Sacrifice of Isaac Brunelleschi. School Encyclopedia

The first historiographer of the Renaissance, Giorgio
Vasari writes that Brunelleschi was
to people who "possess the spirit,
filled with such majesty, and with a heart
filled with such boundless daring,
that they never found in life
peace of mind until they take up those
things difficult and almost impossible and not
bring them to the end to the marvel of those who
contemplates..."

The era of the Early Renaissance, otherwise Quattrocento, amazes with its rebellious progressiveness and incredible beauty. This direction covered the art of several Mediterranean countries, but was most clearly expressed in, where the chronological framework of the Quattrocento includes the period from 1420 to 1500. Italy, which was part of the Holy Roman Empire, finally gathered strength for a full-scale revival of culture after the tragic fall of Rome at the hands of the barbarians in 476. The main features of this period are numerous innovations in art, which radically changed the previous Romanesque, Gothic and Byzantine tastes and led to a powerful rise in art of all kinds: painting, architecture, sculpture. The main feature was the masters' appeal to the ancient classics, its processing in line with new ideas, the rejection of the old principles and the return to the order system of Greco-Roman architecture, the introduction of rules of direct perspective and proportions that correlated with the real size of a person. Such a transition in art from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance took place very quickly, in one generation. This was facilitated by the help of patrons, among whom were the popes and representatives of various aristocratic and merchant families, such as the Medici. They literally competed with each other for the right to invite this or that master to create a masterpiece in their city.

Filippo Brunelleschi was a complex man
character. With his sharp tongue he acquired
both friends and enemies. It is known that when
he saw the wooden "Crucifixion" by Donatello,
threw out a short phrase that became an aphorism:
"Peasant on the Cross"

The flourishing of the arts was prepared by the humanism that was gaining strength in Europe, which revealed the previously unprecedented creative and scientific possibilities of man. Art has finally ceased to be anonymous and put forward the names of geniuses and titans into the arena of history. The discoveries in all spheres of human activity, made at that time, without any exaggeration, continue to have a huge impact on world culture, nourishing it.

Filippo Brunelleschi (Italian: Filippo Brunelleschi (Brunellesco), 1377-1446) is the greatest architect of the Early Renaissance, a genius of his time and his native city of Florence. The Florentine Republic, thanks to him and some other masters, took a prominent place among the regions and cities of Italy competing with each other and led new movements in art in its central part, while the north of the country remained very conservative. The appeal to the ancient heritage in the artistic environment of Florence coincided in time with the humanists' passion for Roman architecture. This is proved by the numerous writings of Colucci Salutati, the author of treatises, where the program of the Renaissance culture was consistently revealed. He believed that true knowledge is not provided by medieval scholasticism, but by ancient wisdom. In one of his creations, he praises Florence for its antiquity (the city was founded in Roman times), and also for the fact that she had her own Capitol, Forum and Temple of Mars. For the latter, the Florentine baptistery was taken, which was allegedly rebuilt by Christians into a church. Salutati also mentions that until the first third of the 14th century, an equestrian statue of Mars stood on the Ponte Vecchio and that the remains of an aqueduct, round towers and fortifications have been preserved in the city. Brunelleschi could not have been unaware of these ancient monuments of his native city, and they undoubtedly inspired him, shaped the architect's creative repertoire of techniques and motives.

The name "Florence" comes from the Latin
"Florentia", which means "blooming". Founders
wished prosperity to their city, that
and came true in the Renaissance. Since
Dante's time, Florence was the undisputed
center of Italian cultural life. Big
the city is famous for its picturesque
works by Giotto

The main work of Brunelleschi, which has become a symbol of the entire era, is the grandiose dome of the church of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence, which is still the dominant of the city. But along with him, the master erected several more important city buildings, both church and secular. The range of his activities and interests was not limited to architecture. Being truly a man of the Renaissance, he showed his abilities in a wide variety of fields: as a sculptor, as a scientist, as an engineer, as a screenwriter, and even as a writer of short verses. The Grasso Novella by Antonio Manetti has survived, where Brunelleschi acts as one of the main characters. This is an unusually lively story of street scenes taking place against the backdrop of the baptistery and the main cathedral of Florence, giving a vivid picture of Filippo's character, inventive and playful. Surprisingly, the master turned directly to architecture quite late: at the age of about 40 years. But it must be remembered that at that time the profession usually passed “by inheritance” from father to son, from the age of 12-13 the boys were attached to workshops, and their field of activity was determined in advance and until the end of days. In addition, there is a possibility that he was engaged in architecture before, just outside of Florence or even Italy (although there is no evidence for this).

