(1494-1559)

Argumentation of the migration version

The works of Herodotus, which appeared in the 5th century BC, speak in favor of the second theory. e. According to Herodotus, the Etruscans are from Lydia, a region in Asia Minor, - tyrrhens or tyrsenes, forced to leave their homeland due to catastrophic crop failure and famine. According to Herodotus, this happened almost simultaneously with the Trojan War. Hellanic from the island of Lesbos mentioned the legend of the Pelasgians, who arrived in Italy and began to be called Tyrrhenians. At that time, the Mycenaean civilization collapsed and the empire of the Hittites fell, that is, the appearance of the Tyrrhenes should be dated to the 13th century BC. e. or a little later. Perhaps this legend is connected with the myth of the escape to the west of the Trojan hero Aeneas and the founding of the Roman state, which was of great importance to the Etruscans. Herodotus' hypothesis is confirmed by genetic analysis data, which confirm the relationship of the Etruscans with the inhabitants of the lands currently belonging to Turkey.

Up to the middle of the 20th century. The "Lydian version" was subjected to serious criticism, especially after the decipherment of the Lydian inscriptions - their language had nothing to do with Etruscan. However, there is also a version that the Etruscans should not be identified with the Lydians, but with the more ancient, pre-Indo-European population of the west of Asia Minor, known as the "Protoluvians". With the Etruscans of this early period, A. Erman identified the legendary Tursha tribe, who lived in the eastern Mediterranean and carried out predatory raids on Egypt (XIII-VII centuries BC).

Argumentation of the complex version

Based on the material of ancient sources and archeological data, it can be concluded that the most ancient elements of prehistoric Mediterranean unity took part in the ethnogenesis of the Etruscans during the period of the beginning of the movement from East to West in the 4th-3rd millennium BC. e.; also a wave of migrants from the area of ​​the Black and Caspian Seas in the II millennium BC. e. In the process of the formation of the Etruscan community, traces of Aegean and Aegean-Anatolian emigrants were found. In confirmation of this, the results of excavations on about. Lemnos (Aegean Sea), where inscriptions close to the grammatical structure of the Etruscan language were found.

Geographical position

It is not yet possible to determine the exact limits of Etruria. The beginning of the history and culture of the Etruscans was laid in the region of the Tyrrhenian Sea and limited to the basin of the rivers Tiber and Arno. The river network of the country also included the rivers Aventia, Vesidia, Tsetsina, Aluza, Umbro, Oza, Albinia, Armenta, Marta, Minio, Aro. A wide river network created conditions for developed agriculture, which was complicated in a number of places by swampy areas. Southern Etruria, whose soils were often of volcanic origin, had extensive lakes: Tsiminskoe, Alsietiskoe, Statonenskoe, Volsinskoe, Sabatinskoe, Trazimenskoe. More than half of the country's territory was occupied by mountains and hills. According to the paintings and reliefs, one can judge the diversity of the flora and fauna of the region. The Etruscans cultivated cypress, myrtle, and pomegranate brought to Italy from Carthage (the image of a pomegranate is found on Etruscan objects in the 6th century BC).

Cities and necropolises

Each of the Etruscan cities controlled a certain territory. The exact number of inhabitants of the Etruscan city-states is unknown, according to rough estimates, the population of Cerveteri during its heyday was 25 thousand people.

Cerveteri was the southernmost city of Etruria, he controlled the deposits of metal-bearing ore, which ensured the prosperity of the city. The settlement was located near the coast on a steep ledge. The necropolis was traditionally located outside the city. A road led to it, along which funeral carts were transported. There were tombs on both sides of the road. The bodies rested on benches, in niches or terracotta sarcophagi. Along with them were placed the personal belongings of the deceased.

From the name of this city (Etr. - Caere), the Roman word "ceremony" subsequently came - this is how the Romans called some funeral rites.

The nearby town of Veii was well protected. The city and its acropolis were surrounded by moats, making Veii almost impregnable. Here they found an altar, the foundation of the temple and water tanks. Vulka, the only Etruscan sculptor whose name we know, was a native of Vei. The area around the city is notable for the passages carved into the rock that served to drain water.

The recognized center of Etruria was the city of Tarquinia. The name of the city comes from the son or brother of Tyrren Tarkon, who founded twelve Etruscan policies. The necropolises of Tarquinia were concentrated near the hills of Colle de Civita and Monterozzi. The tombs carved into the rock were protected by barrows, the chambers were painted for two hundred years. It was here that magnificent sarcophagi were found, decorated with bas-reliefs with images of the deceased on the lid.

When laying the city, the Etruscans observed rituals similar to those of the Romans. An ideal place was chosen, a hole was dug into which sacrifices were thrown. From this place, the founder of the city, with a plow harnessed by a cow and an ox, made a furrow that determined the position of the city walls. Wherever possible, the Etruscans used the lattice layout of the streets, orienting them to the cardinal points.

Story

The formation, development and collapse of the Etruscan state took place against the background of three periods of ancient Greece - orientalizing or geometric, classical (Hellenistic), as well as the rise of Rome. The earlier stages are given in accordance with the autochthonous theory of the origin of the Etruscans.

Protovillanovian period

The most important of the historical sources that marked the beginning of the Etruscan civilization is the Etruscan chronology of saecula (centuries). According to him, the first century of the ancient state, saeculum, began around the 11th or 10th century BC. e. This time refers to the so-called protovillanovian period (XII-X centuries BC). There is extremely little data on protovillanovians. The only important evidence of the beginning of a new civilization is a change in the funeral rite, which began to be performed by cremating the body on a funeral pyre, followed by burial of the ashes in urns.

Periods of Villanova I and Villanova II

After the loss of independence, Etruria retained a cultural identity for some time. In the II-I centuries BC. e. local art continued to exist; this period is also called the Etruscan-Roman period. But gradually the Etruscans adopted the way of life of the Romans. In 89 BC. e. the inhabitants of Etruria received Roman citizenship. By this time, the process of Romanization of Etruscan cities was practically completed along with Etruscan history itself.

Art and culture

The first monuments of Etruscan culture date back to the end of the 9th - beginning of the 8th centuries. BC e. The development cycle of the Etruscan civilization ends by the 2nd century BC. BC e. Rome was under its influence until the 1st century. BC e.

The Etruscans for a long time preserved the archaic cults of the first Italic settlers and showed a particular interest in death and the afterlife. Therefore, Etruscan art was significantly associated with the decoration of tombs, and based on the concept that the objects in them should retain a connection with real life. The most notable of the surviving monuments are sculpture and sarcophagi.

Etruscan language and literature

Women's toilet articles constituted a special category. One of the most famous products of the Etruscan craftsmen were bronze hand mirrors. Some are equipped with folding drawers, decorated with high reliefs. One surface was carefully polished, the reverse was decorated with engraving or high relief. Bronze was used to make strigils - spatulas for cleaning off oil and dirt, cysts, nail files, chests.

By modern standards, Etruscan houses are rather sparsely furnished. As a rule, the Etruscans did not use shelves and cabinets, they kept things and provisions in caskets, baskets or hung on hooks.

Luxury goods and jewelry

For centuries, Etruscan aristocrats wore jewelry and acquired luxury goods made of glass, faience, amber, ivory, precious stones, gold and silver. Villanovians in the 7th century BC e. wore glass beads, precious metal jewelry, and earthenware pendants from the Eastern Mediterranean. The most important local items were fibulae, made of bronze, gold, silver and iron. The latter were considered rare.

The exceptional prosperity of Etruria in the 7th century BC. e. caused the rapid development of jewelry and the influx of imported products. Silver bowls were imported from Phoenicia, the images on them were copied by Etruscan craftsmen. Caskets and goblets were made from ivory imported from the East. Most of the jewelry was made in Etruria. Goldsmiths used engraving, filigree and graining. In addition to brooches, pins, buckles, hair bands, earrings, rings, necklaces, bracelets, plates for clothes were widespread.

During the archaic, decorations became more elaborate. Earrings in the form of tiny pouches and disc-shaped earrings came into fashion. Semi-precious stones and colored glass were used. During this period, beautiful gems appeared. Hollow pendants or bulla often played the role of amulets, they were worn by children and adults. Etruscan women of the Hellenistic period preferred Greek-type jewelry. In the II century BC. e. they wore a tiara on their heads, small earrings with pendants in their ears, clasps in the form of discs on their shoulders, bracelets and rings adorned their hands.

• The Etruscans all wore short hair, with the exception of the priests - haruspices [ ] . The priests did not cut their hair, but removed it from their foreheads with a narrow headband, a gold or silver hoop [ ] . In the more ancient period, the Etruscans cut their beards short, but later they began to shave them clean [ ] . Women loosened their hair over their shoulders or braided it into braids and covered their heads with a hat.

  Leisure

  The Etruscans loved to participate in combat competitions and, possibly, to help other people with the housework [ ] . Also, the Etruscans had a theater, but it did not become as widespread as, for example, the Attic theater, and the found manuscripts of plays are not enough for a final analysis.

  Economy

  Crafts and agriculture

  The basis of the prosperity of Etruria was agriculture, which made it possible to keep livestock and export surplus wheat to the largest cities in Italy. In the archaeological material, grains of spelt, oats and barley were found. The high level of agriculture of the Etruscans made it possible to engage in selection - an Etruscan variety of spelt was obtained, for the first time they began to cultivate cultivated oats. Flax went to sewing tunics and raincoats, ship sails. This material was used to record various texts (later this achievement was borrowed by the Romans). There is evidence from the ancients about the strength of linen thread, from which Etruscan artisans made shells (tomb of the 6th century BC, Tarquinia). Quite widely, the Etruscans used artificial irrigation, drainage, and regulation of the flow of rivers. Ancient canals known to archaeological science were located near the Etruscan cities of Spina, Veii, in the Coda region.

  In the bowels of the Apennines, copper, zinc, silver, iron were deposited, on the island of Ylva (Elba) iron ore reserves - everything was developed by the Etruscans. The presence of numerous metal products in the tombs of the VIII century. BC e. in Etruria is associated with an adequate level of mining and metallurgy. The remains of mining are widely found near ancient Populonia (Campiglia Marritima region). The analysis allows us to establish that the smelting of copper and bronze preceded ironworking. There are finds made of copper, inlaid with miniature iron squares - a technique used when working with expensive materials. In the 7th century BC e. iron was still a rare metal to work with. Nevertheless, metalworking in cities and colonial centers was revealed: in Capua and Nola, the production of metal utensils was developed, in Minturni, Venafre, Suessa, an assortment of blacksmith craft items was found. Metalworking workshops are marked in Marzabotto. For that time, the mining and processing of copper and iron was significant in terms of the scale of application. In this area, the Etruscans succeeded in building mines for the manual extraction of ore.

