazine. Namely: the population of Bryansk, Kursk and Smolensk is not at all a Russian population (that is, Finnish), but a Belarusian-Polish one - identical to the genes of Belarusians and Poles. The very fact that in the Middle Ages the border between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Muscovy was precisely the ethnic border between the Slavs and Finns is interesting (by the way, the eastern border of Europe passed along it then). The further imperialism of Muscovy-Russia, which annexed neighboring territories, went beyond the ethnic Muscovites and captured already foreign ethnic groups.

WHAT IS RUSSIA?

These new discoveries of Russian scientists allow us to take a fresh look at the entire policy of medieval Muscovy, including its concept of "Rus". It turns out that “pulling the Russian blanket over itself” by Moscow is explained purely ethnically, genetically. The so-called "Holy Russia" in the concept of the Russian Orthodox Church of Moscow and Russian historians was formed on the fact of the rise of Moscow in the Horde, and, as Lev Gumilyov wrote, for example, in the book "From Russia to Russia", according to the same fact, Ukrainians and Belarusians ceased to be Rusyns, ceased to be Russia. It is clear that there were two completely different Russias. One, Western, lived its own life of the Slavs, united into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia. Another Russia - Eastern Russia (more precisely Muscovy - because it was not considered Russia at that time) - entered for 300 years into the Horde ethnically close to it, in which it then seized power and made it "Russia" even before the conquest of Novgorod and Pskov into the Horde-Russia. This second Russia - Russia of the Finnish ethnos - is called the Russian Orthodox Church of Moscow and Russian historians "Holy Russia", while depriving Western Russia of the right to something "Russian" (forcing even the entire people of Kievan Rus to call themselves not Rusyns, but "okraintsy" ). The meaning is clear: this Finnish Russian had little in common with the original Slavic Russian.

The very centuries-old confrontation between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Muscovy (who seemed to have something in common in Russia between the Rurikovichs and the Kievan faith, and the princes of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania Vitovt-Yuri and Jagiello-Yakov were Orthodox from birth, were Rurikovich and the Grand Dukes of Russia, no other language except Russian, not knew) - this is a confrontation between countries of different ethnic groups: the ON brought together the Slavs, and Muscovy - the Finns. As a result, for many centuries two Russias opposed each other - the Slavic Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Finnish Muscovy. This explains the glaring fact that Muscovy NEVER during her stay in the Horde expressed a desire to return to Russia, gain freedom from the Tatars, join the ON. And its capture of Novgorod was caused precisely by the negotiations of Novgorod on joining the GDL. This Russophobia of Moscow and its “masochism” (“the Horde yoke is better than the GDL”) can only be explained by ethnic differences with original Russia and ethnic closeness to the peoples of the Horde. It is this genetic difference with the Slavs that explains Muscovy's rejection of the European way of life, hatred of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Poles (that is, the Slavs in general), great love for the East and Asian traditions. These studies of Russian scientists must also be reflected in the revision of their concepts by historians. Among other things, it is long necessary to introduce into historical science the fact that there was not one Rus, but two completely different ones: Slavic Rus and Finnish Rus. This clarification allows us to understand and explain many processes of our medieval history, which in the current interpretation seem to be devoid of any meaning.

RUSSIAN SURNAME

Attempts by Russian scientists to investigate the statistics of Russian surnames at first encountered a lot of difficulties. The Central Election Commission and local election commissions flatly refused to cooperate with scientists, citing the fact that only if the voter lists are secret can they guarantee the objectivity and honesty of elections to federal and local authorities. The criterion for inclusion in the list of a surname was very lenient: it was included if at least five carriers of this surname lived in the region for three generations. First, lists were compiled for five conditional regions - Northern, Central, Central-Western, Central-Eastern and Southern. In total, about 15 thousand Russian surnames were accumulated in all regions of Russia, most of which were found only in one of the regions and were absent in others.

