As a result of the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars, severe damage was inflicted on material and cultural values. A sharp increase in the disunity of the Russian lands from the middle of the 13th century made itself felt, which negatively affected the development of Russian culture. Immediately after the establishment of the Horde dominion in Russia, the construction of stone buildings was temporarily stopped.

THE ART OF A NUMEROUS ARTISTIC CRAFTS WAS LOST.

During the period of feudal fragmentation, local centers of chronicle writing, as well as literary art schools, were formed. During the Mongol-Tatar yoke, some of these traditions were preserved, which created the basis for a future cultural upsurge by the end of the 14th century. In addition, the struggle for state integrity and independence brought together the cultures of different lands, as well as the culture of the elite and the people. Despite the fact that many cultural works died, many appeared.

Having joined the system of world trade relations through the Golden Horde, Russia adopted a number of cultural achievements of the countries of the East, the technology of manufacturing various items, architectural achievements and general cultural ones.

On the other hand, the Mongol-Tatar invasion influenced the rise of Moscow as the center of the unification of Russia. And gradually the all-Russian culture began to take shape on the basis of the culture of Vladimir Rus.

CHRONICLE

Starting from the second half of the 13th century, chronicle writing was gradually restored in the Russian lands. Its main centers remained the Principality of Galicia-Volyn, Novgorod, Rostov the Great, Ryazan, and from about 1250 Vladimir. There are also new centers Moscow, Tver.

Since the second half of the 14th century, the compilation of chronicles and handwritten books has experienced a significant rise. The leading place is gradually occupied by the Moscow chronicle tradition with its ideas of uniting the lands around Moscow. The Moscow chronicle tradition has come down to us as part of the Trinity Chronicle at the beginning of the 15th century and, unlike local chronicles, is the first collection of an all-Russian character since the time of Ancient Russia, here the right of the princes of Moscow to be the head of Russia is justified.

> In the middle of the 15th century, a brief world history appeared - the chronograph.

ORAL FOLK CREATIVITY OF RUSSIA

At the same time, the most important genre of literature in the 13th century, which received dynamic development, was oral folk art: epics, songs, legends, military stories. They reflected the ideas of Russian people about their past and about the world around them.

The first cycle of epics is a refinement and revision of the old cycle of epics about the Kievan state.

The second cycle of epics— Novgorod. It glorifies the wealth, power, love of freedom of the free city, as well as the courage of the townspeople in protecting the city from enemies.

> The main characters are Sadko, Vasily Buslaevich.

Other genres appear in the 14th century and are dedicated to understanding the Mongol conquest. Tale-tales: about the battle on the Kalka River, about the rose garden of Ryazan, about the invasion of Batu, as well as about the defender of Smolensk - the young Smolyanin Mercury, who saved the city at the behest of the Virgin from the Mongol troops. Part of the works of this cycle was included in the annalistic vaults.

LITERATURE OF RUSSIA

In the tradition of lamentation it is written "A word about the destruction of the Russian land"(only the first part survived). The ideas of national liberation and patriotism are also reflected in works dedicated to the northwestern borders of the Russian land: "The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky". A number of hagiographic works are dedicated to the princes who died in the horde. it Life of Mikhail Chernigov. The princes are presented in these works as defenders of the Orthodox faith and Russia.

Military story Zadonshchina, compiled, it is believed, by Safony Ryazan, modeled on a word about Igor's regiment.

> Images, literary style, individual turns, expressions were borrowed from here. It does not report a campaign or battle, but expresses feelings from what happened. Written following the results of the Battle of Kulikovo.

This victory is considered here as retribution for the defeat on the Kalka River. The work expresses pride in the victory, glorifies Moscow as the state center of Russia. Zadonshchina has been preserved in the original. Characterized by good literary language.

In the genre of secular literature written Journey across three seas Afanasy Nikitina. This is one of the few secular works preserved in Russia. It recounts the impressions of travel to India and many eastern countries. This is a travel diary.

THE BEGINNING OF PRINTING IN RUSSIA

The end of the 15th century is associated with the completion of the formation of the Great Russian people.

> A language was formed that differed from Church Slavonic. The Moscow dialect became dominant.

With the formation of a centralized state, the need for literate, educated people increased.

> In 1563 Ivan Fedorov headed the state printing house. His assistant was Fyodor Mstislavovich. First published book - Apostle. The printing house worked mainly for the needs of the church.

IN 1574 THE FIRST RUSSIAN ALPHABET IS PUBLISHED IN LVIV.

GENERAL POLITICAL THOUGHT OF RUSSIA IN THE 16TH CENTURY.

The reforms of the Chosen Rada under Ivan the Terrible were aimed at strengthening the centralization of the state. The general political thought of Russia reflected several trends on the relationship between power and individual segments of the population, designed to support it. Either the tsarist government had to fight the boyars, or the boyars had to be its main support.

Ivan Peresvetov (Russian y nobleman) was part of the embassy order. In his petitions, he expressed his program of action. In an allegorical form, he showed that the support of the state is service people. Their position in the service should be determined not by origin, but by personal merit. The main vices that led to the death of the state are the dominance of the nobles, their unjust judgment and indifference to the affairs of the state. In its allegorical form, the theme associated with the fall of Byzantium is actively flashed.

> Ivan Peresvetov called for pushing the boyars out of power and bringing those people who were really interested in military service closer to the tsar.

Another position was expressed by Prince Kurbsky (one of the leaders of the Chosen Rada). He defended the point of view that the best people of Russia should help her. The streak of persecution by the boyars coincided with the streak of failures of Russia. That is why Kurbsky left the country, because the boyars were treated incorrectly here.

IVAN THE TERRIBLE LOVED AND RESPECTED THIS MAN SO MUCH, THEREFORE, HIS DEPARTURE HAS BEEN PAINFUL.

They corresponded for a long time. Ivan the Terrible wrote to Kurbsky that boyar rule was negative, since in childhood he did not experience it himself. The king also wrote that in his actions he obeys the divine will.

> Ivan 4 equated the departure of Kurbsky with high treason (for the first time).

The Tsar's Silence (Ivan the Terrible), artist Pavel Ryzhenko

DOMOSTROY

In connection with the fact that it was necessary to raise the prestige of the new state, official literature was created, which regulated the spiritual, legal and everyday life of people. The largest work of that century was written by Metropolitan Macarius - Great Menaion Cheti

> The Great Menaion of the Honor of Metropolitan of All Russia Macarius (1481/82-31.XII. 1563) is a book collection of 12 handwritten books, constituting an annual “reading circle” for almost every day, each of the 12 Menaia contains material for one of the months (starting from September). According to the idea of ​​the initiator, the organizer of the correspondence and the editor of this book collection, Makariy, 12 folios of huge volume and size were supposed to absorb “all the holy books of Chetya”, revered and read in Russia, thanks to which the Great Menaion of Chetya became a kind of encyclopedia of Russian book literature of the 16th century.

Domostroy- a monument of Russian literature of the 16th century, which is a collection of rules, advice and instructions in all areas of human and family life, including social, family, economic and religious issues. It is best known in the mid-16th century edition attributed to Archpriest Sylvester.

> Although Domostroy was a collection of tips on housekeeping, it was written in artistic language and became a literary monument of the era.

PAINTING OF RUSSIA

Despite some decline in the development of the country, Russian painting reached its peak by the 14th-15th centuries. In modern literature, this period is assessed as the Russian revival. At this time, a series of remarkable painters was working in Russia.

> At the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th century, a person from Byzantium worked in Novgorod, Moscow, Serpukhov and Nizhny Novgorod. painter Theophanes the Greek.

He superbly combined the Byzantine tradition and the already established Russian one. Sometimes he worked in violation of the canons. His images are psychological, spiritual tension is conveyed in his icons. He created the painting of the Church of the Savior on Ilyen Street in Novgorod, together with Semyon Cherny - the painting of the Moscow Church of the Nativity of the Virgin (1395) and the Archangel Cathedral (1399).

> The great Russian artist who worked during this period is Andrei Rublev.

He is a master of laconic, but very expressive composition. An amazing picturesque color is visible in his works. And in his icons and frescoes one can feel the ideal of moral perfection. At the same time, he was able to convey the subtle emotional experiences of the characters. He participated in the painting of the old Cathedral of the Annunciation in the Kremlin (1405) together with Theophan the Greek and a prokhor from Gorodets, painted the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir (1408). Trinity Cathedral in the Trinity - Sergius Monastery and the Spassky Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery (1420).

HIS BRUSH BELONG TO THE MASTERPIECE OF WORLD PAINTING — THE ICON OF THE TRINITY.

"Trinity". 1411 or 1425-27, State Tretyakov Gallery

The image reflects the biblical story, when the forefather Abraham received at home three travelers sent by God and who brought him news of the impending birth of his son. The first images of three angels at the table appeared in Byzantium of the 14th century, and were called Philoxenia (Greek - "hospitality") of Abraham.

One of the first who breathed a new Eucharistic meaning into this icon was the Russian icon painter, St. Andrei Rublev. He depicted the Three Angels as the three hypostases of God. The middle angel symbolizes the Son of God - Jesus Christ, the left - God the Father, the right - God - the Holy Spirit (the basis of such an interpretation of the icon in the clothes and disposition of the Angels), however, the same appearance of the Faces shows that the Holy Trinity is one and indivisible Whole. In front of the Angels is a cup - a symbol of Christ's sacrifice for our sins.

> At the end of the 15th century, an outstanding contribution to the development of Russian painting was made by the outstanding icon painter Dionysius. He was an excellent colorist and a very complex master. Together with his sons Theodosius and Vladimir, as well as other students, he created frescoes of the Assumption Kremlin Cathedral.

Among his creations was the famous icon of the Savior in strength.

At the same time, the Novgorod icon-painting school also functions. It is distinguished by the brightness of colors and the dynamism of the composition.

ARCHITECTURE OF RUSSIA

In the 14th-16th century, in connection with the centralization of the state, Moscow was decorated (under Ivan Kalita, stone construction developed).

UNDER DMITRY DONSKOY, THE WHITE STONE KREMLIN WAS ERECTED FOR THE FIRST TIME.

During the yoke, a series of old Russian churches is being restored. Thanks to completions and rebuildings, there is a tendency towards the crystallization of the Russian national architectural style based on the synthesis of the traditions of the Kyiv and Vladimir-Suzdal lands, which in the future became a model for subsequent construction in the late 15th and early 16th centuries.

On the advice of Sophia Paleolog (grandmother of Ivan IV the Terrible), masters from Italy were invited. The purpose of this is to display the power and glory of the Russian state. The Italian Aristotle Floravanti traveled to Vladimir, examined the Assumption and Dmitrievsky Cathedrals. He successfully managed to combine the traditions of Russian and Italian architecture. In 1479 he successfully completed the construction of the main temple of the Russian state - the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin. Following this, a granite chamber was built to receive foreign embassies.