The content of the article

ETRUSIAN CIVILIZATION. The Etruscans are considered the creators of the first developed civilization on the Apennine Peninsula, whose achievements, long before the Roman Republic, include large cities with remarkable architecture, fine metalwork, ceramics, painting and sculpture, an extensive drainage and irrigation system, an alphabet, and later coinage. Perhaps the Etruscans were aliens from across the sea; their first settlements in Italy were flourishing communities located in the central part of its western coast, in an area called Etruria (approximately the territory of modern Tuscany and Lazio). The ancient Greeks knew the Etruscans under the name of the Tyrrhenians (or Tyrsenes), and the part of the Mediterranean Sea between the Apennine Peninsula and the islands of Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica was called (and is called now) the Tyrrhenian Sea, since Etruscan sailors dominated here for several centuries. The Romans called the Etruscans Tusks (hence the modern Tuscany) or Etruscans, while the Etruscans themselves called themselves Rasna or Rasenna. In the era of their highest power, ca. 7th–5th centuries BC, the Etruscans extended their influence to a significant part of the Apennine Peninsula, up to the foothills of the Alps in the north and the environs of Naples in the south. Rome also submitted to them. Everywhere their dominance brought with it material prosperity, large-scale engineering projects, and achievements in the field of architecture. According to tradition, there was a confederation of twelve main city-states in Etruria, united in a religious and political union. These almost certainly included Caere (modern Cerveteri), Tarquinia (modern Tarquinia), Vetulonia, Veii and Volaterra (modern Volterra) - all directly on the coast or near it, as well as Perusia (modern Perugia), Cortona, Volsinii (modern Orvieto) and Arretius (modern Arezzo) in the interior of the country. Other important cities include Vulci, Clusium (modern Chiusi), Falerii, Populonia, Rusella and Fiesole.

ORIGIN, HISTORY AND CULTURE

Origin.

The earliest mention of the Etruscans we find in Homeric hymns (Hymn to Dionysus, 8), which tells of how this god was once captured by the Tyrrhenian pirates. Hesiod in Theogony(1016) mentions "the glory of the crowned Tyrrhenians", and Pindar (1st Pythian ode, 72) speaks of the war cry of the Tyrrhenes. Who were these famous pirates, obviously widely known to the ancient world? Since the time of Herodotus (5th century BC), the problem of their origin has occupied the minds of historians, archaeologists and amateurs. The first theory defending the Lydian, or eastern, origin of the Etruscans goes back to Herodotus (I 94). He writes that during the reign of Atys, a severe famine broke out in Lydia, and half of the population was forced to leave the country in search of food and a new place of residence. They went to Smyrna, built ships there, and passing through many port cities of the Mediterranean, finally settled among the Ombrics in Italy. There the Lydians changed their name, calling themselves Tyrrhenians in honor of their leader Tyrrhenus, the son of the king. The second theory is also rooted in antiquity. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, an Augustan rhetorician, disputes Herodotus, stating ( Roman antiquities, I 30) that the Etruscans were not settlers, but a local and most ancient people, differing from all their neighbors on the Apennine Peninsula both in language and in customs. The third theory, formulated by N. Frere in the 18th century, but still having supporters, defends the northern origin of the Etruscans. According to her, the Etruscans, along with other Italic tribes, entered the territory of Italy through the Alpine passes. Archeological data, apparently, speak in favor of the first version of the origin of the Etruscans. However, Herodotus' account must be approached with caution. Of course, the Lydian alien pirates did not settle the Tyrrhenian coast at once, but rather moved here in several waves. Around the middle of the 8th c. BC. the culture of Villanova (whose bearers had been here earlier) underwent changes under a clear oriental influence. However, the local element was strong enough to have a significant impact on the process of formation of a new people. This allows the messages of Herodotus and Dionysius to be reconciled.

Story.

Appearing in Italy, the aliens occupied the lands north of the Tiber River along the western coast of the peninsula and founded stone-walled settlements, each of which became an independent city-state. There were not so many Etruscans themselves, but superiority in weapons and military organization allowed them to conquer the local population. Leaving piracy behind, they established a lucrative trade with the Phoenicians, Greeks, and Egyptians and were active in the production of ceramics, terracotta, and metalware. Under their management, thanks to the efficient use of labor and the development of drainage systems, agriculture has significantly improved here.

From the beginning of the 7th c. BC. The Etruscans began to expand their political influence in a southerly direction: the Etruscan kings ruled Rome, and their sphere of influence extended to the Greek colonies of Campania. The coordinated actions of the Etruscans and Carthaginians at this time in practice significantly impeded Greek colonization in the western Mediterranean. However, after 500 BC. their influence began to wane; OK. 474 BC the Greeks inflicted a major defeat on them, and a little later they began to feel the pressure of the Gauls on their northern borders. At the very beginning of the 4th c. BC. wars with the Romans and a powerful Gallic invasion of the peninsula forever undermined the power of the Etruscans. Gradually they were absorbed by the growing Roman state and dissolved in it.

Political and public institutions.

The political and religious center of the traditional confederation of twelve Etruscan cities, each of which was ruled by a lucumon (lucumo), was their common sanctuary of Voltumna (Fanum Voltumnae) near modern Bolsena. Apparently, the lukumon of each city was elected by the local aristocracy, but it is not known who held power in the federation.

Royal powers and prerogatives were challenged from time to time by the nobility. For example, by the end of the 6th c. BC. The Etruscan monarchy in Rome was overthrown and replaced by a republic. State structures did not undergo radical changes, except for the fact that the institution of annually elected magistrates was created. Even the title of king (lucumo) was preserved, although it lost its former political content and was inherited by a minor official who performed priestly duties (rex sacrificulus).

The main weakness of the Etruscan alliance was, as in the case of the Greek city-states, the lack of cohesion and the inability to resist with a united front both Roman expansion in the south and Gallic invasion in the north.

During the period of the Etruscan political supremacy in Italy, their aristocracy owned many slaves who were used as servants and in agricultural work. The economic core of the state was the middle class of artisans and merchants. Family ties were strong, and each clan was proud of its traditions and jealously guarded them. The Roman custom, according to which all members of the genus received a common (generic) name, most likely dates back to Etruscan society. Even during the decline of the state, the offspring of Etruscan families were proud of their genealogies. Patron, friend and adviser of Augustus, could boast of descent from the Etruscan kings: his royal ancestors were lukomons of the city of Arretia.

In Etruscan society, women led a completely independent life. Sometimes even the pedigree was conducted along the female line. In contrast to Greek practice, and in keeping with later Roman customs, Etruscan matrons and young girls from the aristocracy were often seen at social gatherings and public spectacles. The emancipated position of Etruscan women gave rise to Greek moralists of subsequent centuries to condemn the mores of the Tyrrhenians.

Religion.

Livy (V 1) describes the Etruscans as "a people more than all others committed to their religious rites"; Arnobius, Christian apologist of the 4th c. AD, stigmatizes Etruria as the "mother of superstitions" ( Against the pagans, VII 26). The fact that the Etruscans were religious and superstitious is confirmed by literary evidence and monuments. The names of numerous gods, demigods, demons and heroes have been preserved, which are basically analogous to Greek and Roman deities. Thus, the Roman triad of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva among the Etruscans corresponded to Tin, Uni and Menrva. Evidence has also been preserved (for example, in the paintings of the tomb of Orko), indicating the nature of ideas about the bliss and horror of the afterlife.

In the so-called. Etruscan teaching(Etruscan discipline), several books compiled in the 2nd c. BC, the content of which we can judge only on the basis of fragmentary indications of later writers, information and instructions were collected regarding Etruscan religious beliefs, customs and rituals. Here were: 1) libri haruspicini, books about predictions; 2) libri fulgurales, books about lightning; 3) libri rituales, books about rituals. Libri haruspicini taught the art of ascertaining the will of the gods by examining the viscera (primarily the liver) of certain animals. A soothsayer who specialized in this type of divination was called a haruspex. Libri fulgurales dealt with the interpretation of lightning, their redemption and propitiation. The clergyman responsible for this procedure was called the fulgurator. The libri rituales discussed the norms of political and social life and the conditions of human existence, including in the afterlife. These books were in charge of a whole hierarchy of experts. Ceremonies and superstitions described in Etruscan teaching, continued to influence Roman society after the turn of our era. The last mention of the use of Etruscan rituals in practice, we meet in 408 AD, when the priests who came to Rome offered to avert the danger from the city from the Goths, led by Alaric.

Economy.

When the Roman consul Scipio Africanus was preparing to invade Africa, i.e. to the campaign that was to end the 2nd Punic War, many Etruscan communities offered their help to him. From the message of Livy (XXVIII 45) we learn that the city of Caere promised to provide grain and other provisions for the troops; Populonia undertook to supply iron, Tarquinia - canvas, Volaterra - details of ship equipment. Arretius promised to provide 3,000 shields, 3,000 helmets and 50,000 javelins, short lances and javelins, as well as axes, shovels, sickles, baskets, and 120,000 measures of wheat. Perusia, Clusius and Ruselli promised grain and timber for ships. If such obligations were taken in 205 BC, when Etruria had already lost its independence, then during the years of Etruscan hegemony in Italy, its agriculture, craft and trade should have truly flourished. In addition to the production of grain, olives, wine and timber, the rural population was engaged in cattle breeding, sheep breeding, hunting and fishing. The Etruscans also made household utensils and personal items. The development of production was facilitated by the abundant supply of iron and copper from the island of Elba. One of the main centers of metallurgy was Populonia. Etruscan products penetrated into Greece and Northern Europe.

ART AND ARCHEOLOGY

Excavation history.

The Etruscans were assimilated by the Romans during the last 3 centuries BC, but because their art was highly valued, Etruscan temples, city walls and tombs survived this period. Traces of the Etruscan civilization were partly buried underground along with Roman ruins and in the Middle Ages basically did not attract attention (however, a certain influence of Etruscan painting is found in Giotto); however, during the Renaissance they were again interested and some of them were excavated. Among those who visited the Etruscan tombs were Michelangelo and Giorgio Vasari. Among the famous statues discovered in the 16th century are the famous Chimera (1553), Minerva from Arezzo (1554), and the so-called. Speaker (Arringatore) - a portrait statue of some official, found near Lake Trasimene in 1566. In the 17th century. the number of excavated objects increased, and in the 18th century. the widespread study of Etruscan antiquities generated great enthusiasm (etruscheria, i.e. "Etruscan mania") among Italian scientists, who believed that Etruscan culture was superior to ancient Greek. In the course of more or less systematic excavations, researchers of the 19th century discovered thousands of the richest Etruscan tombs filled with Etruscan metalwork and Greek vases - in Perugia, Tarquinia, Vulci, Cerveteri (1836, Regolini-Galassi tomb), Veii, Chiusi, Bologna, Vetulonia and many other places. In the 20th century especially significant were the discoveries of temple sculptures at Veii (1916 and 1938) and a rich burial at Comacchio (1922) on the Adriatic coast. Significant progress has been made in the understanding of Etruscan antiquities, especially through the efforts of the Institute of Etruscan and Italian Studies in Florence and its scientific periodical, Etruscan Studies (Studi Etruschi), published since 1927.