When regional lists were superimposed on each other, scientists identified a total of 257 so-called "all-Russian surnames". The journal writes: “It is interesting that at the final stage of the study, they decided to add the names of residents of the Krasnodar Territory to the list of the Southern Region, expecting that the predominance of Ukrainian surnames of the descendants of the Zaporizhzhya Cossacks evicted here by Catherine II would significantly reduce the all-Russian list. But this additional restriction reduced the list of all-Russian surnames by only 7 units - to 250. From which followed the obvious and not for everyone pleasant conclusion that the Kuban is inhabited mainly by Russian people. But where did the Ukrainians go and were there at all Ukrainians here is a big question.” And further: “An analysis of Russian surnames in general provides food for thought. Even the simplest action - searching it for the names of all the leaders of the country - gave an unexpected result. Only one of them was included in the list of top 250 all-Russian surnames - Mikhail Gorbachev (158th place). The surname Brezhnev takes 3767th place in the general list (found only in the Belgorod region of the Southern region). The surname Khrushchev is in 4248th place (found only in the Northern region, Arkhangelsk region). Chernenko took 4749th place (only the Southern region). Andropov - 8939th place (only the Southern region). Putin took 14,250th place (only the Southern region). But Yeltsin was not included in the general list at all. Stalin's surname - Dzhugashvili - for obvious reasons was not considered. But on the other hand, the pseudonym Lenin got into the regional lists under the number 1421, second only to the first president of the USSR, Mikhail Gorbachev. The magazine writes that the result amazed even the scientists themselves, who believed that the main difference between the bearers of South Russian surnames was not in the ability to lead a huge power, but in the increased sensitivity of the skin of their fingers and palms. A scientific analysis of dermatoglyphics (papillary patterns on the skin of the palms and fingers) of Russian people showed that the complexity of the pattern (from simple arcs to loops) and the accompanying skin sensitivity increase from north to south. “A person with simple patterns on the skin of his hands can hold a glass of hot tea in his hands without pain,” Dr. Balanovskaya clearly explained the essence of the differences. “And if there are a lot of loops, then unsurpassed pickpockets came out of such people.” Scientists publish a list of the 250 most popular Russian surnames. Unexpected was the fact that the most massive Russian surname is not Ivanov, but Smirnov. It’s wrong to give this whole list, it’s not worth it, here are just the 20 most massive Russian surnames: 1. Smirnov; 2. Ivanov; 3. Kuznetsov; 4. Popov; 5. Sokolov; 6. Lebedev; 7. Kozlov; 8. Novikov; 9. Morozov; 10. Petrov; 11. Volkov; 12. Solovyov; 13. Vasiliev; 14. Zaitsev; 15. Pavlov; 16. Semenov; 17. Golubev; 18. Vinogradov; 19. Bogdanov; 20. Sparrows. All top all-Russian surnames have Bulgarian endings in -ov (-ev), plus a few surnames in -in (Ilyin, Kuzmin, etc.). And among the top 250 there is not a single surname of “Eastern Slavs” (Belarusians and Ukrainians) in -iy, -ich, -ko. Although in Belarus the most common surnames are -iy and -ich, and in Ukraine - on -ko. This also shows the deep differences between the "Eastern Slavs", because Belarusian surnames with -ij and -ich are equally the most common in Poland - and not at all in Russia. The Bulgarian endings of the 250 most massive Russian surnames indicate that the surnames were given by the priests of Kievan Rus, who spread Orthodoxy among its Finns in Muscovy, because these surnames are Bulgarian, from holy books, and not from the living Slavic language, which the Finns of Muscovy just don’t have It was. Otherwise, it is impossible to understand why the Russians do not have the surnames of the Belarusians living nearby at all (in -iy and -ich), but the Bulgarian surnames - although the Bulgarians are not at all bordering on Moscow, but live thousands of kilometers away from it. The mass character of surnames with animal names is explained by Lev Uspensky in the book “Mysteries of Toponymy” (M., 1973) by the fact that in the Middle Ages people had two names - from parents, and from baptism, and “from parents” then it was “fashionable” to give names animals. As he writes, then in the family the children had the names Hare, Wolf, Bear, etc. This pagan tradition was embodied in the mass character of "animal" surnames.

ABOUT BELARUSIANS

A special topic in this study is the genetic identity of Belarusians and Poles. This did not become the subject of attention of Russian scientists, because it is outside of Russia. But it is very interesting for us. The very fact of the genetic identity of Poles and Belarusians is not unexpected. The very history of our countries confirms it - the main part of the ethnic group of Belarusians and Poles are not Slavs, but Slavicized Western Balts, but their genetic “passport” is so close to Slavic that it would be almost difficult to find differences in genes between Slavs and Prussians, Mazurs, Dainova , Yotvingians, etc. This is what unites the Poles and Belarusians, the descendants of the Slavicized Western Balts. This ethnic community also explains the creation of the Union State of the Commonwealth. The famous Belarusian historian V.U. Lastovsky in A Brief History of Belarus (Vilna, 1910) writes that negotiations on the creation of the Union State of Belarusians and Poles began ten times: in 1401, 1413, 1438, 1451, 1499, 1501, 1563, 1564, 1566, 1567. - and ended for the eleventh time with the creation of the Union in 1569. Where does such persistence come from? Obviously - only from the awareness of the ethnic community, because the ethnic group of Poles and Belarusians was created on the dissolution of the Western Balts. But the Czechs and Slovaks, who were also part of the first in the history of the Slavic Union of the peoples of the Commonwealth, no longer felt this degree of closeness, because they did not have a “Baltic component” in themselves. And even more alienation was among the Ukrainians, who saw this as little ethnic kinship and eventually entered into a complete confrontation with the Poles. The studies of Russian geneticists allow us to take a completely different look at our entire history, because many political events and political preferences of the peoples of Europe are largely explained precisely by the genetics of their ethnic group - which has so far remained hidden from historians. It was the genetics and genetic relationship of ethnic groups that were the most important forces in the political processes of medieval Europe. The genetic map of peoples, created by Russian scientists, allows you to look at the wars and alliances of the Middle Ages from a completely different angle.