> The appeal to national origins was especially clearly expressed in the stone architecture of the traditional Russian tent style, so characteristic of the wooden architecture of Russia.

The masterpieces of the tent style were the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye (1532) and the Intercession Cathedral on Kremlin Square in Moscow. That is, there is its own architectural style.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion and the Golden Horde yoke had a negative impact on the pace and course of the cultural development of the ancient Russian people. Massive destruction delayed the development of stone construction for almost half a century.

The rise of Moscow and the gathering of Russian lands around it contributed to the restoration of broken ties between Russian lands. By the end of the 15th century, when Moscow had become the most important economic, military-political and spiritual center, the process of the formation of the Russian nationality intensified and the tendencies of the formation of a single national culture intensified. The struggle against foreign invaders caused a new upsurge in oral folk art. The legends, epics, legends created by the people called the Russian people to fight for the overthrow of the hated yoke. One of the most famous legends of this period is "The Legend of the Invisible City of Kitezh", a city that went to the bottom of the lake, but did not surrender to the enemy.

Chronicle writing did not lose its significance during this period, despite the destruction of almost all of its centers, with the exception of Novgorod, where it was not interrupted. Already at the end of the XIII-beginning. 14th century new chronicle centers arose (Tver, Moscow), a new rise in the chronicle genre began.

The formation of a centralized state was a powerful stimulus for the development of culture. The need to strengthen the internal and external political position of the state led to an unprecedented growth of state needs in the development of the most diverse areas of material and spiritual culture.

The Stoglavy Cathedral of 1551, which attempted to regulate art, played a major role in strengthening the defining positions of the Orthodox Church. Rublev's work was proclaimed as a model in painting, from the point of view of his iconography, that is, the arrangement of figures, the use of certain colors, etc. In architecture, the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin was put forward as a model, in literature - the works of Metropolitan Macarius and his circle. By limiting the freedom of creativity, the decisions of the Stoglavy Cathedral at the same time contributed to the preservation of a high level of craftsmanship.

On a nationwide scale, education was still primary, had a church character and was available only to the elect. Literacy was spread primarily among the feudal lords, clergy and merchants. The most common was training at monasteries. At home and in private schools, usually people of the clergy taught, secular "masters of letters" were extremely rare. Theological disciplines formed the basis of any educational process. As a rule, they also taught reading and writing, sometimes the beginnings of arithmetic. Liturgical books were usually used as "teaching aids", only in the second half of the century did special grammars and arithmetics appear.

The development of writing was accompanied by a change in the very technique of writing, which adapted to the increased demand for books and various kinds of documents. The most important cultural phenomenon of the 16th century. was the beginning of printing. In 1564 The deacon of one of the Moscow churches, Ivan Fedorov, published "The Apostle" - the first Russian printed book. Subsequently, Fedorov published the first primer in Lvov. However, in the 16th century They printed mainly liturgical books. 16th century He gave vivid works of social thought related to the development of a centralized state, the strengthening of royal power, the formation of a new social system - the nobility.

New social and political conditions brought new problems to the fore. Great attention in Russian literature began to be paid to questions of autocratic power, the place and significance of the church in the state, and the international position of Russia. This contributed to the development of new literary genres. At the same time, genres and trends traditional for Russian literature have retained their significance.

As before, chronicle writing continued to develop, subordinated from now on to a single center and a single goal - the strengthening of the Russian centralized state, the authority of the royal and church authorities.

"The Chronicler of the Beginning of the Kingdom" describes the first years of the reign of Ivan the Terrible and proves the need to establish royal power in Russia. The "Book of Powers" contains portraits and descriptions of the reigns of the great Russian princes and metropolitans, arranged in 17 degrees, from Vladimir I (Svyatoslavich) to Ivan IV. The front annalistic code (Nikon chronicle) is a kind of world history from the creation of the world to the middle of the 16th century.

The development of architecture during this period reflected the growing international prestige of the Russian state. A new stage is coming in both temple and civil construction, characterized by an organic combination of national traditions and the latest achievements of domestic and European architecture. Many monuments of the late XV-XVI centuries. are outstanding achievements not only of Russian, but also of world architecture.

The completion of the construction of the Moscow Kremlin ensemble was an important milestone both in the history of Russian architecture and in the history of the Russian state.

Secular buildings were also erected in the Moscow Kremlin. Among them is the Prince's Palace, which consists of several interconnected buildings. From this palace, the Faceted Chamber (1487-1491), built by Italian architects Pietro Antonio Solari and Mark Fryazin, has been preserved. The flourishing of domestic architecture was also manifested in the emergence of a new style - tent construction, based on national traditions of wooden architecture, carving, embroidery, and painting. Unlike the cross-domed temples, the tented ones do not have pillars inside and the entire mass of the building rests only on the foundation. One of the first monuments of this style is the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye, built in 1532 by order of Grand Duke Vasily III, in honor of the birth of his son Ivan, the future Tsar Ivan the Terrible.

The most famous monument of tent architecture is the Pokrovsky Cathedral, which at the end of the century received the name St. Basil's Cathedral after the famous Moscow holy fool, who was buried under one of its chapels. The cathedral was built in 1555-1561. Russian architects Barma and Postnik in honor of the capture of Kazan by Russian troops.

Tent temples were built in Suzdal, Zagorsk and other cities.

Fine arts developed in line with the general cultural process and is characterized by two main trends: the erasure of the boundaries of local schools and a noticeable increase in secular elements. The icon painting was dominated by the Moscow school, which developed on the basis of a synthesis of local schools and became the basis of the all-Russian national icon painting school. The icon painters of township cities increasingly departed from classical norms, there was a greater variety in subjects and colors, and elements of "bytovism" appeared. The icons of the Mother of God cycle "Rejoices in You" became widespread, which testifies to the special role assigned by the people's consciousness to the Mother of God.

From the end of the XV century. Fine art is characterized by a growing interest in real historical persons and events, and the range of painting themes is expanding. Since the Orthodox Church could no longer resist this trend, the clergy tried to take its development under their control. Cathedral 1553-1554 allowed to depict on the icons the faces of kings, princes, as well as "existential writing", i.e. historical stories. This decision contributed to the development of the genre of historical portrait. On the frescoes of the gallery of the Annunciation Cathedral, traditional images of saints, great Russian princes and Byzantine emperors side by side with portraits of ancient poets and thinkers: Homer, Virgil, Plutarch, Aristotle, and others.

The largest Russian painter of this period was Dionysius, who continued the traditions of Andrei Rublev. His brushes belong to the frescoes of the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin of the Ferapontov Monastery (1490-1503). The growth of cities and urban settlements, the development of handicrafts contributed to the further development in the 16th century in decorative and applied arts, the main center of which was Moscow. The best craftsmen united in the royal and metropolitan workshops.

The crafts of that time were very diverse: wood carving, sewing, silversmithing, chasing, bell casting, copper casting, enamel, etc. Outstanding success was achieved by artistic sewing, in which gold and silver threads were used instead of silk, pearls, precious stones were widely used . The best examples of gold and silver work are stored in the Kremlin in the Armory.

Introduction p. 3
Chapter 1. Russian culture of the XIV - XV centuries P. 6
1. Book business S. 6
2. Literature. Chronicle S. 8
3. Architecture p. 12
4. Painting p. 15
5. Accumulation of scientific knowledge P. 17
Chapter 2. Russian culture of the 15th - early 16th centuries P. 19
1. Book business S. 19
2. Chronicle. Literature S. 20
3. Architecture p. 21
4. Painting S. 25
Conclusion p. 26
List of used literature. S. 27

Introduction

In the middle of the XIII century, Russia was subjected to the Mongol-Tatar invasion, which had disastrous consequences for its economy and culture. It was accompanied by the extermination and captivity of a significant part of the population, the destruction of material values, cities and villages. The Golden Horde yoke, which had been established for two and a half centuries, created extremely unfavorable conditions for the restoration and further development of the economy and culture.
As a result of the political events of the 13th-14th centuries, various parts of the ancient Russian people were divided, cut off from each other. Entry into different state formations made it difficult to develop economic and cultural ties between individual regions of the formerly united Russia, deepening the differences in language and culture that existed before. This led to the formation, on the basis of the ancient Russian nationality, of three fraternal nationalities - Russian (Great Russian), Ukrainian and Belarusian. The formation of the Russian (Great Russian) nationality, which began in the 14th and ended in the 16th century, was facilitated by the emergence of a common language (while maintaining dialectal differences in it) and culture, and the formation of a common state territory.
Two main, closely interconnected circumstances of the historical life of the people at that time determined the content of culture and the direction of its development: the struggle against the Golden Horde yoke and the struggle for the elimination of feudal fragmentation, the creation of a single state.
The Mongol-Tatar invasion led to a deepening of feudal fragmentation. In the culture of the disunited feudal principalities, along with separatist tendencies, unifying tendencies were more and more clearly manifested.
The idea of ​​the unity of the Russian land and the struggle against the foreign yoke became one of the leading in culture and a red thread runs through the works of oral folk art, writing, painting, architecture.
The culture of this time is also characterized by the idea of ​​an inseparable connection between Russia of the XIV-XV centuries with Kievan Rus and Vladimir-Suzdal Rus. This trend was clearly manifested in oral folk art, annals, literature, political thought, and architecture.
In this essay, we examined the development of Russian culture in the XIV - early XVI centuries. This period can be divided into two stages: XIV - the middle of the XV century and the end of the XV - the beginning of the XVI century. Within the first period, in turn, two stages of the historical and cultural process can be distinguished. The first of them (until about the middle of the 14th century) was marked by a noticeable decline in various areas of culture, although already from the end of the 13th century. there were signs of a renaissance. From the second half of the XIV century. - the second stage - the rise of Russian culture begins, due to the success of economic development and the first major victory over the conquerors in the Battle of Kulikovo, which was an important milestone on the path to liberating the country from foreign yoke. The Kulikovo victory caused an upsurge of national consciousness, which was reflected in all areas of culture. While maintaining significant local features in culture, the idea of ​​the unity of the Russian land becomes the leading one.
The turn of the XV - XVI centuries is a turning point in the historical development of the Russian lands. Three interconnected phenomena are characteristic of this time: the formation of a unified Russian state, the liberation of the country from the Mongol-Tatar yoke, and the completion of the formation of the Russian (Great Russian) people. All of them had a direct impact on the spiritual life of Russia, on the development of its culture, predetermined the nature and direction of the historical and cultural process.
The overcoming of feudal fragmentation and the creation of a unified state power created favorable conditions for the economic and cultural development of the country and served as a powerful stimulus for the rise of national self-consciousness. The beneficial influence of these factors affected the development of all Russian culture at the end of the 15th - the first half of the 16th century, manifesting itself especially clearly in socio-political thought and architecture.
And in the spiritual culture, the idea of ​​unity and the struggle for independence with foreign invaders continued to be one of the leading ones.
During the period of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, Russia was isolated from the countries of Central and Western Europe, which had advanced in their development. For the Russian state, the establishment of ties with Western European culture was an important condition for overcoming backwardness and strengthening its position among European powers. At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century, relations with Italy and other countries successfully developed, which had a beneficial effect on Russian culture, outstanding architects and other masters came to work in Russia.
The most important factor in the development of culture is the influence of the church on the spiritual life of society, the strength of its position in the state. Throughout the period under review, these relationships were far from uniform.
The development of progressive tendencies in culture, elements of a rationalistic worldview turned out to be associated with circles opposed to autocracy.