Geographical distribution of monuments.

The archaeological map of the monuments left by the Etruscans reflects their history. The oldest settlements, dating from about 700 BC, were found in the coastal zone between Rome and the island of Elba: Veii, Cerveteri, Tarquinia, Vulci, Statonia, Vetulonia and Populonia. From the end of the 7th and throughout the 6th c. BC. Etruscan culture spread to the mainland from Pisa in the north and along the Apennines. In addition to Umbria, the Etruscans included cities that now bear the names of Fiesole, Arezzo, Cortona, Chiusi and Perugia. Their culture penetrated south to the modern cities of Orvieto, Falerii and Rome, and finally beyond Naples and into Campania. Etruscan artifacts have been found at Velletri, Praeneste, Conca, Capua and Pompeii. Bologna, Marzabotto and Spina became the centers of Etruscan colonization of the regions beyond the Apennine mountain range. Later, in 393 BC, the Gauls invaded these lands. Through trade, Etruscan influence spread to other areas of Italy.

With the weakening of the power of the Etruscans under the blows of the Gauls and Romans, the zone of distribution of their material culture was also reduced. However, in some cities of Tuscany, cultural traditions and language survived until the 1st century. BC. In Clusia, art belonging to the Etruscan tradition was produced until about 100 BC; in Volaterra until about 80 BC, and in Perusia until about 40 BC. Some Etruscan inscriptions date from the time after the disappearance of the Etruscan states and possibly date back to the Augustan era.

Tombs.

The oldest traces of the Etruscans can be traced through their burials, often located on separate hills and, for example, in Caer and Tarquinia, which were real cities of the dead. The simplest type of tombs, which spread from about 700 BC, are depressions carved into the rock. For kings and their relatives, such graves, apparently, were made more extensive. Such are the tombs of Bernardini and Barberini in Praeneste (c. 650 BC) with numerous ornaments of gold and silver, bronze tripods and cauldrons, as well as objects of glass and ivory brought from Phoenicia. Starting from the 7th c. BC. characteristic was the method of connecting several chambers to each other so that whole underground dwellings of various sizes were obtained. They had doors, sometimes windows, and often stone benches on which the dead were laid. In some cities (Caere, Tarquinia, Vetulonia, Populonia and Clusius), such tombs were covered with mounds up to 45 m in diameter, erected over natural hills. In other places (for example, in San Giuliano and Norcia), crypts were cut into sheer cliffs, giving them the appearance of houses and temples with flat or sloping roofs.

The architectural form of the tombs built of hewn stone is interesting. For the ruler of the city of Caere, a long corridor was built, above which huge stone blocks formed a false arched vault. The design and construction technique of this tomb resembles the tombs in Ugarit (Syria) belonging to the era of the Cretan-Mycenaean culture, and the so-called. the tomb of Tantalus in Asia Minor. Some Etruscan tombs have a false dome over a rectangular chamber (Pietrera in Vetulonia and Poggio delle Granate in Populonia) or over a circular room (the tomb from Casale Marittimo, reconstructed in the Archaeological Museum of Florence). Both types of tombs date back to the architectural tradition of the 2nd millennium BC. and resemble the tombs of the previous time in Cyprus and Crete.

The so-called "Grotto of Pythagoras" in Cortona, which is actually an Etruscan tomb of the 5th century BC. BC, testifies to the understanding of the laws of interaction of multidirectional forces, which is necessary for the construction of genuine arches and vaults. Such constructions appear in later tombs (3rd-1st centuries BC) - for example, in the so-called. the tomb of the Grand Duke in Chiusi and the tomb of San Manno near Perugia. The territory of the Etruscan cemeteries is crossed by regularly oriented driveways, on which deep ruts left by funeral carts have been preserved. The paintings and reliefs reproduce the public mourning and solemn processions that accompanied the deceased to his eternal abode, where he will be among the furnishings, personal items, bowls and jugs left for him to eat and drink. The platforms erected over the tomb were intended for funeral feasts, including dances and games, and for a kind of gladiator fights, presented in the paintings of the tomb of the Augurs in Tarquinia. It is the contents of the tombs that give us most of the information about the life and art of the Etruscans.

Cities.

The Etruscans can be considered the people who brought urban civilization to central and northern Italy, but little is known about their cities. Intensive human activity in these areas, which lasted for many centuries, destroyed or hid many Etruscan monuments from view. Nevertheless, quite a few mountain towns in Tuscany are still surrounded by Etruscan walls (Orvieto, Cortona, Chiusi, Fiesole, Perugia and probably Cerveteri). In addition, impressive city walls can be seen at Veii, Falerii, Saturnia and Tarquinia, and later city gates dating from the 3rd and 2nd centuries. BC, - in Falerii and Perugia. Aerial photography is increasingly being used to discover Etruscan settlements and burial grounds. In the mid-1990s, systematic excavations began on a number of Etruscan cities, including Cerveteri and Tarquinia, as well as a number of cities in Tuscany.

The Etruscan cities in the mountains do not have a regular layout, as evidenced by the sections of two streets in Vetulonia. The dominant element in the appearance of the city was the temple or temples built on the most elevated places, as in Orvieto and Tarquinia. As a rule, the city had three gates dedicated to the intercessor gods: one - to Tin (Jupiter), the other - to Uni (Juno), and the third - to Menrva (Minerva). Extremely regular building in rectangular quarters was found only in Marzabotto (near modern Bologna), an Etruscan colony on the Reno River. Its streets were paved and water was drained through terracotta pipes.

Dwellings.

In Veii and Vetulonia, simple dwellings such as log cabins with two rooms, as well as houses of an irregular layout with several rooms, were found. The noble Lucumons who ruled the Etruscan cities probably had more extensive urban and suburban residences. They, apparently, are reproduced by stone urns in the form of houses and late Etruscan tombs. The urn, kept in the Museum of Florence, depicts a palace-like two-story stone building with an arched entrance, wide windows on the first floor and galleries on the second floor. The Roman type of house with an atrium probably goes back to the Etruscan prototypes.

Temples.

The Etruscans built their temples of wood and mud brick with terracotta lining. The temple of the simplest type, very similar to the early Greek one, had a square room for a cult statue and a portico supported by two columns. The complex temple described by the Roman architect Vitruvius ( About architecture IV 8, 1), was divided inside into three rooms (celles) for the three main gods - Tin, Uni and Menrva. The portico was the same depth as the interior, and had two rows of columns, four in each row. Since an important role in the religion of the Etruscans was assigned to observations of the sky, temples were erected on high platforms. Temples with three cellae are reminiscent of pre-Greek sanctuaries in Lemnos and Crete. As we now know, large terracotta statues were placed on the ridge of the roof (as, for example, in Veii). In other words, Etruscan temples are a variety of Greek ones. The Etruscans also created a developed road network, bridges, sewers and irrigation canals.

Sculpture.

Early in their history, the Etruscans imported Syrian, Phoenician, and Assyrian ivory and metal products and imitated them in their own production. However, very soon they began to imitate everything Greek. Although their art reflects mainly Greek styles, there is a healthy energy and earthy spirit in it that is not characteristic of the Greek prototype, which is more restrained and intellectual in nature. The best Etruscan sculptures, perhaps, should be considered those made of metal, mainly bronze. Most of these statues were captured by the Romans: according to Pliny the Elder ( Natural history XXXIV 34), in one Volsinii, taken in 256 BC, they got 2000 pieces. Few have survived to our time. Among the most remarkable are the sheet-forged bust of a female from Vulci (c. 600 BC, British Museum), the Monteleone chariot richly decorated with relief mythological scenes (c. 540 BC, Metropolitan Museum of Art); Chimera from Arezzo (c. 500 BC, Archaeological Museum in Florence); a statue of a boy from the same time (in Copenhagen); god of war (c. 450 BC, in Kansas City); a statue of a warrior from Tudera (c. 350 BC, now in the Vatican); the expressive head of a priest (c. 180 BC, British Museum); head of a boy (c. 280 BC, Archaeological Museum in Florence). Symbol of Rome, famous Capitoline she-wolf(dated approximately after 500 BC, now in the Palazzo dei Conservatori in Rome), already known in the Middle Ages, probably also made by the Etruscans.

A remarkable achievement of world art was the terracotta statues and reliefs of the Etruscans. The best of them are the statues of the archaic era found near the temple of Apollo in Veii, among which there are images of gods and goddesses watching the struggle of Apollo and Hercules because of a dead doe (c. 500 BC). A relief depiction of a lively battle (probably from a pediment) was discovered in 1957-1958 in Pirgi, the port of Cerveteri. In style, it echoes the Greek compositions of the Early Classical era (480-470 BC). A magnificent team of winged horses was found near the temple of the 4th century. BC. in Tarquinia. Interesting from a historical point of view are the live scenes from the pediments of the temple in Civita Alba, where the plundering of Delphi by the Gauls is depicted.

Stone Etruscan sculpture reveals more local originality than metal. The first attempts to create stone sculptures are the pillar-shaped figures of men and women from the tomb of Pietrera in Vetulonia. They imitate the Greek statues of the middle of the 7th century. BC. The archaic tombs at Vulci and Chiusi are decorated with the figure of a centaur and various stone busts. Images of battles, festivities, games, funerals and scenes of women's life were found on tombstones of the 6th century. BC. from Chiusi and Fiesole. There are also scenes from Greek mythology, such as relief images on stone slabs set above the entrance to the tombs in Tarquinia. From the 4th century BC sarcophagi and urns with ashes were usually decorated with reliefs on the themes of Greek legends and scenes of the afterlife. On the covers of many of them there are figures of reclining men and women, whose faces are especially expressive.

Painting.

Etruscan painting is especially valuable, since it makes it possible to judge Greek paintings and frescoes that have not come down to us. With the exception of a few fragments of the picturesque decoration of the temples (Cerveteri and Falerii), Etruscan frescoes have survived only in the tombs - in Cerveteri, Veii, Orvieto and Tarquinia. In the oldest (c. 600 BC) tomb of Lions in Cerveteri there is an image of a deity between two lions; in the tomb of Campana at Veii, the deceased is represented as riding out to hunt. From the middle of the 6th c. BC. scenes of dances, libations, as well as athletic and gladiatorial competitions (Tarquinia) predominate, although there are also images of hunting and fishing (the tomb of Hunting and fishing in Tarquinia). The best monuments of Etruscan painting are the dance scenes from the tomb of Francesca Giustiniani and the tomb of Triclinius. The drawing here is very confident, the color scheme is not rich (yellow, red, brown, green and blue colors) and discreet, but harmonious. The frescoes of these two tombs imitate the work of Greek masters of the 5th century. BC. Among the few painted tombs of the late period, the large tomb of François at Vulci (4th century BC) is rightfully distinguished. One of the scenes discovered here - the attack of the Roman Gnaeus Tarquinius on the Etruscan Caelius Vibennu, who is helped by his brother Elius and another Etruscan Mastarna - is probably an Etruscan interpretation of a Roman legend on the same topic; other scenes are taken from Homer. The Etruscan afterlife, with an admixture of individual Greek elements, is represented in the tomb of Orc, the tomb of Typhon and the tomb of the Cardinal in Tarquinia, where various frightening demons (Haru, Tukhulka) are depicted. These Etruscan demons were apparently known to the Roman poet Virgil.