The results of research by Russian scientists on the gene pool of the Russian people will be assimilated in society for a long time, because they completely refute all our ideas, reducing them to the level of unscientific myths. This new knowledge is not so much to be understood as it is necessary to get used to it. Now the concept of “Eastern Slavs” has become absolutely unscientific, the congresses of Slavs in Minsk are unscientific, where not Slavs from Russia gather at all, but Russian-speaking Finns from Russia, who are not genetically Slavs and have nothing to do with the Slavs. The very status of these "congresses of the Slavs" is completely discredited by Russian scientists. The Russian people are named according to the results of these studies by Russian scientists not Slavs, but Finns. The population of Eastern Ukraine is also named Finns, while the population of Western Ukraine is genetically Sarmatians. That is, the Ukrainian people are also not Slavs. The only Slavs from the "Eastern Slavs" are genetically named Belarusians, but they are genetically identical to the Poles - which means they are not "Eastern Slavs" at all, but genetically Western Slavs. In fact, this means the geopolitical collapse of the Slavic Triangle of the "Eastern Slavs", because Belarusians turned out to be genetically Poles, Russians - Finns, and Ukrainians - Finns and Sarmatians. Of course, propaganda will continue to try to hide this fact from the population, but you can't hide an awl in a sack. As well as not to close the mouth of scientists, not to hide their latest genetic research. Scientific progress cannot be stopped. Therefore, the discoveries of Russian scientists are not just a scientific sensation, but a BOMB capable of undermining all the current foundations in the ideas of peoples. That is why the Russian magazine Vlast gave this fact an extremely worried assessment: “Russian scientists have completed and are preparing for publication the first large-scale study of the gene pool of the Russian people. The publication of the results could have unpredictable consequences for Russia and the world order.” The magazine did not exaggerate.

Author Doctor of Biology S. B. Pashutin

Ethnic polymorphism

Races are thought to have arisen from the accumulation of many small genetic differences among the inhabitants of different geographic regions. As long as people lived together, the mutations that appeared in them spread throughout the group. After the groups were separated, new mutations arose and accumulated independently in them. The number of accumulated differences between groups is proportional to the time elapsed since their separation. This makes it possible to date the events of population history: migrations, associations of ethnic groups in one territory, and others. Thanks to the "molecular clock" method, paleogenetics was able to establish that Homo sapiens as a biological species formed 130-150 thousand years ago in Southeast Africa. At that time, the ancestral population of modern man did not exceed two thousand simultaneously living individuals. About 60-70 thousand years ago Homo sapiens began to migrate from the African ancestral home and the formation of branches leading to modern races and ethnic groups.

After humans emerged from Africa and spread across the globe, they lived in relative isolation from each other for many generations and accumulated genetic differences. These differences are pronounced enough to be able to determine the ethnicity of a person, but they occurred not very long ago (compared to the time of the formation of the species) and therefore shallow. It is believed that racial characteristics account for about 10% of all genetic differences between people on Earth (the remaining 90% are individual differences). And yet, over tens of thousands of years, man has managed to adapt to different habitats. In a certain geographical area, the individuals most adapted to it survived and established themselves, all the rest either could not stand it and left in search of a more comfortable place of residence, or degraded and disappeared from the historical arena. Of course, such a centuries-old adaptation could not but leave an original imprint on the genetic apparatus of representatives of each race and ethnic group.

Some examples of genetic interracial differences are well known. Hypolactasia is a digestive disorder in which the intestine does not produce the enzyme lactase to break down milk sugar. About a third of adult Ukrainians and Russians suffer from this disease. The fact is that initially in all people the production of this enzyme stopped after the end of breastfeeding, and the ability to drink milk appeared in adults as a result of a mutation. In Holland, Denmark or Sweden, where dairy breeds of cows have been bred for a long time, 90% of the population drinks milk without any harm to health, but in China, where dairy cattle breeding is not developed, only 2-5% of adults drink milk.

The situation with alcohol is no less known. Its biotransformation occurs in two stages. First, liver alcohol dehydrogenase converts alcohol into acetaldehyde, which causes discomfort. In the second step, another enzyme, acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, oxidizes the aldehyde. The rate at which enzymes work is genetically determined. It is common for Asians to combine "slow" first stage enzymes with "slow" second stage enzymes. Because of this, alcohol circulates in the blood for a long time, and at the same time, a high concentration of acetaldehyde is maintained. Europeans have the opposite combination of enzymes: both in the first and in the second stages they are very active, that is, alcohol breaks down quickly and the level of acetaldehyde is lower.

The Russians, as usual, have their own way. Half of Russians are carriers of European "alcoholic" genes. But in the other half, the rapid processing of ethanol is combined with the slow oxidation of acetaldehyde. This allows them to get drunk more slowly, but at the same time accumulate more toxic aldehyde in the blood. This combination of enzymes leads to a higher consumption of alcohol - with all the consequences of severe intoxication.

According to scientists, the Asian nomads, who knew alcohol only in the form of fermented mare's milk, evolved a different enzyme than sedentary Europeans, who have a long tradition of producing stronger drinks from grapes and grains.

It should be noted that the so-called diseases of civilization - obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disorders - appeared in a sense due to unintentional neglect of one's own ethnic characteristics, that is, they became a retribution for survival in a foreign environment. For example, peoples living predominantly in the tropics consumed a diet low in cholesterol and almost without salt. At the same time, with a frequency of up to 40%, they had beneficial gene variants that contribute to the accumulation of cholesterol or deficient salt in the body. However, with a modern lifestyle, this feature becomes a risk factor for atherosclerosis, hypertension, or threatens to be overweight. In the European population, such genes occur with a frequency of 5–15%. And among the peoples of the Far North, whose diet was rich in fats, the transition to a European high-carbohydrate diet leads to the development of diabetes and related diseases.

A very indicative and instructive example is shown to the whole world by a country of immigrants. A full bouquet of all the above pathological conditions, also called the metabolic syndrome, is the most common disease in the United States. It affects one in five Americans, and in certain ethnic groups, patients are even more common. One can only hope that the effect of the "melting pot of peoples" will spread to the ethnic gene pool, which will be able to adapt to the natural features of this region and lifestyle, depending on socio-economic conditions.