Several biographical sketches have been preserved about Filippo Brunelleschi. One of them belongs to Antonio di Tuccio Manetti, who met the architect during his lifetime. There was a huge age difference between them, and if the meeting really happened, then Brunelleschi was already a deep old man, and Manetti was a 20-year-old young man who began his career in art. Antonio's literary work was written after the death of the architect (released in 1462), which makes researchers doubt the authenticity of all the events described in it. The second source is included in the well-known series of "Biographies" by Giorgio Vasari and largely repeats Manetti's essay, including his various inaccuracies and errors, which are verified by modern researchers from archival documents. But compared with earlier anonymous eras, such literary sources, describing the lives of prominent people of the era in detail, are a huge success. The difficulty of restoring Brunelleschi's creative path lies in the fact that neither graphic documents, nor drawings, nor architectural models (except for one) that the master could use when working have been preserved. Although, according to researchers, he always pre-designed buildings, following the well-established principles of the architects of his time (Filarete, Bernardo Rossellino, Leon Alberti). His creative method was that the diameter of the column was used as a module, the plan was built on the basis of a square. The height of the columns and pilasters depended on the diameter of the trunk, the height of the arch depended on the width of the intercolumns, etc. With this approach, the parts of each building became proportionate and subordinate, which gave the buildings artistic integrity and monumentality. But unlike our time, the era of Brunelleschi did not yet know plans and drawings with the exact designation of dimensions (this appeared after 1470). Therefore, the work still remained largely intuitive, man-made, requiring the active participation of the architect himself in the construction process, his considerable engineering abilities and sometimes the knowledge and skills of a bricklayer. The erection of the building was a living and organic process. A good master continuously monitored the construction, directed the work of the masons "verbally", showing them the drawings necessary for this or that stage. Perhaps this is one of the secrets of Brunelleschi's work and explains the highest quality of all his buildings. None of his followers, who tried to erect buildings according to the drawings of the master, reached such a level. The recognizable features of Brunelleschi's style are the repeated use of capelled Corinthian pilasters, arched lintels with clear divisions of forms, and the frequent use of medallions with images. In its buildings, there are no intense light contrasts and strict, cold verticals, so characteristic of Gothic cathedrals. Brunelleschi's style gravitates toward soft, calm and even lines, a balanced ratio of horizontal and vertical rhythms. It is distinguished by an incredibly refined and refined Roman taste in details and proportions.

Churches of Santa Felice

From the history of Filippo's life we ​​know that he was born into a wealthy family of the notary Brunelleschi di Lippo Lappi in 1377. His mother, Giuliana Spini, was of noble birth and was associated with the noble Italian Aldobrandini family. The family lived all their lives in the Spini family estate on the corner of Piazza degli Agli, later the house passed to Filippo. Unlike other Florentine artists, most often coming from a less wealthy environment of artisans (Donatello, Bruni, Ghiberti), Brunelleschi was financially independent, since notaries at that time were an influential force that determined many political processes in the city. His father held a prominent position and, as a trustee of the "Council of Ten" (extraordinary commission), made diplomatic trips to neighboring states. One episode from the youthful period of Filippo's life is worth mentioning: in October 1367, his father participated in a commission to discuss the next project for the dome of an unfinished Florentine cathedral, for which the wealthiest citizens of the city were invited. This probably left an imprint in the memory of Brunelleschi, who has since known about the existence of a problem that was in the center of attention of the city public.

In youth, carried away by every kind
Brunelleschi made inventions
clocks and alarm clocks
making money on travel. One day
he struck the Florentines with the hardest
the construction of the sky for the mystery in
Churches of Santa Felice

Filippo had the opportunity to receive the best humanistic upbringing and education for those times, and the most brilliant prospects opened up for him. As a child, he studied Latin and ancient authors, which was the basis for the development of his future interests and tastes: gravitation towards the Roman past as a “golden age” and rejection of “barbarian” art, which during the Renaissance meant everything medieval. An excellent knowledge of Dante's creations helped Brunelleschi to understand the spirit of his native Florence, to comprehend it not just at the level of a connoisseur. In addition, he was interested in mathematics, studied military and industrial machines. With his abilities in geometry, he surprised even Paolo Toscanelli, a friend of the Brunelleschi family and a famous scientist who influenced such famous figures of the era as Nicholas of Cusa, Regiomontan and Leon Alberti.