Ceramics.

Etruscan pottery is technologically good, but mostly imitative. Black vases of the bucchero type more or less successfully imitate bronze vessels (7th-5th centuries BC); they are often decorated with figures in relief, usually reproducing Greek designs. The evolution of painted pottery, with some delay in time, follows the development of Greek vases. The most peculiar vases depict objects of non-Greek origin, such as ships of the Tyrrhenian pirates or following the manner of folk art. In other words, the value of Etruscan ceramics lies in the fact that through it we trace the growth of Greek influence, especially in the field of mythology. The Etruscans themselves preferred Greek vases, which have been found by the thousands in Etruscan tombs (about 80% of the Greek vases known today come from Etruria and southern Italy. Thus, the François vase (in the Archaeological Museum of Florence), a magnificent creation of the master of the Attic black-figure style Clytius (first half of 6 century BC), was found in an Etruscan tomb near Chiusi.

Metalworking.

According to Greek authors, Etruscan bronze items were highly valued in Greece. Probably of Etruscan origin is an ancient bowl with human faces discovered in the necropolis of Athens, approximately dated to the beginning of the 7th century BC. BC. Part of an Etruscan tripod found on the Acropolis of Athens. At the end of the 7th, in the 6th and 5th centuries. BC. a large number of Etruscan cauldrons, buckets and jugs for wine were exported to Central Europe, some of them even reached Scandinavia. Bronze Etruscan figurine found in England.

In Tuscany, reliable, large and very spectacular coasters, tripods, cauldrons, lamps and even thrones were made of bronze. These items also formed part of the furnishings of the tombs, and many were decorated with relief or three-dimensional images of people and animals. Bronze chariots with scenes of heroic battles or figures of legendary heroes were also made here. The engraved design was widely used to decorate bronze toilet boxes and bronze mirrors, many of which were made in the Latin city of Praeneste. Both scenes from Greek myths and major and minor Etruscan gods were used as motifs. The most famous of the engraved vessels is the Ficoroni cyst in Rome's Villa Giulia Museum, which depicts the exploits of the Argonauts.

Jewelry.

The Etruscans also excelled in jewelry. A remarkable set of bracelets, plates, necklaces and brooches adorned a woman buried in the tomb of Regolini-Galassi in Caere: apparently, she was literally covered with gold. The granulation technique, when figures of gods and animals were depicted with tiny balls of gold soldered onto a hot surface, was nowhere used as skillfully as when decorating the bows of some Etruscan brooches. Later, the Etruscans made earrings of various shapes with amazing ingenuity and care.

Coins.

The Etruscans mastered the minting of coins in the 5th century. BC. Gold, silver and bronze were used for this. The coins, decorated according to Greek patterns, depicted seahorses, gorgons, wheels, vases, double axes and profiles of various patron gods of cities. They also made inscriptions with the names of Etruscan cities: Veltzna (Wolsinia), Vetluna (Vetulonia), Hamars (Chiusi), Pupluna (Populonia). The last Etruscan coins were minted in the 2nd century BC. BC.

contribution of archeology.

Archaeological discoveries made in Etruria since the middle of the 16th century. to the present day, recreated a vivid picture of the Etruscan civilization. This picture was greatly enriched by the use of such new methods as photographing tombs that have not yet been excavated (a method invented by C. Lerici) using a special periscope. Archaeological finds reflect not only the power and wealth of the early Etruscans based on piracy and barter, but also their gradual decline, due, according to ancient authors, to the relaxing influence of luxury. These finds illustrate the Etruscan warfare, their beliefs, entertainment and, to a lesser extent, their labor activity. Vases, reliefs, sculpture, paintings, and small-form works of art show a surprisingly complete assimilation of Greek customs and beliefs, as well as striking evidence of the influence of the pre-Greek era.

Archeology has also confirmed the literary tradition that spoke of Etruscan influence on Rome. The terracotta decoration of the early Roman temples is in the Etruscan style; many vases and bronze objects from the early Republican period of Roman history are made by the Etruscans or in their manner. The double ax as a symbol of power, according to the Romans, was of Etruscan origin; double axes are also represented in Etruscan funerary sculpture - for example, on the stele of Aulus Veluscus, located in Florence. Moreover, such double hatchets were placed in the tombs of the leaders, as was the case in Populonia. At least until the 4th c. BC. the material culture of Rome was entirely dependent on the culture of the Etruscans.