Pigmentation of the skin can also be related to the "diseases of civilization." Light skin appeared as a result of the accumulation of mutations in people who changed their southern habitat to more remote, northern territories. This helped them compensate for the lack of vitamin D, which is produced in the body under the influence of sunlight. Dark skin delays radiation, so its current owners, once in the northern regions, are potentially more prone to rickets and possibly other disorders due to a lack of vitamin D.

Thus, hereditary polymorphism is a natural result of natural selection, when, in the struggle for existence, a person, due to random mutations, adapted to the external environment and developed various defense mechanisms. Since most peoples, except for the largest and most scattered, lived within the same geographical area, the traits acquired from generation to generation over the millennia were fixed genetically. Including those signs that at first glance seem undesirable or may contribute to serious illness. Such a genetic compromise may be ruthless for individual individuals, but it contributes to better survival of the population in a particular environment and the preservation of the species as a whole. If some mutation provides a decisive reproductive advantage, then its frequency in the population will tend to increase, even if it leads to disease. In particular, carriers of the defective sickle cell anemia gene living in Mediterranean countries with widespread malaria are protected from these two diseases at once. Those who inherit both mutant genes from both parents will not survive due to anemia, and those who receive two copies of the "normal" gene from their father and mother are more likely to die from malaria.

Original entry and comments on

E. Balanovskaya, O. Balanovsky

RUSSIAN GENE POOL: eyewitness accounts

What are the origins of the Russian gene pool? What tribes and peoples formed its basis?
What invasions passed like a wave overhead, leaving no trace? What migrations - often almost unrecorded in chronicle memory - determined many of its modern features?
Population genetics, which studies the variability of the gene pool in space and time, is looking for answers to these questions.

PORTRAIT PAINTS

The history of the formation of any nation is often more complicated than the intrigue of an adventure novel. To unravel it, you need to attract many sources, each of which speaks about one or another side of events. And now great hopes are pinned on genetics - after all, genes convey information about our ancestors to us. However, the reliability of the evidence depends on the reliability of the underlying information. Of decisive importance is the range and number of populations (A population is, in this context, a relatively isolated group of the population that has historically developed in a certain territory and reproduces itself within these boundaries from generation to generation (ed. note), based on the study of which geneticists draw conclusions. For many decades of careful work, anthropologists, linguists, ethnographers have collected detailed information about almost all the peoples of the world.A huge array has also been accumulated by biological disciplines - somatology - study of the details of the skin relief (papillary lines) of the fingers and toes.It is used in racial science, forensics.-Ed., paleoanthropology.

(according to the frequencies of Y chromosome haplogroups)

The first principal component of the variability of the Russian gene pool

(according to classical markers)

The histogram shows the boundary values ​​that separate the scale of variability

feature for intervals. The zone of high values ​​of the attribute is colored in red-brown colors,

medium - in green colors, low - in blue colors

More recently, research into the gene pool proceeded in parallel streams. The fusion was hampered by the lack of technology for a generalized analysis of various traits, which were also studied in different populations.
Genogeography was able to play a unifying role and carry out a synthesis of various data on the Russian gene pool. Both the term itself, and the concept of "gene pool", and the idea to connect the processes of the formation of peoples with the spatial distribution of genes belong to Alexander Serebrovsky (corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR since 1933), in the 20s of the XX century. who wrote in one of his works: "... The modern geography of genes is the result of a long historical process, and when we learn to read what is written in the images of the modern distribution of genes, we will be able to read a detailed history ... of mankind."

The gene pool is a real object. Not visible in any devices, it has certain physical parameters, structure, occupies a clearly limited space - an area. Mapping is the only way to visualize this object. Therefore, the creation of computer maps and their analysis is not a tribute to fashion, but a necessity and condition for a large-scale study. Outside of cartographic technology, it is impossible to describe the geography of hundreds of genes, much less to obtain a generalized “portrait” of the gene pool (namely, the creation of such portraits is considered by the authors of this article as one of the main achievements of the laboratory they represent). In a word, genogeography not only increases the amount of relevant scientific information, but streamlines and transforms it, making it easily readable and accessible to all specialists.
True, today the gene pool, its destruction and degeneration, the means of salvation are spoken more often not by scientists, but by public figures and publicists. Because researchers can afford it only with reliable knowledge. And the first step to forecasting the future is to turn to the past.

METHODS OF GENOGEOGRAPHY

We are studying the modern population, but the analysis itself is aimed at distinguishing the features of the history of its addition in the current gene pool. That is why in the field of our interest is not the urbanized population or the population formed as a result of recent migrations (then we would have probed only the recent past), but the indigenous rural population (which has changed least of all since previous centuries). That is why we limit our consideration to the "original", historical area of ​​the Russian people, which is only a part of the modern one. The Russian people were formed on the territory covering the center of Eastern Europe and its North. And the definition of “primordial” is not in quotation marks by chance: the local history of the pre-Slavic population is an order of magnitude longer than the Slavic one.
At the same time, we are not talking about the specifically Russian gene pool and genes. For any binding of a biological carrier of heredity to an ethnos is essentially incorrect - we are talking about different coordinate systems: belonging to a people is determined by a person's self-consciousness, while the gene pool is determined by the concentration of genes in a certain area. Like chips in a stream, genes through their carriers - members of the population - are involved in the historical process, making it possible to follow its course for centuries and millennia. There is a special - historical - connection between the gene pool and the ethnos.