Contrary to the expectations of the family, Filippo did not follow in his father's footsteps and abandoned the lucrative career of a notary. In 1392, that is, at the age of 15, he insisted that he be apprenticed to the goldsmith Benincas Lotti in Pistoia. In 1398, he was accepted into the silk spinning workshop, which included jewelers, but only in 1404 Brunelleschi received the title of master and the first order for the manufacture of a silver crucifix for the altar of the Church of St. James in Pistoia, which he did well. Also by the time of his work as a goldsmith belong two half-figures of the prophets (in quadrifolia) and two figures of the church fathers (Ambrose and Augustine). It is no coincidence that the master initially turned to sculptural art: it was in this type of art that new trends appeared earlier than in others. In his first works, the Gothic influence is still felt, but at the same time, the brokenness and dryness of the forms are already being overcome and their fine finish is revealed, the attraction to simple and monumental forms, to expressive gestures.

Filippo mastered several types of art: drawing, modeling, engraving, sculpture and painting. Feeling confident in his abilities, he decides to take part in the work of a rather serious level. He becomes one of the contenders for decorating the second doors of the Giovanni Baptistery in Florence (the first ones were already decorated by Andrea Pisano). The competition was organized in 1401. The city commune carefully prepared for this event. The commission, after a rigorous selection, singled out seven masters: Piero Lamberti, a follower of Niccolodi's gothic direction, the famous Sienese Jacopo della Quercia, his fellow countryman and student Francesco Valdambrino, Niccolò da Luca Spinelli from Aretina, the little-known Simone da Colledi Val d'Elsa, Lorenzo Ghiberti and Filippo Brunelleschi. It is noteworthy that most of the masters, except for the last two, gravitated towards the Gothic style. Among the members, Brunelleschi was the youngest artist along with Lorenzo Ghiberti. The other five have already won fame and honor, especially Jacopo della Quercia. The Guild of Merchants allocated funds for which the craftsmen were kept for a year and a half while they worked on their reliefs. The theme was given to all one: "The Sacrifice of Abraham." It was stipulated that the composition must necessarily be framed in a quadrifolia, that is, in the same form as on the already existing bronze doors of the baptistery. In the end, it was Brunelleschi and Ghiberti who fought for first place, and Filippo lost in this competition. There is an opinion that Ghiberti's victory was the result of intrigues in the commission. One legend tells that both masters were asked to share the work equally. But Brunelleschi refused and handed over the entire order to Ghiberti. It must be admitted that Brunelleschi's bronze relief was indeed less perfect in terms of composition and expressiveness. He was heavier than Ghiberti, 7 kilograms. Fortunately, it has been preserved as historical evidence of the competition (National Museum, Florence). But, despite the fact that Brunelleschi hardly accepted the defeat, and the complex, competitive relationship with Ghiberti remained for many decades, this failure became, one might say, the lucky star of the master. It was after her that he went to Rome with his friend Donatello, where for many years they explored ancient monuments, including the famous Pantheon and its dome, which became the basis for Filippo's main work. Brunelleschi is interested in architecture, and Donatello is in sculpture. The first trip was followed by others. It is known that Brunelleschi paid for the excavations himself, earning money by jewelry craft. For several years, Brunelleschi studied the archeology of Rome in detail and scrupulously, becoming the author of one of the first works on Roman architecture, which was supplied with his own reconstructions. According to Manetti, Filippo studied "the ways of excellent proportions and how, with ease and low cost, they could do everything without flaw." It was this experience of living work with ancient monuments and, perhaps, the study of the proto-Renaissance buildings of Tuscany that crystallized the creative personality and style of Brunelleschi. In his subsequent works, fluency in the technique and techniques of Roman architecture, knowledge of its order system and proportional system will always be felt. And a similar method of studying the legacy of the once fallen Roman Empire and recreating new works of art on its basis will form the basis of the entire Renaissance.

The story told by Vasari is widely known: Brunelleschi, having heard about the ancient sarcophagus in the city of Cortona, “just what he was wearing, in a raincoat, hood and wooden shoes, without saying where he was going ... went on foot to Cortona, drawn by desire and love, which he nurtured art."