ETRUSIAN CIVILIZATION
The Etruscans are considered the creators of the first developed civilization on the Apennine Peninsula, whose achievements, long before the Roman Republic, include large cities with remarkable architecture, fine metalwork, ceramics, painting and sculpture, an extensive drainage and irrigation system, an alphabet, and later coinage. Perhaps the Etruscans were aliens from across the sea; their first settlements in Italy were flourishing communities located in the central part of its western coast, in an area called Etruria (approximately the territory of modern Tuscany and Lazio). The ancient Greeks knew the Etruscans under the name of the Tyrrhenians (or Tyrsenes), and the part of the Mediterranean Sea between the Apennine Peninsula and the islands of Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica was called (and is called now) the Tyrrhenian Sea, since Etruscan sailors dominated here for several centuries. The Romans called the Etruscans Tusks (hence the modern Tuscany) or Etruscans, while the Etruscans themselves called themselves Rasna or Rasenna. In the era of their highest power, ca. 7th-5th centuries BC, the Etruscans extended their influence to a significant part of the Apennine Peninsula, up to the foothills of the Alps in the north and the environs of Naples in the south. Rome also submitted to them. Everywhere their dominance brought with it material prosperity, large-scale engineering projects, and achievements in the field of architecture. According to tradition, there was a confederation of twelve main city-states in Etruria, united in a religious and political union. These almost certainly included Caere (modern Cerveteri), Tarquinia (modern Tarquinia), Vetulonia, Veii and Volaterra (modern Volterra) - all directly on the coast or near it, as well as Perusia (modern Perugia), Cortona, Volsinii (modern Orvieto) and Arretius (modern Arezzo) in the interior of the country. Other important cities include Vulci, Clusium (modern Chiusi), Falerii, Populonia, Rusella and Fiesole.
ORIGIN, HISTORY AND CULTURE
Origin. The earliest mention of the Etruscans we find in the Homeric hymns (Hymn to Dionysus, 8), which tells how this god was once captured by Tyrrhenian pirates. Hesiod in Theogony (1016) mentions "the glory of the crowned Tyrrhenians", and Pindar (1st Pythian ode, 72) speaks of the war cry of the Tyrrhenians. Who were these famous pirates, obviously widely known to the ancient world? Since the time of Herodotus (5th century BC), the problem of their origin has occupied the minds of historians, archaeologists and amateurs. The first theory defending the Lydian, or eastern, origin of the Etruscans goes back to Herodotus (I 94). He writes that during the reign of Atys, a severe famine broke out in Lydia, and half of the population was forced to leave the country in search of food and a new place of residence. They went to Smyrna, built ships there, and passing through many port cities of the Mediterranean, finally settled among the Ombrics in Italy. There the Lydians changed their name, calling themselves Tyrrhenians in honor of their leader Tyrrhenus, the son of the king. The second theory is also rooted in antiquity. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, a rhetorician of the Augustan era, disputes Herodotus, arguing (Roman Antiquities, I 30) that the Etruscans were not immigrants, but a local and most ancient people, different from all their neighbors on the Apennine Peninsula both in language and in customs. The third theory, formulated by N. Frere in the 18th century, but still having supporters, defends the northern origin of the Etruscans. According to her, the Etruscans, along with other Italic tribes, entered the territory of Italy through the Alpine passes. Archeological data, apparently, speak in favor of the first version of the origin of the Etruscans. However, Herodotus' account must be approached with caution. Of course, the Lydian alien pirates did not settle the Tyrrhenian coast at once, but rather moved here in several waves. Around the middle of the 8th c. BC. the culture of Villanova (whose bearers had been here earlier) underwent changes under a clear oriental influence. However, the local element was strong enough to have a significant impact on the process of formation of a new people. This allows the messages of Herodotus and Dionysius to be reconciled.
Story. Appearing in Italy, the aliens occupied the lands north of the Tiber River along the western coast of the peninsula and founded stone-walled settlements, each of which became an independent city-state. There were not so many Etruscans themselves, but superiority in weapons and military organization allowed them to conquer the local population. Leaving piracy behind, they established a lucrative trade with the Phoenicians, Greeks, and Egyptians and were active in the production of ceramics, terracotta, and metalware. Under their management, thanks to the efficient use of labor and the development of drainage systems, agriculture has significantly improved here. From the beginning of the 7th c. BC. The Etruscans began to expand their political influence in a southerly direction: the Etruscan kings ruled Rome, and their sphere of influence extended to the Greek colonies of Campania. The coordinated actions of the Etruscans and Carthaginians at this time in practice significantly impeded Greek colonization in the western Mediterranean. However, after 500 BC. their influence began to wane; OK. 474 BC the Greeks inflicted a major defeat on them, and a little later they began to feel the pressure of the Gauls on their northern borders. At the very beginning of the 4th c. BC. wars with the Romans and a powerful Gallic invasion of the peninsula forever undermined the power of the Etruscans. Gradually they were absorbed by the growing Roman state and dissolved in it.
Political and public institutions. The political and religious center of the traditional confederation of twelve Etruscan cities, each of which was ruled by a lucumon (lucumo), was their common sanctuary of Voltumna (Fanum Voltumnae) near modern Bolsena. Apparently, the lukumon of each city was elected by the local aristocracy, but it is not known who held power in the federation. Royal powers and prerogatives were challenged from time to time by the nobility. For example, by the end of the 6th c. BC. The Etruscan monarchy in Rome was overthrown and replaced by a republic. State structures did not undergo radical changes, except for the fact that the institution of annually elected magistrates was created. Even the title of king (lucumo) was preserved, although it lost its former political content and was inherited by a minor official who performed priestly duties (rex sacrificulus). The main weakness of the Etruscan alliance was, as in the case of the Greek city-states, the lack of cohesion and the inability to resist with a united front both Roman expansion in the south and Gallic invasion in the north. During the period of the Etruscan political supremacy in Italy, their aristocracy owned many slaves who were used as servants and in agricultural work. The economic core of the state was the middle class of artisans and merchants. Family ties were strong, and each clan was proud of its traditions and jealously guarded them. The Roman custom, according to which all members of the genus received a common (generic) name, most likely dates back to Etruscan society. Even during the decline of the state, the offspring of Etruscan families were proud of their genealogies. The philanthropist, friend and adviser of Augustus, could boast of descent from the Etruscan kings: his royal ancestors were lukomons of the city of Arretia. In Etruscan society, women led a completely independent life. Sometimes even the pedigree was conducted along the female line. In contrast to Greek practice, and in keeping with later Roman customs, Etruscan matrons and young girls from the aristocracy were often seen at social gatherings and public spectacles. The emancipated position of Etruscan women gave rise to Greek moralists of subsequent centuries to condemn the mores of the Tyrrhenians.
Religion. Livy (V 1) describes the Etruscans as "a people most devoted to their religious rites"; Arnobius, Christian apologist of the 4th c. AD, stigmatizes Etruria as "the mother of superstitions" (Against the Gentiles, VII 26). The fact that the Etruscans were religious and superstitious is confirmed by literary evidence and monuments. The names of numerous gods, demigods, demons and heroes have been preserved, which are basically analogous to Greek and Roman deities. Thus, the Roman triad of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva among the Etruscans corresponded to Tin, Uni and Menrva. Evidence has also been preserved (for example, in the paintings of the tomb of Orko), indicating the nature of ideas about the bliss and horror of the afterlife. In the so-called. Etruscan doctrine (Etrusca disciplina), several books compiled in the 2nd century. BC, the content of which we can judge only on the basis of fragmentary indications of later writers, information and instructions were collected regarding Etruscan religious beliefs, customs and rituals. Here were: 1) libri haruspicini, books about predictions; 2) libri fulgurales, books about lightning; 3) libri rituales, books about rituals. Libri haruspicini taught the art of ascertaining the will of the gods by examining the viscera (primarily the liver) of certain animals. A soothsayer who specialized in this type of divination was called a haruspex. Libri fulgurales dealt with the interpretation of lightning, their redemption and propitiation. The clergyman responsible for this procedure was called the fulgurator. The libri rituales discussed the norms of political and social life and the conditions of human existence, including in the afterlife. These books were in charge of a whole hierarchy of experts. The ceremonies and superstitions described in the Etruscan teaching continued to influence Roman society after the turn of our era. The last mention of the use of Etruscan rituals in practice, we meet in 408 AD, when the priests who came to Rome offered to avert the danger from the city from the Goths, led by Alaric.
Economy. When the Roman consul Scipio Africanus was preparing to invade Africa, i.e. to the campaign that was to end the 2nd Punic War, many Etruscan communities offered their help to him. From the message of Livy (XXVIII 45) we learn that the city of Caere promised to provide grain and other provisions for the troops; Populonia undertook to supply iron, Tarquinia - canvas, Volaterra - details of ship equipment. Arretius promised to provide 3,000 shields, 3,000 helmets and 50,000 javelins, short lances and javelins, as well as axes, shovels, sickles, baskets, and 120,000 measures of wheat. Perusia, Clusius and Ruselli promised grain and timber for ships. If such obligations were taken in 205 BC, when Etruria had already lost its independence, then during the years of Etruscan hegemony in Italy, its agriculture, craft and trade should have truly flourished. In addition to the production of grain, olives, wine and timber, the rural population was engaged in cattle breeding, sheep breeding, hunting and fishing. The Etruscans also made household utensils and personal items. The development of production was facilitated by the abundant supply of iron and copper from the island of Elba. One of the main centers of metallurgy was Populonia. Etruscan products penetrated into Greece and Northern Europe.
ART AND ARCHEOLOGY
Excavation history. The Etruscans were assimilated by the Romans during the last 3 centuries BC, but because their art was highly valued, Etruscan temples, city walls and tombs survived this period. Traces of the Etruscan civilization were partially buried underground along with Roman ruins and in the Middle Ages basically did not attract attention (however, a certain influence of Etruscan painting is found in Giotto); however, during the Renaissance they were again interested and some of them were excavated. Among those who visited the Etruscan tombs were Michelangelo and Giorgio Vasari. Among the famous statues discovered in the 16th century are the famous Chimera (1553), Minerva from Arezzo (1554), and the so-called. Speaker (Arringatore) - a portrait statue of some official, found near Lake Trasimene in 1566. In the 17th century. the number of excavated objects increased, and in the 18th century. a wide study of Etruscan antiquities gave rise to great enthusiasm (etruscheria, i.e. "Etruscan mania") among Italian scientists, who believed that Etruscan culture was superior to ancient Greek. In the course of more or less systematic excavations, researchers of the 19th century discovered thousands of the richest Etruscan tombs filled with Etruscan metalwork and Greek vases - in Perugia, Tarquinia, Vulci, Cerveteri (1836, Regolini-Galassi tomb), Veii, Chiusi, Bologna, Vetulonia and many other places. In the 20th century especially significant were the discoveries of temple sculptures at Veii (1916 and 1938) and a rich burial at Comacchio (1922) on the Adriatic coast. Significant progress has been made in the understanding of Etruscan antiquities, especially through the efforts of the Institute of Etruscan and Italian Studies in Florence and its scientific periodical "Etruscan Studies" ("Studi Etruschi"), published since 1927.
Geographical distribution of monuments. The archaeological map of the monuments left by the Etruscans reflects their history. The oldest settlements, dating from about 700 BC, were found in the coastal zone between Rome and the island of Elba: Veii, Cerveteri, Tarquinia, Vulci, Statonia, Vetulonia and Populonia. From the end of the 7th and throughout the 6th c. BC. Etruscan culture spread to the mainland from Pisa to
north and along the Apennines. In addition to Umbria, the Etruscans included cities that now bear the names of Fiesole, Arezzo, Cortona, Chiusi and Perugia. Their culture penetrated south to the modern cities of Orvieto, Falerii and Rome, and finally beyond Naples and into Campania. Etruscan artifacts have been found at Velletri, Praeneste, Conca, Capua and Pompeii. Bologna, Marzabotto and Spina became the centers of Etruscan colonization of the regions beyond the Apennine mountain range. Later, in 393 BC, the Gauls invaded these lands. Through trade, Etruscan influence spread to other areas of Italy. With the weakening of the power of the Etruscans under the blows of the Gauls and Romans, the zone of distribution of their material culture was also reduced. However, in some cities of Tuscany, cultural traditions and language survived until the 1st century. BC. In Clusia, art belonging to the Etruscan tradition was produced until about 100 BC; in Volaterra until about 80 BC, and in Perusia until about 40 BC. Some Etruscan inscriptions date from the time after the disappearance of the Etruscan states and possibly date back to the Augustan era.
Tombs. The oldest traces of the Etruscans can be traced through their burials, often located on separate hills and, for example, in Caer and Tarquinia, which were real cities of the dead. The simplest type of tombs, which spread from about 700 BC, are depressions carved into the rock. For kings and their relatives, such graves, apparently, were made more extensive. Such are the tombs of Bernardini and Barberini in Praeneste (c. 650 BC) with numerous ornaments of gold and silver, bronze tripods and cauldrons, as well as objects of glass and ivory brought from Phoenicia. Starting from the 7th c. BC. characteristic was the method of connecting several chambers to each other so that whole underground dwellings of various sizes were obtained. They had doors, sometimes windows, and often stone benches on which the dead were laid. In some cities (Caere, Tarquinia, Vetulonia, Populonia and Clusius), such tombs were covered with mounds up to 45 m in diameter, erected over natural hills. In other places (for example, in San Giuliano and Norcia), crypts were cut into sheer cliffs, giving them the appearance of houses and temples with flat or sloping roofs.

The architectural form of the tombs built of hewn stone is interesting. For the ruler of the city of Caere, a long corridor was built, above which huge stone blocks formed a false arched vault. The design and construction technique of this tomb resembles the tombs in Ugarit (Syria) belonging to the era of the Cretan-Mycenaean culture, and the so-called. the tomb of Tantalus in Asia Minor. Some Etruscan tombs have a false dome over a rectangular chamber (Pietrera in Vetulonia and Poggio delle Granate in Populonia) or over a circular room (the tomb from Casale Marittimo, reconstructed in the Archaeological Museum of Florence). Both types of tombs date back to the architectural tradition of the 2nd millennium BC. and resemble the tombs of the previous time in Cyprus and Crete. The so-called "Grotto of Pythagoras" in Cortona, which is in fact an Etruscan tomb of the 5th century BC. BC, testifies to the understanding of the laws of interaction of multidirectional forces, which is necessary for the construction of genuine arches and vaults. Such structures appear in later tombs (3-1 centuries BC) - for example, in the so-called. the tomb of the Grand Duke in Chiusi and the tomb of San Manno near Perugia. The territory of the Etruscan cemeteries is crossed by regularly oriented driveways, on which deep ruts left by funeral carts have been preserved. The paintings and reliefs reproduce the public mourning and solemn processions that accompanied the deceased to his eternal abode, where he will be among the furnishings, personal items, bowls and jugs left for him to eat and drink. The platforms erected over the tomb were intended for funeral feasts, including dances and games, and for a kind of gladiator fights, presented in the paintings of the tomb of the Augurs in Tarquinia. It is the contents of the tombs that give us most of the information about the life and art of the Etruscans.