But the life of the researcher is too short compared to the life of the population. Therefore, genogeography replaces observation in time with observation in space, and the tools used for this - computer maps - allow you to track simultaneously the microevolutionary trajectories of many genes. The more statistical data included in such a map, the more detailed the geography of the historical process in the area of ​​the gene pool will be restored. Of course, the borders of a population are not blind fences - gene flows pass through them, however, these flows are not as intense at the borders as within the population's own range. And these boundaries themselves are mobile, fluid, although absolutely real: they can be detected and fixed, for example, by sharp changes in the frequencies of occurring genes, or by studying the structure of migrations associated with marriage and the creation of new families.

Even gene pools that have a common origin, under the influence of natural or demographic factors, move away from each other from generation to generation, which sooner or later manifests itself in the anthropological and genetic originality of the population. If we reflect the studied signs on the maps, it turns out that they are not randomly distributed in space. The increase and decrease in the frequency of occurrence of genes occurs more or less smoothly, as a result of which they have similar values ​​not in separate geographical points, but in entire territories.
Along with cartographic technology, data banks occupy an important place in gene geography. The fact is that the amount of information used even in a not too large-scale study of this kind is huge, and the baseline indicators themselves are usually scattered in many articles. Thanks to its structural organization and programmed functions, such a repository also becomes a tool for checking, systematizing and analyzing the accumulated facts. Therefore, before creating map atlases, it was necessary to create data banks "Russian gene pool", "Paleolithic of Northern Eurasia", "Russian surnames" and a number of others.

We used these methods in the study of the Circassians, Bashkirs, Belarusians, Maris, Mongols, Ossetians, Russians and representatives of other peoples. Our comparative analysis showed that the gene pool of the population of Northern Eurasia (including the territory of the former USSR - the European part of Russia, the Caucasus, the Urals, Central Asia, Kazakhstan, Siberia and the Far East) retained the largest part of the world's genetic diversity. What forces support it? The leading factor, according to our estimates, was the numerous ethnic groups that gradually (“quantized”) emerged within these spatial boundaries over the past millennia.

FROM GENES TO GENE POOL

A "portrait" of the gene pool can be "drawn" only by examining individual genes. This work is laborious and requires much more time and money than, for example, an analysis of the anthropological composition of the population. In order to study DNA markers (namely, they are now attracting the attention of population geneticists), it is necessary to go on an expedition and conduct a survey of the population during it. Venous blood samples are taken from those who have expressed their consent to participate in it. Moreover, only among individuals who are not related to each other by blood relationship, moreover, their ancestors for two generations should belong to both this people and this population. Such samples are usually taken exclusively from men - all markers of both paternal and maternal lines of inheritance in this case are presented in one sample. Blood samples stored in the cold are urgently delivered to the molecular genetic center for DNA extraction, then stored in freezers. Then the next, most interesting, but lengthy and expensive stage of research begins: the determination in each individual of those gene variants (more precisely, DNA variants) in which some populations differ from others. As a result, their DNA polymorphism is revealed. Moreover, one or several genes cannot be limited - in order to see the whole picture, their palette must be large and diverse.

The heterogeneity of the Russian people in comparison with the typical heterogeneity of the peoples of the regions of Eurasia

Let's explain in more detail. From each of the parents we receive one "set" of genes: one comes from the father, the other from the mother. They are called autosomal, and they are the absolute majority in any person. However, there are also small, but important for the study of the history of Homo sapiens, exceptions: we are talking about genes transmitted from one of the parents and therefore called "uniparental". Only men, and only from the father, receive the Uchromosome. Women don't have it. But from the mother, all of us - both men and women - receive with the egg a special DNA that is contained outside the nucleus - in the mitochondria - and is transmitted in generations independently of the nucleus. Human genes can be thought of as words of the universal language of heredity. Then the genome (or genotype) of each of us, including both autosomal and uniparental genes, is comparable to a unique “text” compiled in this language. And the gene pool of the population, containing the entire "vocabulary" - with a set of many individual various "texts".

Population genetics deals with polymorphic genes, i.e. those that are found not in one, but in different variants (alleles) - "words" that differ only in a few letters. Each of the allele variants is the result of mutations (errors in the spelling of “words”) that occurred in the distant past, but are transmitted in the chain of generations to the present day. To study a population, it is important that the variants are not very rare, but occur in it with a frequency of at least 1-5%. However, no matter how large the family of alleles, an individual cannot contain more than two variants of the “word” (two alleles of one gene): one from the mother and one from the father. If the resulting alleles are the same, the person is homozygous for this gene; if they differ, the person is heterozygous.

Autosomal genes are recombined (shuffled) during transmission. So, if you received the complete works of Fyodor Dostoevsky from your father, and Agatha Christie from your mother, then leave randomly shuffled volumes to your child - for example, 1,2, 5, 8, 10th Dostoevsky and 3, 4, 6, 7 , 9th Christie. Recombinations do not occur with single-parent markers (because they are obtained from only one of the parents) - they are inherited as a single block and allow you to trace the history of maternal and paternal lines. Such a “complete collection of works” of theirs, which is completely transmitted in a number of generations, is called mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and Y chromosome haplotypes.