Recently, researchers have doubted that Brunelleschi was in Rome at the beginning of the 15th century, suggesting that the trip was made later, in the 30s, when work was already underway on the dome of the church of Santa Maria del Fiore. Exactly the same doubts are expressed about the new discovery of the laws of linear perspective, which is attributed to Filippo. According to Manetti, in 1425 Brunelleschi painted two veduta using this method and using a special device like a camera obscura: one depicted the Baptistery of San Giovanni, the other a view of Piazza della Signoria. We can only judge the existence of these landscapes from documents. Therefore, many consider Masaccio's works for the church of Santa Maria Novella in Florence, also made according to the rules of direct perspective, to be the first works of this kind. However, the persistent attribution to Brunelleschi of the discovery of the laws of linear perspective is hardly groundless, as pointed out by the historian Averlino Filarete in an architectural treatise of 1461. It is even possible that the architectural motif in the form of a coffered vault in Masaccio's painting belongs to Brunelleschi's brush.

According to the narrators, the maestro was not distinguished by a complaisant character. He was small in stature and plain in appearance, but at the same time he was integral both as an artist and as a person, and he was a solid bunch of energy, with great willpower, thanks to which he worked very fruitfully. After himself, he left a solid inheritance to his adopted son Andrea Cavalcanti, but with all his wealth, Brunelleschi led a life of non-possessor and willingly helped friends at their first request.

Many note that, despite all of the above, his reputation in the early 1410s in Florence was still rather strange and controversial. On the one hand, he was already known as a scientist, skilled in various mechanical effects, and on the other hand, as a dreamer who did not confirm his skills with real creations, at least in his hometown. Gherardo Guardi called him a talented amateur, wasting his skills on "diabolical optical illusions." This opinion of him sheds light on the difficult situation in the competition for the construction of the dome of Santa Maria del Fiore in 1418. There is a legend that the rulers of the city decided to build a dome over the cathedral and arranged a competition of architects, where everyone presented their project. The most beautiful and majestic was Brunelleschi's dome. But everyone began to express doubts about the possibility of its construction - it was so huge. Brunelleschi was required to reveal his secrets. He replied: "Let the one who manages to put an egg upright on a marble board, and builds a dome." Many tried and, of course, nothing came of them. Then Brunelleschi hit the egg on a marble board and made him stand. Everyone made a noise, but Filippo answered with a laugh that he would be able to build a dome and there were already drawings for this. So he received an order for the construction.

Filippo worked on all his main works almost simultaneously, completing them in a short time. In the years 1419-1420, he begins the construction of the Orphanage and the dome of Santa Maria del Fiore. Around 1420, that is, when there were especially heated debates about how to erect the dome of the Florentine cathedral, Brunelleschi built two chapels - in Sant Jacopo Soprarno (not preserved) and in Santa Felicita (heavily rebuilt in later times). According to Manetti and Vasari, in these chapels Filippo tried to show in practice his capabilities in the construction of domes of large volume and without the use of bulky scaffolding. The master also designs the Barbadori Chapel at this time and begins its construction, but it was not completed due to the bankruptcy of the customer. Subsequently, the chapel was greatly changed in relation to the original plan.

Soon his work begins on the sacristy of the temple of San Lorenzo, and then the restructuring of the entire church. In 1424, Brunelleschi reconstructed the city walls, and in 1427-1430 built the Pazzi Chapel.

The customer of this small family chapel, which was supposed to simultaneously serve as a capitular hall, was a wealthy merchant from an old aristocratic family, Andrea Pazzi. Then, with small annual intervals, several more not so large-scale projects are carried out.

Manetti also reports that Brunelleschi rebuilt the house for his relative Apollonio Lapi, which became "expedient, comfortable and pleasant." Brunelleschi's participation in secular buildings is rarely documented, although it is clear that he was active. The only undoubted work of Filippo in the field of civil engineering remains the Palazzo of the Guelph Party, the project of which was completed around 1420. The customer was the Guelph Party, once a powerful political organization, but by the time of Brunelleschi had already lost most of its influence. The intrigue was that the Guelphs decided to build a palazzo that would demonstrate the power that the party no longer possessed. As a result, the palace was erected, but the construction and decoration were delayed until 1452 due to the complete lack of assistance from the authorities.

Referring to Vasari, Brunelleschi is also credited with the authorship of the Florentine Pitti Palace, and in addition, the buildings of the abbey in Fiesole (a suburb of Florence). Probably, the Pitti Palace was completed or even built by his student Luca Francelli. In 1446, the last year in the life of the master, the church of Santo Spirito was built according to his project (only a heavily altered atrium has survived).