1. Russian culture of the XIV - mid-XV centuries

1. BOOK BUSINESS.
Although the disastrous consequences of foreign invasions had a negative impact on the preservation of book wealth and on the level of literacy, nevertheless, the traditions of writing and literacy, established in the 11th-12th centuries, were preserved and further developed.
The rise of culture from the second half of the 14th century was accompanied by the development of the book business. The largest centers of book learning were monasteries, in which there were book-writing workshops and libraries with hundreds of volumes. The most significant were the book collections of the Trinity-Sergius, Kirillo-Belozersky and Solovetsky monasteries that have survived to our time. From the end of the XV century. the inventory of the library of the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery has come down to us (4, p. 67).
But the church did not have a monopoly on the creation and distribution of books. As evidenced by the postscripts of the scribes themselves on the books, a significant part of them did not belong to the clergy. Book writing workshops also existed in cities, at princely courts. Books were made, as a rule, to order, sometimes for sale.
The development of writing and book business was accompanied by changes in the technique of writing. In the XIV century. expensive parchment was replaced by paper, which was delivered from other countries, mainly from Italy and France. Changed the graphics of the letter; instead of a strict "statutory" letter, the so-called semi-charter appeared, and from the 15th century. and "cursive", which speeded up the process of making a book. All this made the book more accessible and contributed to meeting the growing demand (9, p. 47).
Liturgical books prevailed in book production, the necessary set of which was in every religious institution - in a church, a monastery. The nature of the reader's interests was reflected in "who's" books, that is, books intended for individual reading. There were many such books in the monastic libraries. The most common type of "fourth" book in the XV century. have become collections of mixed composition, which researchers call "libraries in miniature".
The repertoire of the "fourth" collections is quite extensive. Along with translated patriotic and hagiographic works, they contained original Russian compositions; next to religious and edifying literature were works of a secular nature - excerpts from the annals, historical stories, journalism. The appearance in these collections of articles of a natural science nature is noteworthy. So, in one of the collections of the library of the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery of the beginning of the 15th century. articles "On the latitude and longitude of the earth", "On the stages and fields", "On the distance between heaven and earth", "Moon current", "On the earthly dispensation", etc. were placed. The author of these articles decisively broke with the fantastic ideas of church literature about the structure of the universe. The earth was recognized as a ball, although it was still placed in the center of the universe (4, p.32). In other articles, a completely realistic explanation of natural phenomena is given (for example, thunder and lightning, which, according to the author, come from the collision of clouds). Here are also articles on medicine, biology, extracts from the works of a Roman scientist and physician of the 2nd century BC. Galena.
The Russian book of the 14th-15th centuries played an outstanding role in the revival of literary monuments of the past and in the dissemination of contemporary works of deep ideological and political sound.

2. LITERATURE. CHRONICLE.
Russian literature of the 14th-15th centuries inherited from ancient Russian literature its sharp publicism, put forward the most important problems of the political life of Russia. Chronicle writing was especially closely connected with socio-political life. Being historical works, the chronicles were at the same time political documents that played an important role in the ideological and political struggle (1, p.12).
In the first decades after the Mongol-Tatar invasion, chronicle writing experienced a decline. But it, interrupted for a while in some, resumed in new political centers. Chronicle writing was still distinguished by local features, great attention to local events, tendentious coverage of events from the positions of one or another feudal center. But the theme of the unity of the Russian land and its struggle against foreign invaders was a common thread in all chronicles.
At first, the Moscow chronicle, which appeared in the first half of the 14th century, also had a local character. However, with the growth of the political role of Moscow, it gradually acquired a nationwide character. In the course of development, the Moscow chronicle became the focus of advanced political ideas. It not only reflected and ideologically consolidated Moscow's successes in the unification of the Russian lands, but also actively participated in this work, vigorously promoting unifying ideas.
The revival of the all-Russian annals at the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th centuries testified to the growth of national self-consciousness. The first all-Russian code, which broke with narrow local interests and took the position of the unity of Russia, was compiled in Moscow at the beginning of the 15th century (the so-called Trinity Chronicle, which perished during the Moscow fire of 1812). Moscow chroniclers did a great job of unifying and processing disparate regional vaults. Around 1418, with the participation of Metropolitan Photius, the compilation of a new annalistic code (Vladimir Polychron) was undertaken, the main idea of ​​which was the union of the Moscow grand ducal power with the urban population of feudal centers in order to politically unify Russia. These vaults formed the basis of subsequent annalistic vaults. One of the most significant works of Russian chronicle writing was the Moscow collection of 1479 (1, p. 49).
All Moscow chronicles are permeated with the idea of ​​the need for state unity and strong grand ducal power. They clearly speak of the historical and political concept that developed at the beginning of the 15th century, according to which the history of Russia in the 14th-15th centuries is a direct continuation of the history of Ancient Russia. Chronicles promoted the later official idea that Moscow inherits the political traditions of Kyiv and Vladimir, is their successor. This was emphasized by the fact that the vaults began with The Tale of Bygone Years.
Unifying ideas that met the vital interests of various strata of feudal society were also developed in a number of other centers. Even in Novgorod, which was distinguished by particularly strong separatist tendencies, in the 30s of the 15th century, the all-Russian Novgorod-Sophia code was created, which included the code of Photius. The chronicle of Tver also assumed an all-Russian character, in which strong grand ducal power was propagated and the facts of the liberation struggle against the Golden Horde were noted. But it clearly exaggerated the role of Tver and the princes of Tver in the unification of Russia (1, p. 50).
The central theme of literature was the struggle of the Russian people against foreign invaders. Therefore, one of the most common genres was the military story. The works of this genre were based on specific historical facts and events, and the characters were real historical figures.
An outstanding monument of narrative literature of the military genre is "The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu". The main part of its content is the story of the capture and ruin of Ryazan by the Tatars and the fate of the princely family. The story condemns feudal strife as the main reason for the defeat of the Russians, and at the same time, from the point of view of religious morality, what is happening is assessed as a punishment for sins. This testifies to the desire of church ideologists to use the very fact of the catastrophe to propagate Christian ideas and strengthen the influence of the church.
The struggle against the Swedish and German feudal lords was reflected in the secular retinue story about Alexander Nevsky, which contained a detailed description of the Battle of the Neva and the "Battle on the Ice". But this story has not come down to us. It was reworked into the life of Alexander Nevsky and received a religious overtone. The story about the Pskov prince Dovmont, dedicated to the struggle of the Pskovites against the German and Lithuanian aggression, underwent a similar transformation (1, p. 52).
A monument of Tver literature of the early 14th century is "The Tale of the Assassination of Prince Mikhail Yaroslavich in the Horde". This is a topical political work that had an anti-Moscow orientation. On the basis of an oral folk poetic work, the Tale of Shevkala was written, dedicated to the uprising in Tver in 1327.
The victory over the Mongol-Tatars on the Kulikovo field in 1380 caused a rise in national self-consciousness, inspired the Russian people with self-confidence. Under its influence, the Kulikovsky cycle of works arose, which are united by one main idea - the unity of the Russian land as the basis for victory over the enemy. The four main monuments included in this cycle are different in character, style, and content. All of them speak of the Battle of Kulikovo as the greatest historical victory of Russia over the Tatars (4, p.24-25).
The deepest and most significant work of this cycle is "Zadonshchina" - a poem written by Zephanius Ryazan shortly after the Battle of Kulikovo. The author did not seek to give a consistent and detailed depiction of events. Its goal is to glorify the great victory over the hated enemy, to glorify its organizers and participants (4, p.345). The poem emphasizes the role of Moscow in organizing the victory, and presents Prince Dmitry Ivanovich as the true organizer of the Russian forces.
In the Chronicle of the Battle of Kulikovo, for the first time, a coherent story is given about the events of 1380. It emphasizes the unity and cohesion of the Russian forces around the Grand Duke, the campaign against the Tatars is regarded as an all-Russian cause. However, the story noticeably departs from real historical facts, which are comprehended from the point of view of religious morality: the ultimate cause of the defeat of the Tatars is "divine will"; in the spirit of religious concepts, the behavior of the Ryazan prince Oleg is condemned; Dmitry Donskoy is depicted as a Christian ascetic, endowed with piety, peacefulness and love of Christ.
"The Legend of the Battle of Mamaev" is the most voluminous and most popular work of the Kulikovo cycle. It is ideologically and artistically contradictory; two different approaches to understanding events coexist in it. One side. The Kulikovo victory is regarded as a reward for the Christian virtues characteristic of Russians; on the other hand, a real view of things: the author of the "Tale" is well versed in the political situation of that time, highly appreciates the heroism and patriotism of the Russian people, the foresight of the Grand Duke, understands the significance of unity between princes. In the "Tale" the idea of ​​a close union of the church and princely power finds justification (description of the relationship between Dmitry Donskoy and Sergius of Radonezh) (4, p. 189).
Only in connection with the biography of Dmitry Donskoy is the Battle of Kulikovo mentioned in the "Sermon on the Life and Repose of Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich, Tsar of Russia". This is a solemn panegyric to the deceased prince, in which his deeds are praised and their significance for the present and future of Russia is determined. The image of Dmitry Ivanovich combines the features of an ideal hagiographic hero and an ideal statesman, emphasizing the Christian virtues of the prince. This reflected the desire of the clergy for an alliance with the grand duke's power.
The events of 1382, when Tokhtamysh attacked Moscow, formed the basis of the story "On the Capture of Moscow from Tsar Tokhtamysh and the Captivity of the Russian Land." The story is inherent in such a feature as democracy, therefore it occupies a special place in the literature of the XIV - XV centuries, covering events from the standpoint of the broad masses, in this case the population of Moscow. It has no individual hero. Ordinary citizens who took over the defense of Moscow after the princes and boyars fled from it - this is the true hero of the story (9, p.53-54).
During the period under review, hagiographic literature developed greatly, a number of works of which are permeated with topical journalistic ideas. Church preaching in them was combined with the development of the idea of ​​the dominant role of Moscow and the close union of the princely power and the church (and the church power was given priority) as the main condition for the strengthening of Russia. In hagiographic literature, specific ecclesiastical interests were also reflected, which by no means always coincided with the interests of the grand duke's power. The Life of Metropolitan Peter, written by Metropolitan Cyprian, was of a journalistic nature, and he saw the common fate of Metropolitan Peter, who was not recognized as a prince of Tver in his time, with his own and with his complex relationship with the Moscow prince Dmitry Ivanovich.
In hagiographic literature, the rhetorical-panegyric style (or expressive-emotional style) has become widespread. The text included lengthy and ornate speeches-monologues, author's rhetorical digressions, reasoning of a moral and theological nature. Much attention was paid to describing the feelings of the hero, his state of mind, psychological motivations for the actions of the characters appeared. The expressive-emotional style reached the pinnacle of its development in the work of Epiphanius the Wise and Pachomius Logothetes.