The essence of all genetic markers (physiological, immunological, biochemical, autosomal DNA markers or uniparental ones) is the same: according to the test result (whether we show the survey participant a book with color pictures to detect color blindness, or we perform DNA sequencing, specifying the nucleotide sequence), we unambiguously identify the presence or absence of specific alleles of a particular gene in a person.
The situation is similar with quasi-genetic markers: surnames, genus names. Although they are not “dictated” by genes (the surname is a phenomenon of language and culture, not biology), they sometimes behave like them and, even thanks to history, sometimes find themselves in the same bundle with genes.

LATITUDINAL VARIABILITY

To identify the structure of the Russian gene pool, we analyzed six datasets: two anthropological (somatology and dermatoglyphics), two DNA polymorphisms (mtDNA and Y chromosomes), one more was composed of classical genetic markers (for example, blood groups, genes for a number of enzymes), and the last one was geography surnames. It was important to find out whether the data of different sciences are consistent or contradict each other, will they help to create a single, holistic portrait? Each type of trait is an “eyewitness” telling about the gene pool. And comparison of testimonies helps to create the most truthful image of him.

The anthropological data we relied on were collected during two large-scale expeditions conducted under the auspices of the USSR Academy of Sciences in the 1950s. This largest study of its kind describes the physical appearance of the Russian population. A total of 181 populations were studied according to 18 traits (body length, eye and hair color, nasal bridge shape, beard growth, etc.). The geography of most of these characteristics is quite complex. Simple patterns were found for only a few traits (say, for beard growth: the further south the population, the more intense the average beard growth). In general, the anthropological appearance, as follows from the generalized map of the so-called canonical variable (Maps of canonical variables and principal components reveal the "leading scenarios" of gene pool variability - that common thing that is present in most maps of individual traits, but hidden by a veil of the private history of each trait (approx. . auth.), changes mainly in the direction from north to south or vice versa (linguists also know the same pattern, distinguishing northern, southern and mixed Central Russian dialects).But the changes occur very gradually - there can be no border between north and south It is rather the main axis along which the greatest variability is visible: moving from north to south we will find much greater differences than from west to east. data.

The array of so-called classical genetic markers is perhaps the most important: in fact, unlike anthropological data and surnames, these are “real genes”, and compared to recently appeared DNA markers have long been studied in many Russian populations. The map of the main component of classical markers turned out to be very similar to the map of the main anthropological pattern: again, gradual changes in the gene pool from north to south. However, DNA markers have not lagged behind their classical predecessors.

Of all the many genetic markers, the Y chromosome is the newest and, according to many scientists, the most promising. Literature information is so fragmentary that we had to undertake our own research - to collect data on 14 Russian populations from the entire "original" Russian area and determine the frequencies of Y chromosome haplogroups for them (this work, as well as for mtDNA, we carried out on the basis of the Estonian Biocenter, headed by Richard Willems, President of the Estonian Academy of Sciences). The degree of differences between populations (heterogeneity) for the Y chromosome turned out to be much higher than for classical markers and mtDNA. This means that Y chromosome markers are the most powerful tool for studying the Russian gene pool. Therefore, for the Y chromosome haplogroups, we also created an atlas of maps of their distribution in the Russian area. It turned out that this tool elegantly reveals the clear and smooth latitudinal variability of the Russian gene pool: the main vector, like a compass needle, again indicates the same direction - north-south.
The agreement between all the "eyewitnesses" leaves no doubt: a real, objective leading regularity in the structure of the Russian gene pool has been revealed - latitudinal variability.

The first main component of the variability of the material culture of the Upper Paleolithic in the territory of Northern Eurasia

SLAVES AND THEIR PRECURSORS

This regularity was found by maps of principal components. But on a generalized map of another type - genetic distances - it is shown how each of the Russian populations differs from the average in its anthropological appearance. Similar to the middle one are found everywhere and mainly in the center of the Russian range. One would expect that the "most different" are located in the south and north. However, populations that significantly fall outside the average characteristics form clusters, nuclei along a different axis: one group in the west, the other in the east of the "original" range.

To explain the picture, let us recall how the modern Russian population was formed. Slavic tribes moved east for several centuries, colonizing the East European Plain and assimilating the local Finno-Ugric tribes. At the beginning of the process, the Slavs numerically predominated in the western regions, and this dominant is noticeable in the appearance of the population of the "western" cores. In the middle of the process, mixing intensified, especially in the territories that are now the middle part of the Russian range. As a result, an “average” Russian image was formed here, made up of Slavic and Finno-Ugric components. At the end of colonization in the eastern regions of the “original” Russian area, the local population numerically prevailed over the newcomer Slavic, which inevitably affected the external appearance: features of the pre-Slavic population predominate in the “eastern” cores. All this is evidenced by our hypothesis, confirmed by the fact that the zone of the "average" Russian population corresponds to the advance of the borders of the Russian state to the east in the 9th-11th centuries, i.e. is located where the greatest mixing of the Slavs with the Finno-Ugric populations took place. In addition, the western “cores” on the anthropological map coincide with the areas of the annalistic Slavic tribes on the archaeological map: each of the cores registered in the west is comparable to the tribe mentioned in the Russian chronicles (Krivichi, Vyatichi, Severyans).