In addition, for many years there was a parallel work of a purely engineering nature: fortifications were built in Pisa and Lucca, cargo ships were built. Brunelleschi created a special ship with a lifting device for transporting marble, which became the prototype of the modern crane. This invention was the first to receive a patent, issued to a master in Florence in 1421. In addition, Brunelleschi was loaded with administrative duties and participated in various city commissions and councils in Florence and beyond, went to consultations in Ferrara, Mantua and Rimini. For some time he occupied one of the highest republican elective positions - the post of prior.

In 1429, Brunelleschi personally took part in the general oath of allegiance to the republic, pledging to “eliminate injustice, overthrow any hatred, completely move away from the (struggle) of factions and parties, caring only for the good, honor and greatness of the republic, forget about all the sorrows experienced to this day. day because of party or factional passions, or for any other reason. He made various trips on behalf of the "Council of Ten" (like his father), maintaining contact with eminent citizens of the city.

From the 1440s, the architect worked for Cosimo de' Medici, though not entirely successfully. By his order, Brunelleschi prepared a model of the palazzo, working on it with special diligence and inspiration. But the project seemed too pretentious to the customer. Under the fictitious pretext of lack of funds, he rejected the work of the master. Biographers write that this drove Filippo into an incredible frenzy, and he smashed his model to smithereens.

Filippo Brunelleschi died on April 16, 1446, being a famous and recognized master who entered both his name and his city into history. In May 1447, his body was buried in the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore. The tombstone was made by Cavalcanti, the Latin epitaph was compiled by the famous humanist and chancellor of the Florentine Republic, Carlo Marsuppini. In it, the “grateful fatherland” paid tribute to the architect Filippo for the “amazing dome” and “for the many structures invented by his divine genius.”

On the death of Brunelleschi Vasari in his book
wrote: “... April 16 went to a better life
after many labors laid by them
to create works that
he deserved a glorious name on earth and an abode
rest in heaven"

The general significance of Brunelleschi's work for the subsequent development of architecture is enormous. He surprisingly combined an outstanding mathematical mind and a highly developed artistic intuition, in which he is very reminiscent of Leonardo da Vinci. Despite the controversy, it is still believed that it was Brunelleschi who introduced the laws of linear perspective into art, revived the order and proportional system of antiquity. His works are characterized by simplicity and harmony, which are generated by following the golden ratio. The master himself said this about his work: “If I had a chance to complete a hundred models of churches or other buildings, I would make them all varied and different.” This diversity (lat. varietas) was especially highly valued in the era of the most free creativity. Brunelleschi is one of the "fathers" and geniuses of the Early Renaissance, and his importance in the development of architecture is as great as the role of Masaccio in painting and Donatello in sculpture.

At the beginning of the 15th century, Florence surpassed all the major cities of Europe in terms of population, standard of living, development of trade and crafts. But in the city itself there was an unsolvable problem. For over a century, the symbol of the city, the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore, remained decapitated.

The cathedral, according to the project of the architect Arnolfo di Cambio, was supposed to delight with its richness and splendor so that nothing more majestic and beautiful could be created by human hands.

The project included the construction of the largest dome in the world, but it turned out to be impossible to implement the plan. The octagonal vault, planned by Arnolfo di Cambio, was so massive that it would inevitably collapse under its own weight. In addition, there was the problem of erecting scaffolding, for which there would not be enough trees throughout Tuscany, not to mention the prohibitive high cost of the project.

In a word, to solve this problem, not only a brave, but a brilliant engineer and architect, obsessed with his ideas, was required. That was exactly what Filippo Brunelleschi, a sculptor, jeweler, engineer and architect from Florence, was like.

His creative path began with a defeat: in 1401, together with the most prominent masters of Europe, he participated in a city competition to create the best bronze relief for the gate of the Baptistery of San Giovanni, an ancient and revered Florentine temple, standing in front of the cathedral. Lorenzo Ghiberti turned out to be the best then: it was he who received the order to create the bronze north gate (later he will create the famous Gates of Paradise, the east gate, an absolute masterpiece of the early Renaissance, which we will definitely tell about).

Proud and wayward Brunelleschi refuses the offer of customers (members of the city council and representatives of the guild of merchants and cloth dyers) to work on the gate under the project and under the supervision of Ghiberti and decides to leave Florence, having moved to Rome for several years. He sells a small estate in Settignano, a suburb of Florence, and goes on a journey with the proceeds. His friend, the young sculptor Donatello, is traveling with him.