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

State educational institution

higher professional education -

All-Russian Correspondence Institute of Finance and Economics

test

in the discipline "Culturology"

on the topic: "The development of Russian culture in the XIV-XVI centuries."

Completed: 1st year student

Faculty of MIM

specialty GMU

daytime groups

Nemirovsky Alexey

№ l.d.09mgb02817

Checked by: Senina N.V.

Tula 2011

Introduction.

For the culture of Russia, the 14th-16th centuries turned out to be a turning point. With the beginning of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, the conditions for cultural creativity changed radically.

The Tatar-Mongol invasion dealt a terrible blow to the development of Russian culture. The development of stone architecture stopped, some crafts disappeared. The entire XIII century is characterized by stagnation in Russian culture.

From the beginning of the 14th century, monastic schools and colleges were restored in almost all major cities. The Novgorod birch bark documents that have survived to this day testify to the high literacy of the population. Epics spread. New legends also appeared, for example, "The Legend of the City of Kitezh". In the 14th century, expensive parchment began to be replaced by paper. New chronicles are being created. The first all-Russian annalistic code is the Trinity Chronicle, created in Moscow in 1408. By 1480, the creation of the Moscow chronicle code refers. In 1442, the first Russian chronograph appeared, compiled by Pachomius Lagoet. The most common literary genre was the historical stories "About the Battle of the Kalka", "About the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu", "About the Massacre of Mamaev", "Zadonshchina" - a military story compiled, it is believed, by Safony Ryazanets, modeled on the word about Igor's regiment. Images, literary style, individual turns, expressions were borrowed from here. It does not report a campaign or battle, but expresses feelings from what happened. Written following the results of the Battle of Kulikovo. This victory is considered here as retribution for the defeat on the Kalka River. The work expresses pride in the victory, glorifies Moscow as the state center of Russia. Zadonshchina has been preserved in the original. Characterized by good literary language. An outstanding monument of the XV century was

"Journey Beyond the Three Seas" by the Tver merchant Athanasius Nikitin is a travel diary that recounts impressions from travels to India and many eastern countries. In the first quarter of the 16th century, the "Legend of the Princes of Vladimir" appeared. The Tale is based on two legends. The first is about the origin of the Rurikids and, consequently, the Moscow Grand Dukes from the Roman Emperor Augustus. The second legend proves that the royal regalia - the royal crown, barmas, a gold chain, a cross from a crucifixion tree and a carnelian box that belonged to Augustus - went to the Moscow grand dukes through Vladimir Monomakh from his grandfather, the Byzantine emperor Constantine. Until the beginning of the 16th century, nothing was known about the existence of these legends. But already in the first decades of the XVI century. they were combined in the "Message of the Monomakh's Crown" by the Tver monk Spiridon-Sava. Not later than 1527, on the basis of this message, the "Legend of the Princes of Vladimir" was compiled by unknown authors. True, the compilers of the Tale, unknown to us, did not dare to deepen the genealogical tree of the Moscow rulers to the biblical patriarch Noah, as Spiridon Savva did. Apparently, they considered this not entirely true and therefore decided to focus on the Roman emperor Augustus.

"Moscow is the third Rome" - the political theory of the XVI century. in Russia, substantiating the world-historical significance of the capital of the Russian state, Moscow, as a political and ecclesiastical center. The theory “Moscow is the third Rome”, stated in a religious form characteristic of medieval thinking, argued that the historical successor of the Roman and Byzantine empires, which, according to the creators of this theory, fell due to deviation from the “true faith”, is Moscow Russia - “ the third Rome" ("Two Romes fell, and the third stands, but the fourth was not"). Having begun to take shape in the middle of the 15th century, the theory “Moscow is the third Rome” was formulated at the beginning of the 16th century. in the messages of the Pskov monk Philotheus to the Moscow Grand Duke Vasily III Ivanovich. She played a significant role in the formalization of the official ideology of the Russian centralized state and in the struggle against the attempts of the Vatican to extend its influence to the Russian lands; in the XVI - XVII centuries. in the Slavic countries of the Balkan Peninsula, the theory of "Moscow - the third Rome" served as a justification for the idea of ​​​​Slavic unity and was of great importance in the struggle of the southern Slavs against Turkish oppression.

Church literature also became widespread: "The Life of Dmitry Donskoy", "The Life of Stefan of Perm" by Epiphanius the Wise, "The Praise of Sergius Virtue", "The Life of Metropolitan Peter". Active stone construction resumes. Under Donskoy, a white-stone Kremlin was built in Moscow. In the XV century, the Assumption Cathedral, the Archangel Cathedral, the Cathedral of the Annunciation, the Chamber of Facets were built.

The artist Feofan Grek worked in Moscow at the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th century. He, along with Simeon Cherny, the Moscow Church of the Nativity of the Virgin, participated in the design of the Archangel Cathedral in Moscow. The greatest artist was Andrey Rublev. He, together with Theophan the Greek and the painter Prokhor, Annunciation Cathedral and Trinity Cathedral. Rublev created the work "Trinity". One of the brightest publicists of the 16th century is Ivan Peresvetov, another Yermolai is Erasmus.

Russian book printing began its history from the middle of the 16th century. The publication of books in Moscow began in 1553, and in 1563 Ivan Fedorov began work. His first editions were books of holy scripture.
Architecture reaches a high level. Churches and fortresses were intensively built in the first half of the 16th century. The Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye (1532) and the Intercession Cathedral on Red Square are outstanding monuments of the tent style. Foundry has been greatly developed. At the end of the 16th century, guns were made by Andrey Chokhov. In 1586 he cast the Tsar Cannon.

Development of book printing in Russia.

The end of the 15th century is associated with the completion of the formation of the Great Russian people. A language was formed that differed from Church Slavonic. The Moscow dialect became dominant. With the formation of a centralized state, the need for literate, educated people increased. In addition, it was necessary to strengthen the authority of the church and introduce uniformity in church books. And for this purpose, Metropolitan Macarius, with the support of Ivan IV, initiated book printing.

The first printed Slavic books appeared in the Balkans, but these were Glagolitic scripts, which in Russia in the 15th-16th centuries. did not have a walk. By the end of the XV century. the first four books in Cyrillic were printed in Krakow; two of them are dated 1491. The name of their printer is known - Schweipolt Feol. The Belarusian educator Francysk Skaryna began printing books in his native language in Prague in 1517. Moreover, seven books are known that were printed directly in Russia in the 50s of the 16th century, that is, ten years before the first printed Apostle.

In 1563 Ivan Fedorov headed the state printing house. His assistant was Fyodor Mstislavovich. The first published book is the Apostle. In 1574, the first Russian alphabet was published in Lvov. The printing house worked mainly for the needs of the church. In the second half of the 16th century, South-Western Russia started a printing business: soon its entire space was covered with a network of printing houses. The most important printing houses were in Lvov, Vilna, Ostrog, Stryatin, Zabludovo, Uniev. The most remarkable of the publications of that time: the Bible, the translation of the Gospel into the vernacular, many dogmatic and apologetic writings. None of the writings hostile to the church remained unanswered. The center of this activity was in Vilna and Volyn (Ostrog). In the second half of the 16th century, printers Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets were also active. Having fled from Moscow, they, at the invitation of the "supreme hetman" of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Grigory Alexandrovich Khodkevich, opened a printing house in his estate Zabludov; here, in 1569, the “Teaching Gospel” was printed, and in 1570, by Fedorov alone, the “Psalter with the Book of Hours” was printed. This edition is printed in the Moscow alphabet, with cinnabar, and is decorated with images of the coat of arms of Khodkevich, headpieces and herbal initial letters of the same design as the decorations of the first printed Moscow Apostle. Fedorov moved from Zabludov to Lvov, where he set up a printing house and printed a new edition of the Apostle in 1574. The first book printed in Ostrog in 1580 was the New Testament with the Psalter. In 1581 the Bible was printed; its text is typed in 2 columns; the entire edition, especially in the evenness of the fonts, is considered exemplary for its time.

Until the end of the XVI century. about 20 books of religious content were published by the church. Among the monuments of that time is a huge 10-volume collection of church literature "Cheti-Minei" (Monthly readings). This is the biographies of Russian saints written by Metropolitan Macarius, compiled by months in accordance with the days of honoring each saint.

Generalizing annalistic works are created, for example, the Front Chronicle Code - a kind of world history from the creation of the world to the middle of the 16th century. The monument of Russian historical literature is the Book of Powers, compiled in 1590-1563. confessor of Tsar Ivan IV (the Terrible) Andrei. It outlines Russian history from Vladimir I (Svyatoslavich) to Ivan IV. As well as legislative monuments - "Sudebnik" and "One Hundred Heads".

The set of everyday rules and instructions that arose among the Novgorod boyars and merchants contains the Domostroy by priest Sylvester (confessor of John IV). He defended the patriarchal way of life in the family.

For the historical and cultural development of Russian lands, the end of the XIV - XVI centuries. was a turning point. Secular and democratic elements are growing in Russian culture. Works appear in the literature that support the new State policy. In schools, they studied the hour of words (psalms, prayers, chants) and the psalter (a collection of psalms, prayer chants included in the Old Testament), and in some elementary grammar and arithmetic. The economic and political achievements of Russia began to have a noticeable impact on raising literacy and education.

Features of the development of Russian architecture in the XIV-XVI centuries.

Already in the initial period of the formation of Russian stone architecture, its local differences were determined: the southern type of temples is characterized by a picturesque appearance, while the northern one is somewhat reserved and restrained. In the XIII century. The Novgorod-Pskov Republic heroically fought off the Swedish and German knights. During this period, mainly defensive structures were built. A new rise in architecture takes place at the end of the 13th century, after the victory of the Novgorodians on Lake Peipsi.

XIV-XV centuries - the time of further development of Novgorod-Pskov architecture. During this period, brick is no longer used; buildings are erected from chipped stone, the facades are covered with plaster. Decorative details appear.