Cities. The Etruscans can be considered the people who brought urban civilization to central and northern Italy, but little is known about their cities. Intensive human activity in these areas, which lasted for many centuries, destroyed or hid many Etruscan monuments from view. Nevertheless, quite a few mountain towns in Tuscany are still surrounded by Etruscan walls (Orvieto, Cortona, Chiusi, Fiesole, Perugia and probably Cerveteri). In addition, impressive city walls can be seen at Veii, Falerii, Saturnia and Tarquinia, and later city gates dating from the 3rd and 2nd centuries. BC, - in Falerii and Perugia. Aerial photography is increasingly being used to discover Etruscan settlements and burial grounds. In the mid-1990s, systematic excavations began on a number of Etruscan cities, including Cerveteri and Tarquinia, as well as a number of cities in Tuscany. The Etruscan cities in the mountains do not have a regular layout, as evidenced by the sections of two streets in Vetulonia. The dominant element in the appearance of the city was the temple or temples built on the most elevated places, as in Orvieto and Tarquinia. As a rule, the city had three gates dedicated to the intercessor gods: one - to Tin (Jupiter), the other - to Uni (Juno), and the third - to Menrva (Minerva). Extremely regular building in rectangular quarters was found only in Marzabotto (near modern Bologna), an Etruscan colony on the Reno River. Its streets were paved and water was drained through terracotta pipes.
Dwellings. In Veii and Vetulonia, simple dwellings such as log cabins with two rooms, as well as houses of an irregular layout with several rooms, were found. The noble Lucumons who ruled the Etruscan cities probably had more extensive urban and suburban residences. They, apparently, are reproduced by stone urns in the form of houses and late Etruscan tombs. The urn, kept in the Museum of Florence, depicts a palace-like two-story stone building with an arched entrance, wide windows on the first floor and galleries on the second floor. The Roman type of house with an atrium probably goes back to the Etruscan prototypes.
Temples. The Etruscans built their temples of wood and mud brick with terracotta lining. The temple of the simplest type, very similar to the early Greek one, had a square room for a cult statue and a portico supported by two columns. The complex temple, described by the Roman architect Vitruvius (On Architecture IV 8, 1), was divided inside into three rooms (celles) for the three main gods - Tin, Uni and Menrva. The portico was the same depth as the interior, and had two rows of columns - four in each row. Since an important role in the religion of the Etruscans was assigned to observations of the sky, temples were erected on high platforms. Temples with three cellae are reminiscent of pre-Greek sanctuaries in Lemnos and Crete. As we now know, large terracotta statues were placed on the ridge of the roof (as, for example, in Veii). In other words, Etruscan temples are a variety of Greek ones. The Etruscans also created a developed road network, bridges, sewers and irrigation canals.
Sculpture. Early in their history, the Etruscans imported Syrian, Phoenician, and Assyrian ivory and metal products and imitated them in their own production. However, very soon they began to imitate everything Greek. Although their art reflects mainly Greek styles, there is a healthy energy and earthy spirit in it that is not characteristic of the Greek prototype, which is more restrained and intellectual in nature. The best Etruscan sculptures, perhaps, should be considered those made of metal, mainly bronze. Most of these statues were captured by the Romans: according to Pliny the Elder (Natural History XXXIV 34), in Volsinia alone, taken in 256 BC, they got 2000 pieces. Few have survived to our time. Among the most remarkable are the sheet-forged bust of a female from Vulci (c. 600 BC, British Museum), the Monteleone chariot richly decorated with relief mythological scenes (c. 540 BC, Metropolitan Museum of Art); Chimera from Arezzo (c. 500 BC, Archaeological Museum in Florence); a statue of a boy from the same time (in Copenhagen); god of war (c. 450 BC, in Kansas City); a statue of a warrior from Tudera (c. 350 BC, now in the Vatican); the expressive head of a priest (c. 180 BC, British Museum); head of a boy (c. 280 BC, Archaeological Museum in Florence). The symbol of Rome, the famous Capitoline she-wolf (dated approximately after 500 BC, now in the Palazzo dei Conservatori in Rome), already known in the Middle Ages, probably also made by the Etruscans.

A remarkable achievement of world art was the terracotta statues and reliefs of the Etruscans. The best of them are the statues of the archaic era found near the temple of Apollo in Veii, among which there are images of gods and goddesses watching the struggle of Apollo and Hercules over a dead doe (c. 500 BC). A relief image of a lively battle (probably from a pediment) was discovered in 1957-1958 in Pirgi, the port of Cerveteri. In style, it echoes the Greek compositions of the early classic era (480-470 BC). A magnificent team of winged horses was found near the temple of the 4th century. BC. in Tarquinia. Interesting from a historical point of view are the live scenes from the pediments of the temple in Civita Alba, where the plundering of Delphi by the Gauls is depicted.

Stone Etruscan sculpture reveals more local originality than metal. The first attempts to create stone sculptures are the pillar-shaped figures of men and women from the tomb of Pietrera in Vetulonia. They imitate the Greek statues of the middle of the 7th century. BC. The archaic tombs at Vulci and Chiusi are decorated with the figure of a centaur and various stone busts. Images of battles, festivities, games, funerals and scenes of women's life were found on tombstones of the 6th century. BC. from Chiusi and Fiesole. There are also scenes from Greek mythology, such as relief images on stone slabs set above the entrance to the tombs in Tarquinia. From the 4th century BC sarcophagi and urns with ashes were usually decorated with reliefs on the themes of Greek legends and scenes of the afterlife. On the covers of many of them there are figures of reclining men and women, whose faces are especially expressive.
Painting. Etruscan painting is especially valuable, since it makes it possible to judge Greek paintings and frescoes that have not come down to us. With the exception of a few fragments of the picturesque decoration of the temples (Cerveteri and Falerii), Etruscan frescoes have survived only in the tombs - in Cerveteri, Veii, Orvieto and Tarquinii. In the oldest (c. 600 BC) tomb of Lions in Cerveteri there is an image of a deity between two lions; in the tomb of Campana at Veii, the deceased is represented as riding out to hunt. From the middle of the 6th c. BC. scenes of dances, libations, as well as athletic and gladiatorial competitions (Tarquinia) predominate, although there are also images of hunting and fishing (the tomb of Hunting and fishing in Tarquinia). The best monuments of Etruscan painting are the dance scenes from the tomb of Francesca Giustiniani and the tomb of Triclinius. The drawing here is very confident, the color scheme is not rich (yellow, red, brown, green and blue colors) and discreet, but harmonious. The frescoes of these two tombs imitate the work of Greek masters of the 5th century. BC. Among the few painted tombs of the late period, the large tomb of François at Vulci (4th century BC) is rightfully distinguished. One of the scenes discovered here - the attack of the Roman Gnaeus Tarquinius on the Etruscan Caelius Vibennu, who is helped by his brother Elius and another Etruscan Mastarna - is probably an Etruscan interpretation of a Roman legend on the same topic; other scenes are taken from Homer. The Etruscan afterlife, with an admixture of individual Greek elements, is represented in the tomb of Orc, the tomb of Typhon and the tomb of the Cardinal in Tarquinia, where various frightening demons (Haru, Tukhulka) are depicted. These Etruscan demons were apparently known to the Roman poet Virgil.

Ceramics. Etruscan pottery is technologically good, but mostly imitative. Black vases of the bucchero type more or less successfully imitate bronze vessels (7th-5th centuries BC); they are often decorated with figures in relief, usually reproducing Greek designs. The evolution of painted pottery, with some delay in time, follows the development of Greek vases. The most peculiar vases depict objects of non-Greek origin, such as ships of the Tyrrhenian pirates or following the manner of folk art. In other words, the value of Etruscan ceramics lies in the fact that through it we trace the growth of Greek influence, especially in the field of mythology. The Etruscans themselves preferred Greek vases, which have been found by the thousands in Etruscan tombs (about 80% of the Greek vases known today come from Etruria and southern Italy. Thus, the François vase (in the Archaeological Museum of Florence), a magnificent creation of the master of the Attic black-figure style Clytius (first half of 6 century BC), was found in an Etruscan tomb near Chiusi.
Metalworking. According to Greek authors, Etruscan bronze items were highly valued in Greece. Probably of Etruscan origin is an ancient bowl with human faces discovered in the necropolis of Athens, approximately dated to the beginning of the 7th century BC. BC. Part of an Etruscan tripod found on the Acropolis of Athens. At the end of the 7th, in the 6th and 5th centuries. BC. a large number of Etruscan cauldrons, buckets and jugs for wine were exported to Central Europe, some of them even reached Scandinavia. Bronze Etruscan figurine found in England. In Tuscany, reliable, large and very spectacular coasters, tripods, cauldrons, lamps and even thrones were made of bronze. These items also formed part of the furnishings of the tombs, and many were decorated with relief or three-dimensional images of people and animals. Bronze chariots with scenes of heroic battles or figures of legendary heroes were also made here. The engraved design was widely used to decorate bronze toilet boxes and bronze mirrors, many of which were made in the Latin city of Praeneste. Both scenes from Greek myths and major and minor Etruscan gods were used as motifs. The most famous of the engraved vessels is the Ficoroni cyst in Rome's Villa Giulia Museum, which depicts the exploits of the Argonauts.
Jewelry. The Etruscans also excelled in jewelry. A remarkable set of bracelets, plates, necklaces and brooches adorned a woman buried in the tomb of Regolini-Galassi in Caere: apparently, she was literally covered with gold. The granulation technique, when figures of gods and animals were depicted with tiny balls of gold soldered onto a hot surface, was nowhere used as skillfully as when decorating the bows of some Etruscan brooches. Later, the Etruscans made earrings of various shapes with amazing ingenuity and care.

Coins. The Etruscans mastered the minting of coins in the 5th century. BC. Gold, silver and bronze were used for this. The coins, decorated according to Greek patterns, depicted seahorses, gorgons, wheels, vases, double axes and profiles of various patron gods of cities. They also made inscriptions with the names of Etruscan cities: Veltzna (Wolsinia), Vetluna (Vetulonia), Hamars (Chiusi), Pupluna (Populonia). The last Etruscan coins were minted in the 2nd century BC. BC.
contribution of archeology. Archaeological discoveries made in Etruria since the middle of the 16th century. to the present day, recreated a vivid picture of the Etruscan civilization. This picture was greatly enriched by the use of such new methods as photographing tombs that have not yet been excavated (a method invented by C. Lerici) using a special periscope. Archaeological finds reflect not only the power and wealth of the early Etruscans based on piracy and barter, but also their gradual decline, due, according to ancient authors, to the relaxing influence of luxury. These finds illustrate the Etruscan warfare, their beliefs, entertainment and, to a lesser extent, their labor activity. Vases, reliefs, sculpture, paintings, and small-form works of art show a surprisingly complete assimilation of Greek customs and beliefs, as well as striking evidence of the influence of the pre-Greek era. Archeology has also confirmed the literary tradition that spoke of Etruscan influence on Rome. The terracotta decoration of the early Roman temples is in the Etruscan style; many vases and bronze objects from the early Republican period of Roman history are made by the Etruscans or in their manner. The double ax as a symbol of power, according to the Romans, was of Etruscan origin; double axes are also represented in Etruscan funerary sculpture - for example, on the stele of Aulus Veluscus, located in Florence. Moreover, such double hatchets were placed in the tombs of the leaders, as was the case in Populonia. At least until the 4th c. BC. the material culture of Rome was entirely dependent on the culture of the Etruscans.
LITERATURE
Nemirovsky A.I., Kharsekin A.I. Etruscans. Introduction to Etruscology. Voronezh, 1969 Chubova A.P. Etruscan art. M., 1972 The Art of the Etruscans and Ancient Rome. M., 1982

Collier Encyclopedia. - Open Society. 2000 .

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Introduction

Civilization (from the Latin language - state, civil) is a special socio-cultural community of people with its inherent economic, political and cultural specifics.