Filippo Brunelleschi will return to Florence in a few years, having forgotten about the defeat. His ideas will make a real revolution, he will create the architecture of the New Age, lay the foundations of linear perspective in painting and go down in history as the creator of the dome of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore.Admiring contemporaries will say about him: "He lost the battle, but won the war."

Rome unusually attracted both Brunelleschi and Donatello. The first sought to study ancient architecture, the second dreamed of comprehending the secrets of ancient sculpture. The great city, lying in ruins and desolated, so impressed them both that they would spend the next few years in continuous study.

Donatello and Brunelleschi worked tirelessly, and during their stay in Rome they did not leave a single ancient building and sculpture unattended. They endlessly surveyed, sketched and measured everything that came across them on the way. They were interested in technology, materials, techniques known in antiquity.

Filippo Brunelleschi returns to Florence inspired and full of the most daring ideas. Years of studying the heritage of antiquity revealed to him the knowledge lost in the Middle Ages. It seemed that he could clearly see in his imagination the whole of Rome with its majestic buildings as it was before the destruction.

So Brunelleschi approached the embodiment of his most daring plan. The idea of ​​erecting a dome visited him in Rome, and he, keeping it a secret, worked on it every day. He studied and sketched all the ancient arches, paying special attention to the Pantheon with its huge dome, which has no supports.

Returning to Florence, he secretly made models and fixtures for the construction of the dome for many months. Gradually, his plan became more distinct, he literally saw the dome built in his imagination.

Meanwhile, desperate members of the city council in 1418 announced a competition for the best engineering solution. Once again, architects gathered in Florence, not only from Tuscany and Italy, but also from all over Europe, in order to decide, after discussing all the projects, who is worthy of this work.

And so, at the council, a variety of assumptions were made, many of which seemed insane. So one suggested laying pillars on the ground that would support the arches on which the structure would rest, another suggested creating a dome of light tufa, the third wanted to arrange an earthen embankment inside the cathedral, which could be used instead of scaffolding, and mixed coins into the ground in order to the end of the work, the embankment would have been dismantled by the Florentines themselves. Some were of the opinion that a hipped vault should be built, similar to that which crowns the baptistery of San Giovanni.

When it was Brunelleschi's turn, he proposed to the council a project for a double dome, which could be erected without bulky scaffolding and huge costs.

According to Vasari, Brunelleschi said: “Gentlemen, rest assured that there is no way to build this vault except as I say; and no matter how much you laugh at me, you will be convinced that it should not and cannot be done in another way.If, however, to build it in the way I intended it, it is necessary that it be double, with internal and external vaults, so that it is possible to pass between the one and the other. And at the corners of all eight slopes, the building should be interlocked with teeth in the thickness of the masonry and in the same way girded with a crown of oak beams on all sides.In addition, it is necessary to think about the light, about stairs and drains, through which water could escape during rain. And none of you thought that you would have to reckon with the need for internal scaffolding for the execution of mosaics and many other difficult works. I know that there is no other way and no other way to build it, like the one that I have outlined.

But to everyone present, this idea seemed nothing more than another impossible madness. She caused only laughter, and he himself was considered completely crazy.As proof of his words, Filippo could present the model he created, which he kept with him. But he was afraid to demonstrate his idea for fear of theft.Brunelleschi did not leave his project, and even more confident in it, he began to explain it in parts and in private conversations with members of the council. So one by one he convinced the whole city that he was right.

On August 1, 1420, work began on the construction of the dome designed by Filippo Brunelleschi.

Vasari writes about how the work progressed: “The building had already grown to such a height that it was the greatest difficulty, once rising, then again returning to the ground; and the masters lost much time when they went to eat and drink, and suffered greatly from the heat of the day. And so Filippo arranged for dining rooms with kitchens to open on the dome and that wine was sold there; in this way no one left work until the evening, which was convenient for them and highly beneficial to the cause.Seeing that the work was being argued and succeeded well, Filippo perked up so much that he worked tirelessly. He himself went to brick factories, where bricks were kneaded, in order to see and crush the clay himself, and when they were burned - with his own hand, he selected bricks with the greatest diligence. He supervised the masons to ensure that the stones were not cracked and strong, and gave them models of struts and joints made of wood, wax, and even rutabaga; he did the same with blacksmiths.

The genius and simplicity of the idea was that the double structure, connected by ribs and hoops, was conceived as a system that supported itself. A special way of laying bricks gave additional strength to the structure. The double vault, assembled from eight faces, must be fastened with a lantern for a load that prevents collapse.