In Pskov in the XIV-XV centuries. churches and fortifications, and sometimes residential buildings, were built from stone. The church here served not only as a temple, but also as a kind of public building, where people met to discuss their affairs, up to the conclusion of trade deals. Therefore, the church was overgrown with outbuildings, the need for which was dictated by practical needs. As a result, Pskov churches turned out to be picturesque in composition, cozy, and friendly. Their appearance is unusual for the severe monumentality of Novgorod churches. Churches had pitched roofs, although in Russia at that time the buildings of temples usually ended with vaults of the Byzantine type. A characteristic detail of Pskov architecture is the belfry, a special structure for bells, included in the volume of the church and giving it special expressiveness. In the XII-beginning of the XIII century. Kyiv has lost its significance as an all-Russian political and cultural center.

At the end of the XV century. the unification of the feudal Russian principalities into a single state was completed; the dependence on the Tatar khans was ended. Grand Duke Ivan III of Moscow assumed the title of "sovereign of all Russia". The Byzantine double-headed eagle was adopted as the state emblem; the wife of the king was the niece of the last Byzantine emperor. Ivan III wanted to make Moscow the "third Rome", symbolizing the claims of his state to the religious, cultural and political significance that the "second Rome" - Constantinople - had.

1. culture Russia 19 20 centuries

   Abstract >> Culture and art

   Years before Pushkin's age. Development Russian culture first half of XIX century ultimately determined ... different centuries, from XIV to XIX century and even before century the future, until the XXI ...

2. Russian culture 9th-19th centuries

   Abstract >> Culture and art

   Paintings. Resumption development Russian culture associated with the era of the formation of the Moscow state. AT XIV century in the northeast ... several centuries slowed down development Russian culture. But in spite of this, XVI century art is reborn and...

3. Russian culture at 17 century

   Abstract >> History

   They were erected in XVI century by Italian masters in decoration ... but in architecture, painting. Development Russian culture XVII century reflected the characteristic of this time ... . Undoubtedly, on development Russian culture dominance had a huge impact...

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Magnitogorsk State University

Test

on the history of Russia

on the topic: Russian culture of the XIV - early XVI centuries

Completed by: Yakovleva O.V.

1st year student of OZO

Faculty of History

Checked: Surganov O.V.

Magnitogorsk

2000

Introduction

1. Russian culture of the XIV - mid-XV centuries

1.1 Book business

1.2 Literature. chronicle writing

1.3 Architecture

1.4 Painting

1.5 Accumulation of scientific knowledge

2. Russian culture of the 15th - early 16th centuries

2.1 Book business

2.2 Chronicle. Literature

2.3 Architecture

2.4 Painting

Conclusion

List of used sources and literature

Introduction

Russian culture painting chronicle

In the middle of the XIII century, Russia was subjected to the Mongol-Tatar invasion, which had disastrous consequences for its economy and culture. It was accompanied by the extermination and captivity of a significant part of the population, the destruction of material values, cities and villages. The Golden Horde yoke, which had been established for two and a half centuries, created extremely unfavorable conditions for the restoration and further development of the economy and culture.

As a result of the political events of the 13th-14th centuries, various parts of the ancient Russian people were divided, cut off from each other. Entry into different state formations made it difficult to develop economic and cultural ties between individual regions of the formerly united Russia, deepening the differences in language and culture that existed before. This led to the formation, on the basis of the ancient Russian nationality, of three fraternal nationalities - Russian (Great Russian), Ukrainian and Belarusian. The formation of the Russian (Great Russian) nationality, which began in the 14th and ended in the 16th century, was facilitated by the emergence of a common language (while maintaining dialectal differences in it) and culture, and the formation of a common state territory.

Two main, closely interconnected circumstances of the historical life of the people at that time determined the content of culture and the direction of its development: the struggle against the Golden Horde yoke and the struggle for the elimination of feudal fragmentation, the creation of a single state.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion led to a deepening of feudal fragmentation. In the culture of the disunited feudal principalities, along with separatist tendencies, unifying tendencies were more and more clearly manifested.

The idea of ​​the unity of the Russian land and the struggle against the foreign yoke became one of the leading in culture and a red thread runs through the works of oral folk art, writing, painting, architecture.

The culture of this time is also characterized by the idea of ​​the inseparable connection of Russia XIV - XV centuries with Kievan Rus and Vladimir-Suzdal Rus. This trend was clearly manifested in oral folk art, annals, literature, political thought, and architecture.

In this essay, we examined the development of Russian culture in the XIV - early 16th century. This period can be divided into two stages: XIV - the middle of the 15th century and the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century. Within the first period, in turn, two stages of the historical and cultural process can be distinguished. The first of them (until about the middle of the 14th century) was marked by a noticeable decline in various areas of culture, although already from the end of the 13th century. there were signs of a renaissance. From the second half of the XIV century. - the second stage - the rise of Russian culture begins, due to the success of economic development and the first major victory over the conquerors in the Battle of Kulikovo, which was an important milestone on the path to liberating the country from foreign yoke. The Kulikovo victory caused an upsurge of national consciousness, which was reflected in all areas of culture. While maintaining significant local features in culture, the idea of ​​the unity of the Russian land becomes the leading one.

The turn of the XV - XVI centuries is a turning point in the historical development of the Russian lands. Three interconnected phenomena are characteristic of this time: the formation of a unified Russian state, the liberation of the country from the Mongol-Tatar yoke, and the completion of the formation of the Russian (Great Russian) people. All of them had a direct impact on the spiritual life of Russia, on the development of its culture, predetermined the nature and direction of the historical and cultural process.

The overcoming of feudal fragmentation and the creation of a unified state power created favorable conditions for the economic and cultural development of the country and served as a powerful stimulus for the rise of national self-consciousness. The beneficial influence of these factors affected the development of all Russian culture at the end of the 15th - the first half of the 16th century, manifesting itself especially clearly in socio-political thought and architecture.

And in the spiritual culture, the idea of ​​unity and the struggle for independence with foreign invaders continued to be one of the leading ones.

During the period of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, Russia was isolated from the countries of Central and Western Europe, which had advanced in their development. For the Russian state, the establishment of ties with Western European culture was an important condition for overcoming backwardness and strengthening its position among European powers. At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century, relations with Italy and other countries successfully developed, which had a beneficial effect on Russian culture, outstanding architects and other masters came to work in Russia.

The most important factor in the development of culture is the influence of the church on the spiritual life of society, the strength of its position in the state. Throughout the period under review, these relationships were far from uniform.

The development of progressive tendencies in culture, elements of a rationalistic worldview turned out to be associated with circles opposed to autocracy.

1. Russian culture of the XIV - mid-XV centuries

1. 1 Book business

Although the disastrous consequences of foreign invasions had a negative impact on the preservation of book wealth and on the level of literacy, nevertheless, the traditions of writing and literacy, established in the 11th-12th centuries, were preserved and further developed.

The rise of culture from the second half of the 14th century was accompanied by the development book business. The largest centers of book learning were monasteries, in which there were book-writing workshops and libraries with hundreds of volumes. The most significant were the book collections of the Trinity-Sergius, Kirillo-Belozersky and Solovetsky monasteries that have survived to our time. From the end of the XV century. the inventory of the library of the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery has come down to us (4, p. 67).

But the church did not have a monopoly on the creation and distribution of books. As evidenced by the postscripts of the scribes themselves on the books, a significant part of them did not belong to the clergy. Book writing workshops also existed in cities, at princely courts. Books were made, as a rule, to order, sometimes for sale.

The development of writing and book business was accompanied by changes in writing technique. In the XIV century. replaced expensive parchment came paper, which was delivered from other countries, mainly from Italy and France. Changed the graphics of the letter; instead of a strict "statutory" letter, the so-called semi-charter appeared, and from the 15th century. and "cursive", which speeded up the process of making a book. All this made the book more accessible and contributed to meeting the growing demand (9, p. 47).

Book production was dominated by liturgical books, the necessary set of which was in every religious institution - in the church, monastery. The nature of readers' interests reflected "fourth" books, i.e., books intended for individual reading. There were many such books in the monastic libraries. The most common type of "fourth" book in the XV century. have become collections of mixed composition, which researchers call "libraries in miniature".

The repertoire of the "fourth" collections is quite extensive. Along with translated patriotic and hagiographic works, they contained original Russian compositions; next to religious and edifying literature were works of a secular nature - excerpts from the annals, historical stories, journalism. The appearance in these collections of articles of a natural science nature is noteworthy. So, in one of the collections of the library of the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery of the beginning of the 15th century. articles "On the latitude and longitude of the earth", "On the stages and fields", "On the distance between heaven and earth", "Moon current", "On the earthly dispensation", etc. were placed. The author of these articles decisively broke with the fantastic ideas of church literature about the structure of the universe. The earth was recognized as a ball, although it was still placed in the center of the universe (4, p.32). In other articles, a completely realistic explanation of natural phenomena is given (for example, thunder and lightning, which, according to the author, come from the collision of clouds). Here are also articles on medicine, biology, extracts from the works of a Roman scientist and physician of the 2nd century BC. Galena.

The Russian book of the 14th-15th centuries played an outstanding role in the revival of literary monuments of the past and in the dissemination of contemporary works of deep ideological and political sound.

1. 2 Literature. chronicle writing

Russian literature of the 14th-15th centuries inherited from ancient Russian literature its sharp publicism, put forward the most important problems of the political life of Russia. It was closely connected with social and political life annals. Being historical works, the chronicles were at the same time political documents that played an important role in the ideological and political struggle (1, p.12).

In the first decades after the Mongol-Tatar invasion, chronicle writing experienced a decline. But it, interrupted for a while in some, resumed in new political centers. Chronicle writing was still distinguished by local features, great attention to local events, tendentious coverage of events from the positions of one or another feudal center. But the theme of the unity of the Russian land and its struggle against foreign invaders was a common thread in all chronicles.

At first, the Moscow chronicle also had a local character. , appeared in the first half of the 14th century. However, with the growth of the political role of Moscow, it gradually acquired a nationwide character. In the course of development, the Moscow chronicle became the focus of advanced political ideas. It not only reflected and ideologically consolidated Moscow's successes in the unification of the Russian lands, but also actively participated in this work, vigorously promoting unifying ideas.

The growth of national self-consciousness was evidenced by the revival all-Russian chronicle at the end of the 14th - beginning of the 15th centuries. The first all-Russian code, which broke with narrow local interests and took the position of the unity of Russia, was compiled in Moscow at the beginning of the 15th century (the so-called Trinity chronicle, died during the Moscow fire of 1812). Moscow chroniclers did a great job of unifying and processing disparate regional vaults. Around 1418, with the participation of Metropolitan Photius, a compilation was undertaken new chronicle code (Vladimir Polychron), the main idea of ​​which was the union of the Moscow grand ducal power with the urban population of feudal centers in order to politically unify Russia. These vaults formed the basis of subsequent annalistic vaults. One of the most significant works of Russian chronicle writing was Moscow vault 1479 (1, p. 49).