The Etruscan civilization is the predecessor of the Ancient Roman civilization, it is the first period in the development of the artistic culture of Ancient Rome. The Etruscan civilization arose in 7-4 centuries BC. The Etruscans appeared in the northwest of the Apennine Peninsula at the turn of 2 - 1 millennium BC. The territory occupied by them became known as Etruria (modern Tuscany). In ancient times, the Etruscans were called « sea ​​peoples » because they inspired fear and awe in the Mediterranean merchants and sailors. Disputes about the origin of the Etruscans are still ongoing. Perhaps they came from Asia Minor, perhaps from Lydia, but this is only an assumption. What race the Etruscans belong to is also not known. The past of this people is shrouded in mystery, because scientists still do not fully understand their writing, and the Romans, having freed themselves from the power of the Etruscans in 4 in. BC, wiped out their cities.

Many Etruscan monuments are known, but the content of the myths that are embodied in them is unknown. There are many Etruscan inscriptions, but they are very difficult to read, although the Etruscans used the Greek alphabet. They wrote from right to left and without spacing between words. The Etruscan gods are very similar to the Greek ones, and the names of the gods, in all likelihood, are also used by the Romans over time to call their own, for example: Uni - Juno, Menrva - Minerva, Tini - Jupiter. Numerous images of Etruscan gods are found on mirrors, coins, ceramic vases (the functions of these gods are special and not fully understood). The servants of the gods were numerous laz demons. The universe was presented to the Etruscans in the form of three steps - heaven, earth and the underworld, interconnected by passages and faults in the earth's crust, along which the souls of the dead descended to Hades. The similarity of faults were pits for sacrifices to underground gods and souls of ancestors that existed in every city. It is also known for sure that the Romans borrowed from the Etruscans gladiatorial fights and baiting of animals, stage games and sacrificial rites, divination and belief in evil and good spirits. The Etruscans, like the Egyptians, believed in life after death, so the main monuments that have survived after the Etruscans are associated with burial.

1. Architecture

The Etruscans left behind whole " cities of the dead » - cemeteries, which sometimes exceeded the size of the city of the living. It seemed that life took place here, maybe another, otherworldly, but life. The Etruscans had a cult of the dead: they believed in the afterlife and wanted to make her whenever possible pleasing to the dead. Therefore, their art, which served death, was full of life and bright joy. The cult of ancestors and the veneration of the dead contributed to the development of a special type of tombs among the Etruscans, which were more like dwellings with richly furnished chambers. The only thing that reminded of the purpose of these structures was the burial urns in them in the form of a human figure, in the form of a house, and so on, or monumental sarcophagi with sculptural images of the dead on the lids. Sculptural images of married couples (in all likelihood, having similarities with the dead) are reclining on them at a friendly conversation or at a meal. Embracing each other, they gesticulate cheerfully, discuss something vigorously, forgetting that their bed is the bed of death and they will never get up from it. BUT they do not believe in death, but are only waiting for the transition to the other world no less joyful than the earthly one.

Etruscan tombs were great removed, decorated colorful frescoes with images of scenes of death, travel in the afterlife, judgments on the souls of the dead. The paintings on the walls of the tombs depicted the best aspects of life - festivities with music and dancing, sports, hunting scenes or a pleasant stay in the family circle. The tombs were filled with furniture and rich utensils, they had many luxurious funeral gifts, even wagons, and the dead were showered with gold jewelry. Etruscan tombs were diverse in form - chambered with a bulk mound (mounds - tumuluses), rocky, mine. The tombs of the Etruscans had geometric shapes, and this is no coincidence. In ancient times, the shape of objects carried a deep meaning, for example: a square was a symbol of the earth, and a circle was a symbol of the sky. If the deceased was buried in a round tomb, it means that in the eyes of the living he was already an inhabitant of heaven, that is, a god. Therefore, the history of Etruscan art begins and ends with tombs.

It is known for sure that the Etruscans were the first to use a regular layout in the construction of the city, but from the Greeks they adopted planning of city blocks in a checkerboard pattern, where an acropolis was erected at the highest point of the city, with temples and altars.

Their cities (Tarquinia etc. ) were surrounded by powerful walls of huge stone blocks. It was from them that the Romans learned to build bridges and arches, to pave roads and drain the marshes.

On the basis of Greek images, the Etruscans created a type of temple that stood on the podium ( those. high pedestal), with a canopy in front of the entrance to the building or a gallery of arches. Etruscan temples were built of wood and brick. The Etruscan temple was square in plan, decorated with columns on three sides (wooden floor beams made it possible to place columns at a considerable distance from each other), the roof had a strong slope, the role of the frieze was performed by rows of painted clay slabs. The temple stood on a high foundation (stone foundation) and had a deep portico, which opened into the depths of the temple with three rooms at once. This was due to the fact that the Etruscans revered the gods in triads - triplets.

The main triad was Tinia, Menrva, Uni. If we draw an analogy with the Greeks and Romans, we get the following - Zeus, Hera, Athena and Jupiter, Juno, Minerva. The Etruscan temple concealed everything secret within itself, and it was not accessible and not visible. The walls of the temples were decorated with terracotta reliefs on subjects borrowed from Greek mythology or associated with sacrifices and bloody fights. The will of the gods could be interpreted and communicated to people only by priests and soothsayers who mastered the art of divination by the flight of birds, by lightning, by the entrails of animals. Givings say that the main shrine of the Romans - their first temple of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva on the Capitol (one of the 7 hills on which Rome was built) - was created by the Etruscans. It probably differed little from the Etruscan buildings both in architecture and in the chosen material for the buildings. Also, the Etruscans left the legacy of the Romans - the technique of removing vaults. Thus, the Romans reached unprecedented heights in the construction of vaulted ceilings.

2. Painting

The Etruscans were not only skilled sculptors, their tombs are full of bright colors of fresco painting. The walls of Etruscan tombs were decorated with frescoes. The plots often represented the feasts of the Etruscans after solemn funerals of noble people. There are also scenes of equestrian competitions, fist fights, fencing games, hunting and fishing. There are even images of the bliss of souls in the realm of the dead. And if it were not for the figures of mourners or priests, reminiscent of the funerary significance of the paintings, this could simply be forgotten, since human the figures on the frescoes are full of seething energy and joy of life. Feasting people enjoying the holiday; fishing; hunting; involved in sports, - live and rejoice in the other world. Among them there are frescoes and the god Fufluns - the Etruscan Dionysus, who is endowed with a special power to grant immortality. It is interesting that, for example, in the tomb « leopards » (about 520 BC) in Tarquinia, the god Fufluns is depicted not in human form, but as a huge crater in the center of one of the wall frescoes. Elsewhere in the same tomb, Fufluns is represented as a pillar worshiped by leopards, - hence the name of the tomb. All this suggests that the painting of Etruscan tombs cannot be perceived only as « life pictures » . They contain, strictly built complex religious and mythological system, which is still largely unclear. The murals of the Etruscan tombs are close in their technique to the Greek, of the archaic period. The same outline of lines, performed in different colors. The contour of the Etruscan drawing is not as elegant and thin as that of the Greeks, but still quite expressive. But the rest of the Etruscans are much inferior to the Greeks. Their painting is devoid of that sense of proportion, which was famous for the art of Greece. The fresco figures of the Etruscan tombs are either visible on the light colors of the wall plaster, or suddenly someone's attire « jumps out » a bright spot from the whole composition. With Etruscan artists, images of human figures do not come to life. For the Etruscans, this task proved insoluble. Their figures either freeze in eternal rest, or tense up in an imaginary action.

3. Pottery

The Etruscans decorated their ceramics with plastic and molding. The Etruscans decorated the burial vessels intended for the ashes of the deceased, the so-called canopy, with lids in the form of human faces, in all likelihood, not devoid of portrait features - “ facial » urns. The Etruscan canopy is a complex combination of a vessel and a human figure. The master of the canopy sought to humanize the vessel, that is, to turn it into a monument to a dead person, hence such a strange mixture of forms. Etruscan ceramics were also special. Vessels of a very complex shape with stucco handles, stucco or engraved decor and a surface that gives the impression that we have a vessel made of metal have survived to our time. In fact, the Etruscans owned a special technique for making ceramic vessels, they turned out to be black with a matte surface, this style was called bucchero. Even more ancient was way, when the ceramics had a dark red color with the same matte sheen. This technique was called impasto.

4. Sculpture

The Etruscan temple had sculptural decorations. The pediments of the temple were filled with figures of deities, but they were made not in stone, but in clay (terracotta). The edges of the roof were decorated with terracotta masks: Medusa Gargona; Satyrs, Selenes and Maenads, constant companions of the god Fufluns. They were brightly colored and intended in order to protect the interior of the temple from the invasion of evil gods and demons.

Etruscan sculptors loved to work in bronze and clay. Their work often had a functional, that is, practical value. They decorated mirrors, high curly lamps - candelabra, tripod-vessels, stands for anything with a base in the form of three legs. It is known that in the art of the Etruscans the technique of bronze casting reached a high level of perfection. The best monument of Etruscan sculpture - " Capitol she-wolf » , which has become a symbol « eternal city » - Ancient Rome. The legend of the she-wolf who nursed the twins Remus and Romulus, the founders of the city of Rome, served as a theme for the sculptural group. The Etruscan master managed to embody in this image both a formidable animal and a merciful mother who nursed a person. The she-wolf has retracted sides and ribs protruding through the skin, an expressive muzzle with a bared mouth and alert ears, the front paws are elastically tense. An ornamental pattern of a mane is applied with fine chasing, conveying curls of wool. But the main thing is that the master was able to show the spiritual power of the wild.

Etruscan sculptors sought not only to convey the structural features of the human body, but to emotionally influence the viewer, which was facilitated by the bright contrasting coloring of the statues. Terracotta figures - a warrior, Apollo from Vey, the torso of Hercules, a sculptural image of a married couple on the lid of the sarcophagus - amaze with their vitality and inner dynamism. Apparently, the characteristic smile on the faces of Etruscan statues was borrowed from the Greeks - it strongly resembles " archaic » smile of early Greek statues. And yet, these painted terracottas retained the facial features inherent in Etruscan sculptors - a large nose, slightly slanting almond-shaped eyes under heavy eyelids, full lips. A joyful look, smiles on faces, liveliness of the whole figure - these are the features that distinguish the work of Etruscan sculptors during the heyday of the art of Etruria. Life was full of joy and confidence in the future happy existence, and this was reflected in the works of Etruscan masters, even decorating the tombs.

Sculpture was widespread, performing the function architectural decor. An example is the terracotta statue of the god Apollo, which adorned the upper corner of the roof of the temple in Veii, which, presumably, was made by the master Vulka in 520 - 5 00 gg . BC. This is the only name of a famous Etruscan sculptor that has come down to us. The statue of Apollo shows a man with an athletic build, which can be seen through thin clothes. The master managed to convey the rapid movement. The figure of Apollo is full of strength, energy and youth, his facial expression is filled with bright joy, a smile froze on his lips.