Filippo made a model of this lantern and, having lived to an old age, and realizing that he might not see the dome finished, he bequeathed that the lantern be built without fail according to his project, which happened by 1470.

Many centuries have passed since then, but Brunelleschi's dome still towers over the city today and never ceases to amaze with its ideal beauty and ingenious simplicity.

Filippo Brunelleschi (Italian: Filippo Brunelleschi (Brunellesco)); 1377-1446) - great Italian architect, sculptor of the Renaissance.

The source of information is considered to be his "biography", traditionally attributed to Antonio Manetti, written more than 30 years after the death of the architect.

Filippo Brunelleschi was born in Florence to the notary Brunelleschi di Lippo; Filippo's mother, Giuliana Spini, was related to the noble families of Spini and Aldobrandini. As a child, Filippo, to whom his father's practice was supposed to go, received a humanitarian upbringing and the best education for that time: he studied Latin, studied ancient authors. Growing up with humanists, Brunelleschi adopted the ideals of this circle, longing for the times of "his ancestors" the Romans, and hatred for everything alien, for the barbarians who destroyed Roman culture, including "monuments of these barbarians" (and among them - medieval buildings, narrow streets of cities), which seemed to him alien and unartistic in comparison with the ideas that the humanists made up for themselves about the greatness of ancient Rome.

Abandoning the career of a notary, Filippo was apprenticed from 1392, probably with a goldsmith, and then practiced as an apprentice with a jeweler in Pistoia; he also studied drawing, modeling, engraving, sculpture and painting, in Florence he studied industrial and military machines, acquired significant knowledge in mathematics for that time in the teachings of Paolo Toscanelli, who, according to Vasari, taught him mathematics. In 1398, Brunelleschi joined the Arte della Seta, which included goldsmiths. In Pistoia, the young Brunelleschi worked on the silver figures of the St. James altarpiece - his work was strongly influenced by the art of Giovanni Pisano. Donatello helped Brunelleschi to work on the sculptures (he was then 13 or 14 years old) - from that time the friendship connected the masters for life.

In 1401, Filippo Brunelleschi returned to Florence, took part in the competition announced by Arte di Calimala (cloth merchants' workshop) to decorate with reliefs two bronze gates of the Florence Baptistery. Jacopo della Quercia, Lorenzo Ghiberti and a number of other masters took part in the competition with him. The competition, presided over by 34 judges, for which each master had to submit a bronze relief “The Sacrifice of Isaac” executed by him, lasted a year. The competition was lost by Brunelleschi - Ghiberti's relief was superior artistically and technically (it was cast from one piece and was 7 kg lighter than Brunelleschi's relief). However, despite the unanimity of the judges in choosing his relief as the winner, as described by Ghiberti in his Memoirs, most likely, some intrigue surrounded the history of the competition (Manetti believes that Brunelleschi should have won). Despite this, Brunelleschi's work was not destroyed along with the works of other participants, but was preserved (now in the National Museum, Florence), apparently still marking it as unusually successful.

According to Manetti, Brunelleschi created several statues in wood and bronze. Among them is a statue of Mary Magdalene, which burned down in Santo Spirito during a fire in 1471. Around 1409 (between the 1410s and 1430s), Brunelleschi created a wooden “Crucifixion” in the church of Santa Maria Novella, according to his biographers - having entered into a friendly dispute with Donatello.

Hurt by the fact that he lost the competition, Brunelleschi left Florence and went to Rome, where, perhaps, he decided to study ancient sculpture to perfection (some scientists push back the date of the trip, some generally consider it a figment of the biographer's fantasy, some that there were several such trips and they were short-lived). During Filippo's stay in Rome, Donatello was almost invariably with him. They lived in the Eternal City for several years, and since both were excellent goldsmiths, they made a living in this craft and spent all that they earned on organizing excavations of ancient ruins. In his free time, he devoted himself entirely to the study of Roman ruins, and the influence of Roman impressions can be noted in the work of both masters.