All Moscow chronicles are permeated with the idea of ​​the need for state unity and strong grand ducal power. They clearly speak of the historical and political concept that developed at the beginning of the 15th century, according to which the history of Russia in the 14th-15th centuries is a direct continuation of the history of Ancient Russia. Chronicles promoted the later official idea that Moscow inherits the political traditions of Kyiv and Vladimir, is their successor. This was emphasized by the fact that the vaults began with The Tale of Bygone Years.

Unifying ideas that met the vital interests of various strata of feudal society were also developed in a number of other centers. Even in Novgorod, which was distinguished by particularly strong separatist tendencies, in the 30s of the 15th century, an all-Russian in character was created. Novgorod-Sofia vault, which included in its composition Photius' code. The all-Russian character was also tver chronicle, which promoted strong grand ducal power and noted the facts of the liberation struggle against the Golden Horde. But it clearly exaggerated the role of Tver and the princes of Tver in the unification of Russia (1, p. 50).

The central theme of literature was the struggle of the Russian people against foreign invaders. Therefore, one of the most common genres was military story. The works of this genre were based on specific historical facts and events, and the characters were real historical figures.

An outstanding monument of narrative literature of the military genre is "The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu". The main part of its content is the story of the capture and ruin of Ryazan by the Tatars and the fate of the princely family. The story condemns feudal strife as the main reason for the defeat of the Russians, and at the same time, from the point of view of religious morality, what is happening is assessed as a punishment for sins. This testifies to the desire of church ideologists to use the very fact of the catastrophe to propagate Christian ideas and strengthen the influence of the church.

The struggle against the Swedish and German feudal lords was reflected in the secular retinue story about Alexander Nevsky, which contained a detailed description of the Battle of the Neva and the "Battle on the Ice". But this story has not come down to us. It was reworked into the life of Alexander Nevsky and received a religious overtone. The story about the Pskov prince Dovmont, dedicated to the struggle of the Pskovites against the German and Lithuanian aggression, underwent a similar transformation (1, p. 52).

monument Tver literature the beginning of the XIV century is "The Tale of the Assassination of Prince Mikhail Yaroslavich in the Horde". This is a topical political work that had an anti-Moscow orientation. On the basis of an oral folk poetic work, the Tale of Shevkala was written, dedicated to the uprising in Tver in 1327.

The victory over the Mongol-Tatars on the Kulikovo field in 1380 caused a rise in national self-consciousness, inspired the Russian people with self-confidence. Under her influence, Kulikovo cycle works that are united by one main idea - about the unity of the Russian land as the basis of victory over the enemy. The four main monuments included in this cycle are different in character, style, and content. All of them speak of the Battle of Kulikovo as the greatest historical victory of Russia over the Tatars (4, p.24-25).

The most profound and significant work of this cycle is "Zadonshchina" - a poem written by Zephanius of Ryazan shortly after the Battle of Kulikovo. The author did not seek to give a consistent and detailed depiction of events. Its goal is to glorify the great victory over the hated enemy, to glorify its organizers and participants (4, p.345). The poem emphasizes the role of Moscow in organizing the victory, and presents Prince Dmitry Ivanovich as the true organizer of the Russian forces.

AT chronicle story about The Battle of Kulikovo for the first time gives a coherent story about the events of 1380. It emphasizes the unity and cohesion of the Russian forces around the Grand Duke, the campaign against the Tatars is regarded as an all-Russian affair. However, the story noticeably departs from real historical facts, which are comprehended from the point of view of religious morality: the ultimate cause of the defeat of the Tatars is "divine will"; in the spirit of religious concepts, the behavior of the Ryazan prince Oleg is condemned; Dmitry Donskoy is depicted as a Christian ascetic, endowed with piety, peacefulness and love of Christ.

"The Legend of the Mamaev Battle" - the most voluminous and most popular work of the Kulikovo cycle. It is ideologically and artistically contradictory; two different approaches to understanding events coexist in it. One side. The Kulikovo victory is regarded as a reward for the Christian virtues characteristic of Russians; on the other hand, a real view of things: the author of the "Tale" is well versed in the political situation of that time, highly appreciates the heroism and patriotism of the Russian people, the foresight of the Grand Duke, understands the significance of unity between princes. In the "Tale" the idea of ​​a close union of the church and princely power finds justification (description of the relationship between Dmitry Donskoy and Sergius of Radonezh) (4, p. 189).

Only in connection with the biography of Dmitry Donskoy is it said about the Battle of Kulikovo in "A word about the life and death of the Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich, Tsar of Russia". This is a solemn panegyric to the deceased prince, in which his deeds are praised and their significance for the present and future of Russia is determined. The image of Dmitry Ivanovich combines the features of an ideal hagiographic hero and an ideal statesman, emphasizing the Christian virtues of the prince. This reflected the desire of churchmen for a union with royal power.

The events of 1382, when Tokhtamysh attacked Moscow, formed the basis of the story "On the Capture of Moscow from Tsar Tokhtamysh and the Captivity of the Russian Land." The story is inherent in such a feature as democracy, therefore it occupies a special place in the literature of the XIV - XV centuries, covering events from the standpoint of the broad masses, in this case the population of Moscow. It has no individual hero. Ordinary citizens who took over the defense of Moscow after the princes and boyars fled from it - this is the true hero of the story (9, p.53-54).

During the period under review, there was a great development life literature, a number of works of which are permeated with topical journalistic ideas. Church preaching in them was combined with the development of the idea of ​​the dominant role of Moscow and the close union of the princely power and the church (and the church power was given priority) as the main condition for the strengthening of Russia. In hagiographic literature, specific ecclesiastical interests were also reflected, which by no means always coincided with the interests of the grand duke's power. The Life of Metropolitan Peter, written by Metropolitan Cyprian, was of a journalistic nature, and he saw the common fate of Metropolitan Peter, who was not recognized as a prince of Tver in his time, with his own and with his complex relationship with the Moscow prince Dmitry Ivanovich.

Widespread in hagiographic literature rhetorical panegyric style (or expressive-emotional style). The text included lengthy and ornate speeches-monologues, author's rhetorical digressions, reasoning of a moral and theological nature. Much attention was paid to describing the feelings of the hero, his state of mind, psychological motivations for the actions of the characters appeared. The expressive-emotional style reached the pinnacle of its development in the work of Epiphanius the Wise and Pachomius Logothetes.

1.3 Architecture

For half a century, stone construction in Russia ceased as a result of the Mongol-Tatar invasion. It resumed only at the end of the thirteenth century. Since that time, the traditions of regional architectural schools that developed in the previous period (2, p. 87).

One of the largest centers for the development of art in the XIV - XV centuries was Novgorod, experiencing an economic and political upsurge at that time. The high level of urban life, the peculiarities of the socio-political system of the Novgorod feudal republic determined the characteristic features novgorod art, the presence of a strong democratic stream in it. As before, Novgorod buildings were erected at the expense of individual boyars, merchant associations and collectives of "convicts", and they reflected the tastes of customers.

Based on the traditions of pre-Mongolian architecture, Novgorod architects searched for new artistic and construction-technical solutions. The direction of these searches was determined already in the very first building erected after a significant break - in the Church of St. Nicholas on Lipno (1292). The architects have introduced a lot of new things into the traditional type of a four-pillar one-domed temple of a cubic shape. They replaced the roof with three lobes, abandoned the segmentation of the facades with blades, reduced the number of apses from three to one, lowering it to half the height of the temple. This gave the building massiveness and solidity. Novgorod builders switched to masonry from roughly hewn limestone slabs using boulders and partly bricks, which further enhanced the impression of strength and power. Here, a characteristic feature of Novgorod art was clearly manifested (2, p. 45).

New searches and old traditions were reflected in the Church of the Savior on Kovalev (1345) and the Church of the Assumption on Volotovo Field (1352). This is an intermediate link in the process of folding that style in Novgorod architecture, which is represented by buildings of the second half of the 14th century. The classic examples of this style are the Church of Fyodor Stratilat (1360-1361) and the Church of the Savior on Ilyina Street (1374). A characteristic feature of this style is the elegant external decoration of the temples. Their facades are decorated with decorative niches, triangular depressions, sculptural inset crosses. Many niches were filled with frescoes.

In the future, the new architectural style remained almost unchanged. Moreover, in the 15th century, a desire to reproduce the architectural forms of the 12th century manifested itself. This revival of cultural traditions manifested the separatism of the Novgorod aristocracy, their desire to preserve the "old times and customs" of the independent Novgorod boyar republic (2, pp. 46-47).

Large-scale civil construction was also carried out in Novgorod. In the Kremlin in 1433, German and Novgorod craftsmen built a faceted chamber intended for ceremonial receptions and meetings of the Council of Lords. In the sovereign's courtyard, the Clock Ringer (1443) was erected - an octagonal tower on a rectangular base. Some Novgorod boyars built for themselves stone chambers with box vaults. In 1302, a stone citadel was laid in Novgorod, which was subsequently rebuilt several times. The fortifications of Staraya Ladoga, Porkhov, Koporye, Pit, Nut were erected (2, p. 47).

Originality differed architecture of Pskov separated from Novgorod in the middle of the 14th century and became the center of an independent feudal republic. The people of Pskov achieved great success in fortification construction. Stone walls were erected in 1330 Izborsk - one of the largest military installations of Ancient Russia. In Pskov itself, a large stone Kremlin was built, the total length of the walls of which was about nine kilometers. The entire architecture of Pskov had a fortified appearance, the buildings were severe and laconic, almost devoid of decorative attire.

Stone belfries, which consisted of several spans, are characteristic of Pskov architecture. The Pskov craftsmen developed a special system of overlapping the building with mutually intersecting arches, which made it possible later to free the temple from the pillars. This technique played a significant role in the creation of the type of a small pillarless "townsman" church. The Pskov architects won all-Russian fame with their skill. They played a big role in Moscow construction in the 15th-16th centuries.

The first city of North-Eastern Russia, which resumed stone building, was Tver. Here, in 1285-1290, the Cathedral of the Transfiguration of the Savior was built - a six-pillar cross-domed church, decorated with white stone reliefs. The Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir served as a model for it. At the beginning of the XIV century, another stone church was built, but then a long break in construction followed, caused by the weakening of Tver as a result of its defeat after the uprising of 1327. Only from the end of the XIV century did its new rise come. From the Tver buildings of that time, the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in the village of Gorodnya on the Volga has come down to us (2, p. 48).

Start stone construction in Moscow belongs to the second quarter of the 14th century. Under Ivan Kalita, four stone churches were built in the Moscow Kremlin: the Assumption Cathedral, the churches of Ivan Lestvichnik and the Savior on Bor, and the Archangel Cathedral. None of them has survived to our time, but there is reason to believe that they were built in the spirit of the traditions of Vladimir-Suzdal architecture. Several stones that survived from the Church of the Savior on Bor testify that it was decorated with carvings.