FEATURES OF "EYEWITNESSES"

Having identified the “main scenario” for the addition of the gene pool, at the second stage of the analysis, one must peer into the originality of each trait used - whether it be DNA sequences or features of appearance, blood type or surname. Maybe the features of one "eyewitness" will tell us something about the gene pool that others, due to their features, will not discover?
Thus, among the dermatoglyphic features, the distribution of the Caucasoid-Mongoloid complex is especially curious - a special combination of skin patterns that well differentiate the populations of the west and east of Eurasia. The expectation that the Russian population's Mongoloidity increases towards the east or southeast was not confirmed - within the "original" area, this complex is distributed randomly.
It would seem that classical gene markers should not have “features”. But it is precisely their “traditionality”, the fact that they have been studied for a long time, that gives them a property that is extremely important for researchers: so much data has been accumulated on them that it is possible to carry out types of analysis that are especially demanding on the quality and quantity of initial information. For example, to evaluate such a parameter of the gene pool as the degree of its internal heterogeneity (structuredness, differentiation), i.e. find out how different Russian populations differ from each other.

To answer this question, we assessed the indicator of heterogeneity not only of the Russian people. We carried out the same analysis for other ethnic groups. It turned out that all Western European peoples are generally homogeneous (populations, for example, the French are genetically similar to each other), while Siberians, on the contrary, are heterogeneous (populations, say, the Yakuts are very different from each other). An intermediate position (moderate heterogeneity) was occupied by the peoples of Eastern Europe, the Caucasus, and the Urals. Against the Eastern European background, the differences in the Russian genotype are very large. They are much higher than the average genetic differences within each people of Western Europe.

Mitochondrial DNA as a type of genetic marker is now the most popular among researchers around the world. But data on Russian populations began to accumulate only a few years ago. Therefore, we still have reliable information on only seven of them, and the limited information does not allow mapping. And statistical methods reveal that according to mitochondrial DNA, as well as according to classical markers, different Russian populations are very dissimilar. A feature of mitochondrial DNA is its great variety of variants (haplotypes), which make it possible to compare populations according to their “spectrum”. And according to the degree of overlapping of the spectra of two populations, one can judge their relationship. We have identified haplotypes in Russian populations and compared them with the spectrum of our "neighbors" in Europe. It turned out that the Russians are most similar to the rest of the East Slavic populations (30% of the "Russian" haplotypes were also found in Belarusians and Ukrainians). In second place are the Eastern Finno-Ugric peoples (Komi, Udmurts, Mari, Mordovians), in third place are the Western Finno-Ugric peoples (Estonians, Karelians, Finns, Saami), then come the Western Slavs (Poles, Czechs, Slovaks) and South Slavs (Serbs, Croats, Bulgarians, Bosnians, Slovenes). So, according to the mtDNA haplotypes, the Russian gene pool is closer to the Finno-Ugric than to the "proto-Slavic". But the most important thing is that, as previously, according to the signs of anthropology, classical genetic markers and haplogroups of the Y chromosome, we have again found by mtDNA that the main vector of variability in the Russian gene pool follows the north-south direction.

The most unusual markers on which we have high hopes are surnames. They can be used to predict the features of the gene pool where there is not enough time and money to study it directly, by genes. For several years, we have collected data on the surnames of about a million people representing the rural population within the "original" Russian area. Five regions - Northern, Southern, Western, Eastern, Central - became the framework of the study. Unfortunately, we do not yet have enough information on the "junctions" between them. Therefore, mapping was carried out only for 75 surnames - for them there were data for the entire range. And the patterns of the remaining tens of thousands of surnames were studied by statistical methods for the "reference" regions.

What turned out? Almost each of the 75 surnames has its own geographical area, outside of which it is absent or extremely rare. Even such seemingly ubiquitous surnames - Ivanov, Vasiliev, Smirnov - turned out to be not ubiquitous: there are very few Ivanovs in the south, the Vasilievs are concentrated in the northwestern regions, and the Smirnovs in the eastern and central regions. However, the prevalence of surnames, as follows from our generalized maps, is subject to the same latitudinal variability as the signs of anthropology and genetics, but this pattern is obscured - the mapped list does not sufficiently represent the list of thousands of Russian surnames.
Therefore, a statistical analysis was carried out over the entire spectrum of surnames, and we found 65,000 of them.

According to established practice, in order to study the indigenous population, only villages and small towns were taken into account. To screen out newcomers, "stray" surnames, those encountered in the regional population in less than 5 people were excluded. The remaining 14,000 were considered conditionally indigenous and continued to work only with them. Of these, 250 turned out to be ubiquitous: they occur in each of the five regions mentioned, although with different frequencies. The rest draw a peculiar portrait of each region. In the West, "calendar" surnames predominate, i.e. derived from names mentioned in the Orthodox calendar. In the Central, the most characteristic are those formed from the names of animals, birds, plants, in the East - conspicuous (Smirnov, Rumyantsev ...). In the South, professional (Popov, Goncharov) are most often found, and in the North, although calendar ones are common, there are a lot of dialect ones (Bulygin, Leshukov ...). In terms of the frequencies of all 14,000 surnames, the regions of the middle zone (Western, Eastern, Central) turned out to be similar. And the North and South differ both from it and from each other, again recalling the latitudinal variability of the gene pool and the north-south compass needle.
So, having considered the main results on the types of traits that characterize the Russian gene pool, we state: they have a single system - the latitudinal direction of variability.