An unknown master made of limestone in the middle of the 5th century. BC, a work called « Master Matuta » . It is an age-old theme - mother and child, the brightest and most penetrating theme of the world. However, this image is fanned by deep melancholy. The Etruscan mother has no more vitality and no interest in life, she has a dead child in her arms. « Master Matuta » not just a group, it served as an urn for the ashes. The thought of the afterlife among the Etruscans turned from joyful to sad.

3 c. BC - the time of an unprecedented flowering of the portrait art of the Etruscans. The attention of the sculptors focused on the man himself and his character, mood, uniqueness of facial features. The plastic works that adorn the Etruscan tombs of the outgoing era amaze with their ugly faces and weak-willed poses, swollen bodies. But the art of portraiture has risen to such a high level that in these works, repulsive by their external forms, there were unique and highly artistic faces, in each of which a unique spiritual world was conveyed, in the views one felt not only personal the doom of a particular person, but also the doom of the existence of the

Etruria.

The last centuries were coming not only of the ancient world - the predictions of the Etruscan soothsayers about the decline of the Etruscans were visibly confirmed. But Roman veterans thrived on their lands, peoples mixed, the Etruscans became Latinized and forgot their language. Over time, the Etruscans resigned themselves to their fate, ceased to perceive the Romans as conquerors, and became for each other simply fellow citizens of one country. An example of this is the portrait of the orator Aulus Metellus, which was made in bronze by an unknown master after 89 BC. Avl Metellus crosses the border of epochs and peoples. He testifies that now there are no vanquished and winners, from now on the Apennines are inhabited by a single Roman people.

Conclusion

The culture of the Etruscan people, one of the most mysterious peoples of the world, became the basis for the development of a new nation - the Romans. Etruscans died, they disappeared among the aliens, but taught the Romans how to build and defend, forge weapons and build aqueducts (a multi-tier or single-tier bridge with a tray or pipeline through which water is transmitted through ravines, gorges, roads, river valleys).

The fine art of the Etruscans revealed to us the rich soul of this amazing people, who were attentive to reality, strove for its accurate, concrete transfer. Therefore, the famous portrait art of the Romans has roots of Etruscan origin, it originates from the small heads of funerary canopies and plastic portraits, lids of sarcophagi.

The customs, rituals and beliefs of the Etruscans were also adopted by the Romans and later reworked, according to the new time and new conditions of existence. Therefore, it cannot be said that the Etruscans disappeared from the face of the earth, they live in geographical names, and in the monuments left behind, and in the history of the Great Roman Empire.

Literature

etruscan art painting statuary

1. Srabova O.Yu. "World Art. Ancient world". St. Petersburg "Teacher and student", 200 7

2. Guzik M.A. "Educational Guide to World Artistic Culture". Moscow "Enlightenment", 200 8

3. Danilova G.I. "World Art". Moscow Interbook, 200 7

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Introduction

This work is dedicated to one of the most mysterious civilizations of ancient Europe - the Etruscans. The uniqueness of this people attracts many scientists and history buffs. I am one of those fans.

Object of study Etruscan civilization

Subject of research Etruscan culture

The purpose of the work is to study the influence of ancient Greek culture on the development of the Etruscan culture.

Work tasks

1. Give a general description of the Etruscan civilization.

2. Describe the achievements of ancient Greek culture.

3. Identify areas of Etruscan culture that were most influenced by ancient Greek culture.

Hypothesis: the ancient Greeks during the Great Colonization influenced the Etruscan culture.

The relevance of the work

To date, there are quite a few works that are dedicated to the Etruscans, for example, the work of Nemirovsky A.I. “Etruscans. From myth to history ”But the theme of the influence of ancient Greek culture on the culture of the Etruscans is mainly described only indirectly. So far, there is no separate work on this topic. So my work has some potential. It will be quite informative for those who are just beginning to be interested in the history and culture of this people.

General characteristics of the Etruscan civilization

This people went down in history under different names. The Greeks called them tyrsenes or tyrrhens, and the Romans - Tusks or Etruscans. As you already understood, the Etruscans are quite mysterious peoples. Their main mystery lies in their origin. The written monuments of the Etruscans themselves cannot help us in unraveling this mystery, since their language is practically not deciphered. Therefore, scientists have to build various hypotheses, which are based on some archaeological finds, as well as on the evidence of the Greeks and Romans. All theories about the origin of the Etruscans (except the most implausible) can be reduced to four hypotheses.

1) The Eastern hypothesis is the oldest of all hypotheses. It is based on the works of Herodotus and some other ancient authors. In their opinion, the Etruscans are from Asia Minor. The reasons why they had to leave their original homeland are called the Trojan War and the campaigns of the “peoples of the sea”. This theory is also supported by some features of the political structure (“federation” of 12 cities, division into 3 or 30 tribes) and other features that make the Etruscans related to the peoples of the Hitto-Luvian group. Opponents of this theory doubt that a whole nation could have migrated from Asia Minor to Italy precisely during the period of the Trojan War and the campaigns of the “peoples of the sea”. In addition, the Etruscan language is not similar to the Hittite or other related languages.

2) "Theory of Formation" According to this theory, the Etruscans as an ethnic group formed in Italy (or before direct migration to it) from representatives of several different peoples. Nowadays, it is the most common. It is followed, in particular, by A.I. Nemirovsky, A.I. Kharchenko and other Russian scientists.

3) Northern hypothesis According to it, the Etruscans came to Italy because of the Alps. Based on the message of Titus Livy about the similarity of the language of the Etruscans and the Retes (the people who lived between the Alps and the Danube), as well as the similarity of the Germanic runes with the letters of the Etruscan alphabet. Today it has no adherents, since it has been established that both the Germanic runes and the Ret language come from Etruria, and not vice versa.

4) Autochthonous hypothesis: the Etruscans are the indigenous (pre-Indo-European) inhabitants of Italy. This theory is most popular among Italian scientists.

One way or another, the Etruscans became one of the peoples of Italy. The first archaeological sites associated with the Etruscans (dated to the end of the 8th century BC) appeared in one region of Italy, which was called Etruria (by the way, the modern name of this region is Tuscany, which comes from one of the names of the Etruscans - Tusci)

Etruria is a swampy plain, which simply becomes unsuitable for agriculture without land reclamation, and a coast with shallow harbors that are easily covered with sand without proper care. So, in order to make these lands habitable, the Etruscans had to make great efforts. And they put them on. Even at the dawn of their history, the Etruscans, with the help of the labor of the conquered peoples, were able to carry out huge drainage work. And Etruria became an extremely fertile region.

In agriculture, the Etruscans were dominated by agriculture: the cultivation of cereals and flax. An important source of the country's wealth was the extraction of metals - copper and iron. On it, the Etruscans made a huge fortune, since metals were needed by everyone. The Etruscans also achieved quite a lot of success in pottery. In the VIII-VII centuries BC, Etruscan craftsmen produced very original "buccero" ceramics, which were in great demand throughout Middle-earth.

The trade relations of the Etruscans were very great. They traded with almost all of Europe. Items of Etruscan origin are found not only in Italy, but also in Spain, France, Greece, Turkey and on the coast of North Africa. In the countries of Middle-earth (especially in Greece), the Etruscans exported metals in ingots, metal products (metal mirrors with carved patterns on the back were especially in demand), ceramics, and they imported mainly luxury items - elegant Greek ceramics, glass from Egypt, purple fabric from Phenicia. The peoples that lived beyond the Alps, the Etruscans sold wine, weapons and household utensils, acquiring furs and slaves in return.

The main force in Etruscan society was the nobility. All power in the Etruscan cities was concentrated in her hands, and most of the lands also belonged to them. Only representatives of the nobility could bear a surname. No less powerful priests. They were the main custodians of knowledge. She also turned to them when it was necessary to conduct fortune-telling (as a rule, they were guessing on the insides of animals). Priests were also involved in the interpretation of the results of fortune-telling. And taking into account the fact that the Etruscans were very superstitious people and the results of divination were very important for them, the priests could easily interpret the results of divination as it was beneficial for them. So the priests, to some extent, had even more power than the nobility.

We know almost nothing about the "middle class" of Etruscan society. What was its composition, and whether the representatives of this class owned the land, we also do not know.

Dependent people in Etruscan society were divided into 3 categories: lautni and etera and slaves. The attitude towards slaves in Etruscan society practically did not differ from how slaves were treated in Greece and in the East. They were the property of their master, and not infrequently they were perceived not as people, but as cattle. However, unlike the Greeks, the Etruscans did not limit the ability of a slave to redeem himself from his master. The lautni category, in its position, was a bit like the Spartan helots. They were connected with their patron by patriarchal ancestral ties, since they were part of their patron's family. Basically, this category was completed from freedmen and those free people who fell into debt bondage. The position of the Lautni was hereditary: their children and grandchildren remained in this estate. Etera, in contrast to the Lautni, were associated with the patrons not by patriarchal ancestral ties, but by a voluntary oath of allegiance. They received from their patron a small plot of land (part of the crop from which went to the patron) or acted as artisans, doing for their patron what he needed.

The main political unit of the Etruscans was the city-state. Each such city, as a rule, had several cities under its control, which enjoyed a certain autonomy. At the head of the city-state, either the king (lukumon) or the magistrates, who were selected from the nobility, fled.

It is still unknown whether the lukumon had real power or whether it was limited by the council of elders. It is known that lukumon led troops during wars and that he was the high priest in his city. His personality was considered sacred, he was seen as the embodiment of the patron god of the city. Perhaps the position of the king was selective (although it is not known whether they were elected for life or for a certain period).

Starting from the 6th century BC, in many Etruscan cities, the power of the lucumons was eliminated, and they were replaced by selective magistrates. More often than others, zilk, or zilat, is mentioned. It is known that this position could be held by young people under the age of 25, so the powers of this magistrate were not great. The names of some other magistrates are known (marnux, purth), but nothing is known about their functions.

The city-states of the Etruscans united in unions - twelve cities (the number 12 was sacred). There were 3 such unions in total - in Etruria itself (it was the main union) in the Pad (Po) river valley in northern Italy and in Campania in southern Italy. In the event of the departure of one of the members of the union, another city-state was immediately chosen to take its place (as a rule, it was chosen from those cities that were subordinate to the city that left the union). Every spring, the heads of all the cities of the union gathered in the religious capital of Etruria - Volsinia, where they chose the head of the union. The chosen head of the union did not seem to have any real power. In general, the Etruscan twelve-city was only a religious union. Members of the union achieved unity in their actions extremely rarely. Basically, they fought, reconciled and concluded their agreements independently of each other.

This killed the Etruscans. Their cities could not give a unified rebuff to the enemies. And a sad fate awaited them. In the 4th century BC, the union of Etruscan cities in the Pad valley was destroyed by the Celts, and the union of cities in Campania submitted to the Greeks. The Etruscan civilization was finally destroyed by the Romans around the middle of the 3rd century BC.