In 1367, a stone Kremlin, the only one in the entire North-Eastern Russia of that time. This testified to the growth of the political power of Moscow. On the eve of the Battle of Kulikovo, the Assumption Cathedral was built in Kolomna, which was larger than all Moscow churches. The oldest surviving monuments of Moscow architecture are the Assumption Cathedral in Zvenigorod (about 1400), the Cathedral of Savvin Storozhevsky Monastery near Zvenigorod (1405) and the Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery (1422) (3, p.24).

The models for them were the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl and the Dmitrievsky Cathedral in Vladimir, although the buildings of the early 15th century are more squat and severe, and their decoration is more modest. The emphasized interest in the architecture of Vladimir was determined by the political idea of ​​the Vladimir heritage, which permeated all Moscow politics and was reflected in other areas of culture.

This does not mean at all that Moscow architects only copied existing samples. They showed particular interest in the development and creation of a new, upward-looking composition of the entire temple building. This was achieved due to the stepped arrangement of vaults and the placement of several rows of kokoshniks at the base of the drum. The desire to overcome "cubicity" and give the whole composition dynamism was especially clearly manifested in the cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery (circa 1427). This trend became the leading one in Moscow architecture.

1.4 Painting

The second half of the XIV - the beginning of the XV centuries is called the "golden age" wall painting Ancient Russia. Successfully developing Novgorod monumental painting, based on local traditions and using the achievements of Byzantine art. made a great contribution to its development Theophanes the Greek, who worked first in Novgorod, and then in Moscow. He came from Byzantium to Russia in the 70s of the XIV century as a mature painter and gave his skills to his new homeland. Theophan's best work, which most fully reveals the originality and power of his work, is the fresco painting of the Church of the Savior on Ilyina Street. Theophanes the Greek is characterized by a bold painting style, freedom in dealing with iconographic traditions, virtuosity in performance, interest in character, the inner world of a person (6, p. 54). In his characters, he embodied the spirituality of a person, the strength of his inner emotionality, the desire for the sublime. The stormy, temperamental painting of Feofan is a vivid manifestation of the expressive-emotional style in Russian art of this time.

The frescoes of Theophan the Greek in the Church of the Savior on Ilyin are close in the manner of execution of the frescoes of the Church of Theodore Stratilat. Some researchers consider them the work of Theophanes, others - the work of his students (6, p.54).

A remarkable monument of Novgorod art was the complex of frescoes of the Volotovo Church (died during the Great Patriotic War), which vividly manifested the freedom of artistic creativity, the desire to overcome the traditional canons of church painting. These frescoes were distinguished by extreme dynamics in the construction of the composition, deep emotional richness.

The frescoes of the Church of the Savior on Kovalev, which are characterized by features of asceticism, look different. Researchers see in them the influence of the South Slavic artistic tradition and believe that they were painted by Serbian artists.

In the 15th century, monumental painting more and more assimilated the dogmatic features of the official church ideology. But in Novgorod, icon painting still remained associated with democratic circles, as evidenced by the simplicity of interpretation of plots, the wide distribution of icons of saints popular among the people, who assumed the functions of pagan deities - patrons of various economic activities. The narrow scope of religious themes expanded.

Reached high prosperity painting in Moscow at the end of the 14th - beginning of the 15th century. Here, at this time, the Russian national school of painting was finally taking shape, the most prominent representative of which was the brilliant Russian artist Andrei Rublev. His predecessor in painting Moscow churches was Theophanes the Greek, who moved to Moscow in the 1990s. Moscow paintings by Theophanes have not been preserved.

Andrei Rublev was born around 1360. He was a monk of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, and then Spaso-Andronikov. In 1405, together with Theophan the Greek and Prokhor from Gorodets, he painted the walls of the Annunciation Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin. In 1408 Rublev, together with Daniel Cherny worked on the frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, and then they decorated the Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery with frescoes and icons. At the end of his life, A. Rublev painted the cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery. Andrei Rublev died around 1430 and was buried in the Andronikov Monastery (9, p.58).

The earliest known works by Rublev are considered to be the frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, created by him together with Daniil Cherny. One of them is "The Procession of the Righteous to Paradise". These works revealed the characteristic features of the Rublev style, which is characterized by lyrical tranquility. Rublev's characters are softer, more humane than in Feofan's painting.

The most famous work of Rublev - icon "Trinity" - written by him for the iconostasis of the Trinity Cathedral. It expresses the humanistic idea of ​​consent and philanthropy with rare artistic power, and gives a generalized ideal of moral perfection and purity. The images of the Archangel Gabriel and the Apostle Paul from the same iconostasis of the Trinity Cathedral are remarkable in terms of the depth of their psychological characteristics and the skill of execution. The national character of Rublev's work found a particularly vivid expression in his "Spas" from Zvenigorod.

In the work of A. Rublev, wrote the researcher of ancient Russian art V.N. Lazarev, "the process of separation of Russian painting from Byzantine, which was outlined already in the 12th century and developed in a continuous increase until the 15th century, receives its logical conclusion. Rublev finally abandons the Byzantine severity and Byzantine asceticism He extracts from the Byzantine heritage its ancient Hellenistic core... He translates the colors of Russian nature into the high language of art, giving them in such impeccably correct combinations that they have, like the creation of a great musician, absolute purity of sound "(9, C .59).

1. 5 Accumulation of scientific knowledge

Russia was by no means entirely illiterate. Knowledge of writing, counting was required in many branches of economic and other activities. Birch bark letters from Novgorod and other centers, various written monuments (chronicles, stories, etc.), inscriptions on handicraft products (coins, seals, bells, weapons, jewelry, art casting, etc.) indicate that literate people have never been transferred to Russia, and not only among monks, but also among artisans and merchants. There were also among the boyars and nobles. Wealthy people kept written records of their households; from the 16th century, various kinds of accounting books, documents of spiritual cloisters - monasteries, copies from documents of earlier times have been preserved (7, p. 67).

At the disposal of scientists, despite all the losses of the Batu era and the later Horde "armies", there is still a lot of handwritten material for the XIV-XVI centuries. These are documents (spiritual letters, treaties of great, including Moscow, and specific princes, economic acts of the Russian metropolis, episcopal departments, monasteries), lives of saints, chronicles, and much more. There are manuals on grammar, arithmetic, herbal treatment (alphabetics, herbalists, etc.).

Practical observations were accumulated, knowledge of building technology (it was necessary when erecting buildings), dynamics (calculations of the flight range of stones, cannonballs from wall-beating and other devices; from cannons that appeared at the end of the 14th century), applied physics (minting coins, casting cannons, assembling and repairing watch mechanisms), applied chemistry (making paints, inks). arithmetic and geometry (description of lands, trade affairs, etc.).

Descriptions of natural phenomena (eclipses, earthquakes, etc.) are quite frequent in chronicles. Translated works were popular - "Christian Topography" by Kozma Indikoplov (a traveler of the 6th century), "Shestodnev" by John, Exarch of Bulgaria, "Gromnik", etc. Astronomical observations are given in Russian handwritten collections; medical - in the same annals (description of diseases). And the collection of the XV century, which came out of the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery, included comments by Galen, a Roman scientist of the II century AD, to the work of Hippocrates, the ancient Greek “father of medicine” (V-IV centuries BC). Of outstanding importance for its time was the “Book of Coal Letters” (mid-14th century) - it describes how to calculate land areas and taxes from them (6, p. 78).

The circle of geographical knowledge was expanded by Russian travelers. They left descriptions of their travels. Such are the Novgorodian Stefan, who visited Constantinople (mid-14th century); Grigory Kalika (probably visited the same city in the 14th century; later, under the name of Vasily Kalika, he became the Novgorod archbishop); Deacon of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery Zosima (Constantinople, Palestine, 1420); Suzdal monk Simeon (Ferrara, Florence, 1439); the famous Athanasius Nikitin, merchant of Tver (India, 1466-1472). Russian people, penetrating to the north, to Siberia, made descriptions, "drawings" of the lands they saw; ambassadors - article lists with information about foreign states.

2. Russian culture of the 15th - early 16th centuries

2.1 Book business

During the period under review, more widespread handwritten book. The main centers for storing books continued to be monasteries, which had significant libraries. They collected mainly church literature, but there were also books of secular content: chronicles, chronographs, legends, stories, but books, judging by the owner's records on some of them, were not only in monasteries, but also in boyar estates, with townspeople and even among the peasants. (7, p.89).

The production of handwritten books was mainly concentrated in the monastic scriptorium workshops, although professional scribes in the cities and even in the countryside were also engaged in their correspondence. Books were sold in the markets. Stoglavy Cathedral, in order to protect the market from manuscripts of undesirable content, by a special decision banned the sale of manuscripts without prior verification by clergy. In this, as in other resolutions of the Stoglavy Cathedral, the desire of the church to establish control over spiritual culture was manifested. In connection with the increased need for a book, the process of writing accelerated: cursive writing became established not only in business writing, but also in book writing.

The largest event in the history of Russian culture was the emergence typography. Printing corresponded to state needs, served to strengthen autocratic power, and strengthened the role of the church. The church liturgical book was one of the means of spreading the official ideology. Therefore, book printing in Russia began at the initiative of the government, supported by the church.

The first attempts at printing in Russia date back to the end of the 15th century, but it began in 1553. The first editions were anonymous, that is, they did not contain the names of the publishers, imprint. There are currently seven such editions. Their imperfection suggests that they were created during the formation of the printing business. There is no information about the first printers yet. Book printing began to develop most vividly in the second half of the 16th century, when printing house in Moscow (9, p.63).

2. 2 Chronicle. Literature

The journalistic content, as before, was imbued with traditional literary genres. There are actually journalistic works in the form of messages and letters, intended not for one addressee, but for a wide audience.

The goals of the ideological justification of autocracy were subordinated historical essays, primarily annals. In this regard, the official character of chronicle writing has significantly increased. The Middle Ages are generally characterized by an appeal to historical material to substantiate certain political positions. Chronicle writing became a state matter and, as a rule, was associated with government circles. The previous chronicles included in the annals were subjected to certain processing for political purposes.

Of great cultural significance was the compilation undertaken on the initiative and under the leadership of Metropolitan Macarius. "Great Fourth Menaion". Macarius set a goal to collect together "all the books of four, even in the Russian land are found." A large team of writers, editors, copyists has been working on the implementation of this plan for more than 20 years. As a result, a huge vault original and translated literary monuments, consisting of twelve large format volumes (more than 27 thousand pages). It included essays intended for "spiritual" reading, their composition was selected and approved by the church and was supposed to regulate the annual "reading circle" for each day (5, p.45).