IN THE CIRCLE OF NEIGHBORS

The identification of such a vector is all the more surprising since one could expect just the opposite—the direction of variability in longitude. After all, for the gene pool of Eastern Europe (which includes Russian as a huge component), our studies have shown that the main pattern is variability in longitude.
As is known, the Russian people formed on the basis of the East Slavic, Baltic and Finno-Ugric tribes, possibly also Turkic-speaking, Iranian-speaking - in a word, almost all ethnic groups inhabiting this territory. This means that it was precisely the longitudinal variability that should have been reflected in it, if it really took shape, like the Russian state, by “growth”, by the mechanical inclusion of ever new population groups. The fact that a different - latitudinal - vector has been identified indicates the fundamental fact of the originality of the Russian gene pool. It manifests itself in the fact that the main direction of its variability is not reducible to the original, characteristic of the tribes and peoples on the basis of which it was formed. Apparently, latitudinal variability arose or increased in the course of the Russian gene pool's own history.

Note that the longitude trend (gradual change in values ​​in the west-east direction) is not limited to Eastern Europe. This is the basic, ancient regularity of the gene pool of all Eurasia. Our cartographic analysis of the archaeological cultures of the Upper Paleolithic showed that 26-16 thousand years ago there were already sharp differences between the populations of Europe and Siberia. However, in the Russian area, which occupies the vast middle part of Eastern Europe, it was not this background variability that came to the fore, but its own, latitudinal one. However, it is reliably known that on the scale of Eurasia, which is divided in the first approximation into western, eastern and intermediate regions, the Russian gene pool belongs to the western trunk.
In this regard, let's try to figure out what consequences the Mongol-Tatar yoke had for him - the conquest of Russia in the 13th century. and subsequent dependence on the khans of the Golden Horde. More specifically: what is the contribution of the steppe conquerors of this and several subsequent centuries to our gene pool? It is natural to assume that they left their descendants in the local population, there were mixed marriages, and the migration of certain groups - probably, no one doubts that with the political subordination of one people to another, their gene pools are mixed. But to what extent?

The conquering Mongols came from the steppes of Central Asia. Therefore, we should determine how much the Russian gene pool has become similar to the gene pool of the Mongols and their neighbors (Central Asian). If, say, the gene pool of the Poles (the Slavic people, which the Mongol conquests only partially affected, and the three-hundred-year yoke did not touch at all) turns out to be not similar to the Central Asian one, and the Russian one is to some extent close to it, then this proximity may indicate a real influence yoke. More precisely, the presence of such a similarity may be a consequence of more ancient migrations, but if there is no similarity, then this will clearly indicate the absence of the Mongol “trace of the conquerors”. However, we are talking about a plausible model, the reality, of course, is more complicated. But population genetics resorts to modeling to get a clear quantitative answer.
According to this type of markers as mtDNA, the peoples of Central Asia and Europe clearly differ: in the first, almost the entire population (more than 90%) has East Eurasian haplogroups, while in Europe an even larger part (over 95%) has other, West Eurasian haplogroups. . This means that the percentage of East Eurasian mtDNA haplogroups in the Russian gene pool will directly indicate the contribution of the Central Asian population. In fact, this share amounted to 2%, i.e. the value is almost as small as in the gene pool of the Poles (1.5%) or the French (0.5%).

Were we wrong? All data used, i.e. the frequencies of mtDNA haplogroups were obtained from large samples by different researchers and, therefore, are quite reliable. Perhaps the troops of Genghis Khan and Batu consisted not so much of the population of Central Asia, but of the steppe peoples of Southern Siberia? But even there, East Eurasian haplogroups now make up, if not 100%, but only 60-80%, which is incomparably more than 2%.
Another objection: mtDNA is inherited through the maternal line, and the "genetic contribution of the conquerors" could be more likely through the paternal line. The results of the study of Y chromosome haplogroups (“male” line of inheritance) also do not show a significant proportion of “steppe” genes in the Russian gene pool.
The data on the epicanthus are curious (Epicanthus is a fold at the inner corner of the human eye, formed by the skin of the upper eyelid and covering the lacrimal tubercle. It is characteristic of the Mongoloid and some groups of the Negroid race (ed.) - the most typical sign of the Mongoloid race, especially characteristic of the steppe population of Central Asia An anthropological study conducted on a huge sample of Russians (several tens of thousands of people) practically did not reveal cases of pronounced epicanthus.

So, no matter what sign we take, we see: Russians are typical Europeans, and the Asian conquest left a mark in their history, but not in the gene pool.
We do not undertake to talk about Russia and Russians in the cultural, historical, humanitarian sense. However, biologically, their gene pool is not intermediate between European and Asian, it is typical European. Let's clarify: the easternmost of this row, standing "on the front line." Separate Asian influences can be traced in it more than in its Western neighbors. But the basic, main conclusion that follows from the study is the almost complete absence of a Mongoloid contribution in the Russian gene pool. It seems to us that the consequences of the yoke in relation to the problem under consideration are not in fixing the genes of the conquerors, but in the outflow of the Russian population, changing the directions of its migrations, and as a result, gene flows, which, in turn, affected the gene pool, to some extent rebuilding it. Perhaps the influence of the yoke had an effect only to a small extent and only in the eastern part of the range. But it is not noticeable that the intensity of the mixing of the Russian population with those who came from the east exceeded the usual level in the zone of contact between the two peoples.

Doctor of Biological Sciences Elena BALANOVSKAYA,
candidate of biological sciences Oleg BALANOVSKY,
Laboratory of Human Population Genetics of the Medical Genetic Research Center of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences

"SCIENCE IN RUSSIA" № 2 (158) 2007