All material in this code is arranged by month. Each volume includes the lives of all the saints, whose memory is celebrated in a given month, and all the literature directly or indirectly related to these saints: the writings of the Greek "fathers of the church" and Russian church writers, epistles of metropolitans, church charters, letters. It also included collections popular in Russia "Bee", "Golden Chain", "Izmaragd"; in addition to them, Flavius ​​Josephus' Tale of the Devastation of Jerusalem, Kosma Indikoplov's Cosmography, Daniel's Journey, and others. Of course, not all works read in Russia in the 16th century are included in this collection. There are no annals and chronographs, as well as works recognized by the church as "not useful." Nevertheless, the "Great Honors - Menaia" is the most valuable monument of Russian culture; this is the most valuable collection of works of literature until the middle of the 16th century: many of them survived only because they got into this code (5, p. 46).

2. 3 Architecture

Since the end of the 15th century, a new stage has begun in the development of Russian architecture. The improvement of urban crafts, the increase in the financial resources of the state were the material prerequisites for the expansion of the scale of stone construction, both in the religious and in the civil sphere. The innovation of this time was the spread of brick and terracotta, brickwork displaced the traditional white stone. The growth of brick production and its use in construction opened up new technical and artistic possibilities for architects.

The unification of Russian lands in a single state destroyed the isolation of local architectural schools, contributed to their mutual penetration, mutual enrichment and the formation on this basis of an all-Russian architectural style that combined simplicity of construction with increased external decorativeness (2, p. 132).

Moscow became the all-Russian art center. The grandiose construction that unfolded in it attracted the best specialists from other feudal centers. Italian masters were invited to Moscow - Aristotle Fioravanti, Anton Fryazin, Marco Ruffo, Pietro Antonio Solari, Aleviz Novy and others, who introduced Russian masters to the architectural and construction techniques of the Italian Renaissance.

Since Moscow became the all-Russian capital, it was completely rebuilt the Moscow Kremlin, the ensemble of which received its final design at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century. The appearance of the residence of the "sovereign of all Russia" had to correspond to the increased importance and authority of the grand duke's power. The restructuring of the Kremlin began with the construction of the Assumption Cathedral, entrusted to Aristotle Fioravanti. The Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir served as a model for him. However, the Moscow Assumption Cathedral (1475-1479) was not a simple imitation of the model. Aristotle Fioravanti managed to create a completely new, original work in which the traditions of Russian architecture were enriched with elements of Italian architecture. Simple and clear in its forms, but at the same time grandiose and solemn. The Assumption Cathedral has become a classic example of monumental church architecture of the 16th century. The five domes that crowned the cathedral became widespread in the construction of other church buildings (3, p. 145).

The Annunciation Cathedral, built by Pskov craftsmen in 1484-1489 and being part of the Grand Duke's palace complex, is associated with Russian architectural traditions. Its appearance combines Pskov, Vladimir-Suzdal and early Moscow features,

In 1505-1508, Aleviz Novy built the Archangel Cathedral, in the external appearance of which the secular features already outlined in the architecture of the Assumption Cathedral were clearly expressed. Having retained the main structure (a cube crowned with five domes), Aleviz Novy departed from ancient Russian traditions in the exterior decoration of the cathedral, using magnificent architectural details of the Italian Renaissance.

In addition to religious buildings, secular buildings were also erected in the Kremlin. A new grand-ducal palace is being built, which, according to old traditions, consisted of separate buildings interconnected by passages, porches, and vestibules. The Faceted Chamber (Marco Ruffo and Pietro Latopio Solari, (1487-1491) has survived from this palace. It served as a throne room, in which solemn palace ceremonies and receptions of foreign ambassadors took place. The chamber is a spacious square room with a powerful pillar in the middle, on which is supported by four cross vaults. In 1485, the construction of brick walls and towers of the Moscow Kremlin began. At the same time, the architects solved not only fortification, but also artistic tasks. The walls and towers of the Kremlin, along with the rest of its buildings, made up a single picturesque ensemble. Its architectural center was the built in 1505-1508, the pillar-shaped church-bell tower of Ivan Lestvichnik (Ivan the Great) In this ensemble, the idea of ​​greatness and strength of the united Russian state was embodied (3, p.149).

Other cities followed the example of Moscow. Cathedrals in Volokolamsk, Dmitrov, Uglich, Rostov, as well as in large monasteries: Pafnutyevo-Borovsky, Kirillo-Belogorsky, Novgorod Khutypsky, Mozhaysky Luga and others were erected on the model of the Moscow Cathedrals of the Assumption and the Akhangelsk. Stone palaces also appeared in the specific capitals. From the palace built in Uglich at the end of the 15th century, the main chamber, built of brick and richly decorated with patterned brickwork in the upper part of the pediments, has been preserved.

In religious architecture, in addition to the creation of monumental cathedrals on the model of Moscow, there was another direction associated with the construction of small township and patrimonial churches. The invention of a new system of brick floors - the so-called cross vault - led to the emergence new type buildings - small pillarless temple with a single undivided space. Secular elements were more clearly manifested in the township churches.

As early as the 15th century, the desire of Russian architects to give the building a dynamic upward aspiration was revealed (for example, the Cathedral of the Spaso-Andronikov Monastery). This found expression also in the construction of pillar-shaped churches. Further development of this trend, the search for new architectural forms led to the emergence tent style in Russian architecture. In the tent buildings, the national identity of Russian architecture was most clearly expressed. The tent style decisively broke with the traditional cross-domed type of church adopted from Byzantium. The introduction of this purely Russian form into church building was an important victory for the folk principle in architecture, one of the sources of which was Russian folk wooden architecture: tent churches were built "for wooden work", i.e. modeled on wooden hipped buildings (3, p.112). The appearance of this style is the highest achievement of Russian architecture of the 16th century.

The most outstanding stone monument tent architecture - Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye, erected in 1532. The idea of ​​aspiration upwards, rise, embodied in the Church of the Ascension, reflected the spiritual atmosphere of the first half of the 16th century, the growth of national self-consciousness, the feelings and moods of people of that time. The chronicler expressed the admiration of his contemporaries for this building in the following words: "..because that church was wonderful in height and lordship, such was not the case before in Russia" (5, p. 98).

The Cathedral of the Intercession "on the Moat", erected in honor of the capture of Kazan, is a group of ten pillar-shaped temples placed on a common pedestal - a high basement - and united by internal passages and an external gallery - a walkway. The central temple is crowned with a large tent, around which are the domes of eight aisles. All of them have the shape of an "octagon", coming from the traditions of wooden architecture. The architectural and decorative decoration of the building is unusually rich and varied. The small internal area of ​​the building (no more than 5-6 people fit in separate aisles), its magnificent exterior decoration and picturesque composition suggest that the Intercession Cathedral was designed for external perception, it was more like a memorial temple than a religious building. The union on a common basis of nine different, dissimilar churches symbolized the unification of Russian lands and principalities in a single state (3, p. 157-158).

In the 16th century, a huge scale was fortress building, which reflected achievements in the field of military engineering. But at the same time, practical problems of urban planning were also solved. The fortifications of this time are integral architectural ensembles, they played a big role in shaping the appearance of cities, determined their general layout.

In 1508-1511. the stone walls of the Nizhny Novgorod Kremlin were erected. Then the Kremlin was built in Tula (1514), Kolomna (1525-1531), Zaraysk (1531), Serpukhov (1556) and other cities, the walls of the Novgorod Kremlin were reconstructed. In Moscow in 1535-1538. a second line of fortifications was erected, encircling the trade and craft district of the capital. China town. Many monasteries also became powerful fortresses: stone walls and towers of the Trinity-Sergius, Kirillo-Belozersky, Solovetsky, Pafnutyevo-Borovsky, Joseph-Volokolamsky and other monasteries were built (3, p.158).

The grandiose fortress construction required huge material resources and a large amount of labor .... "

Among all types of art, architecture in the 16th century received the greatest development, made a huge step forward, which predetermined the subsequent development of Russian architecture.

2. 4 Painting

The political and ideological situation of the late fifteenth and sixteenth centuries affected the development painting. The largest representative of the Moscow school of painting in the last quarter of the 15th - early 16th centuries was Dionysius(c. 1440-1502 or 1503). Contemporaries called him an artist, "notorious more than anyone", that is, the most famous. He painted a number of icons, part of the frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, painted the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin of the Ferapontov Monastery. His works are characterized by a refined pattern, exquisite coloring, and magnificent decorative effect. They are permeated with moods of solemn festivity, bright joy, consonant with the spirit of the times (6, p.143).

The painting of the 16th century is characterized by an expansion of the range of topics, an increase in interest in non-ecclesiastical topics from world and especially Russian history. Official ideology exerted an increasing influence on the ideological content of painting. The glorification and exaltation of the royal power and the church became the main theme of the work of the masters who carried out the orders of the Grand Duke and Metropolitan.

The official state idea about the historical succession of the power of the Moscow princes from the princes of Vladimir and Kyiv, and through them - from the Byzantine emperors was embodied in the painting of the Annunciation Cathedral, made under the direction of Feodosia, son of Dionysius. Byzantine emperors and empresses and the most revered Russian princes are depicted here (6, p. 144).

The same idea was reflected in the murals of the Golden Chamber of the Kremlin Palace (1547-1552) that have not survived, but are known from the description of the 17th century. Along with biblical stories and parables used to glorify the activities of Ivan the Terrible in an allegorical form, the themes of Russian history were widely presented in it: the adoption of Christianity in Kievan Rus, the legendary wedding of Prince Vladimir with the crown of Monomakh, etc. Allegorical figures were also depicted here - "Chastity", "Reason", "Truth", etc. (6, p. 149)

The regulation of artistic creativity, its subordination to church canons had a negative impact on the development of painting. However, the church could not completely stop this process. And in these difficult conditions, new trends made their way, albeit with great difficulty. They are more noticeable in the work of masters associated with townsmen, and primarily in the cities of the middle Volga region - Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Nizhny Novgorod (7, p. 212). There was a process of accumulation of elements of a new direction in painting, which clearly manifested itself in the next, XVII century.

Conclusion

Thus, culture in the XIV - early XVI century. developed in complex and contradictory conditions. The Mongol-Tatar invasion and the Golden Horde yoke slowed down the pace and course of development of the ancient Russian people. And only the high level of Russian culture gave her the opportunity to survive in the most difficult period of her history. Despite the horrors of the Mongol conquest, Russian culture retained its traditional character. A large role in the transfer of traditions and cultural and historical experience was played by territories that were not subjected to military defeat, although they were subordinate to the Horde (Pskov, Novgorod).

If the beginning of the XIV century is characterized by stagnation and decline after the terrible blow of the Mongol hordes, then after 1380 its dynamic rise begins, in which the beginning of the merging of local art schools into a general Moscow, all-Russian culture can be traced.

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