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Filippo Brunelleschi is one of the greatest Italian architects of the 15th century. The Florentine architect, sculptor, scientist and engineer worked in Florence in the first half of the 15th century - during the Early Renaissance. However, Brunelleschi's colossal influence on his contemporaries is primarily associated with architecture. They saw the fundamental novelty of his work in the resurrection of ancient traditions. The figures of the Renaissance associated the beginning of a new era in architecture with his name. Moreover, Brunelleschi was in the eyes of his contemporaries the founder of all new art. Brunelleschi still retained memories of the traditional frame principle dating back to the Gothic, which he boldly associated with the order, thereby emphasizing the organizing role of the latter and relegating the wall to the role of a neutral filling. The development of his ideas can be seen in modern world architecture. Already the first architectural work of Brunelleschi is a majestic octagonal dome. . Florence Cathedral is the first major architectural monument of the Renaissance and the embodiment of its engineering, as it was erected using mechanisms specially invented for this purpose. After 1420, Brunelleschi became the most famous architect of Florence. Simultaneously with the construction of the dome, Brunelleschi led the construction of an orphanage - the Orphanage (Ospedale di Santa Maria degli Innocenti), which is rightfully considered the first monument of the Renaissance style in architecture. Italy has not yet known a building that would be so close to antiquity in its structure, natural appearance and simplicity of forms. In addition, it was not a temple or a palace, but a municipal house - an orphanage. Graphic lightness, giving a feeling of free, unrestricted space, became a distinctive feature of this building, and subsequently constituted an integral feature of the architectural masterpieces of Filippo Brunelleschi. He discovered the basic laws of linear perspective, revived the ancient order, raised the importance of proportions and made them the basis of new architecture, without at the same time abandoning the medieval heritage. Refined simplicity and at the same time the harmony of architectural elements, united by the ratio of the "divine proportion" - the golden section, became the attributes of his work. This was manifested even in his sculptures and bas-reliefs. In fact, Brunelleschi became one of the "fathers" of the Early Renaissance, along with the painter Masaccio and the sculptor Donatello - three Florentine geniuses opened a new era in architecture and fine arts. .. On our website, in addition to the biography of the great sculptor and architect, we offer you to get acquainted with his works that have survived to this day, without which it is impossible to imagine the look of Florence even to a modern person.

Creativity L.B. Alberti.

Alberti Leon Battista is an Italian scientist, architect, writer and musician. He received a humanistic education in Padua, studied law in Bologna. Later he lived in Florence and Rome. A major cultural figure of the Renaissance. He defended the literary rights of the "folk" (Italian) language. In a number of theoretical treatises ("On the Statue", 1435, and "On Painting", 1435-36, in Italian; "On Architecture", published in 1485, in Latin), Alberti summarized the experience of the art of his time, enriched by the achievements of science . In architectural activity, Alberti gravitated towards bold experimental solutions. In the Rucellai Palace in Florence (1446-1451, built by B. Rossellino according to the plans of Alberti), the facade was first divided into three tiers of pilasters of different orders and the pilasters, together with the rusticated wall, are perceived as the constructive basis of the building. Rebuilding the facade of the Church of Santa Maria Novella (1456-70 ), Alberti used the traditions of the inlay style in facing and for the first time used volutes to connect the middle part of the facade with lower side ones. The works of Alberti, and especially the church of San Francesco in Rimini (1447-68, converted from a Gothic church), the churches of San Sebastiano (1460) and Sant'Andrea (1472-94) in Mantua, built according to his designs, were an important step in the development ancient heritage architecture of the Early Renaissance. In architectural activity A. gravitated towards bold experimental solutions. In the Rucellai Palace in Florence, the façade was for the first time dissected by three tiers of pilasters of various orders, and the pilasters, together with the rusticated wall, are perceived as the structural basis of the building. Rebuilding the facade of the Church of Santa Maria Novella, A. used in the cladding traditions of the inlay style and for the first time used volutes to connect the middle part of the facade with the lower side ones. The works of A., and especially the church of San Francesco in Rimini, the churches of San Sebastiano and Sant'Andrea in Mantua, built according to his designs, were an important step in the development of the ancient heritage of the architecture of the Early Renaissance.

His work belongs to the period of the Early Renaissance.

The last work of Brunelleschi - the dome of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore - is still considered a miracle of building art.

Vocation

F. Brunelleschi was born in Florence in 1377 in the family of a notary. The father wanted his son to choose the same profession for himself, but, noticing the boy's inclination towards mechanics, he apprenticed him to a goldsmith.
Filippo with great enthusiasm was engaged in those sciences that were associated with architecture: drawing, modeling, engraving, sculpture and painting, in Florence he studied industrial and military machines, as well as mathematics. In 1398, he already began to be considered a goldsmith and joined the Arte della Seta, which included other goldsmiths.

In Pistoia, the young Brunelleschi worked on the silver figures of the altar of St. Jacob. He was assisted by Donatello, who by that time was only 13-14 years old. In the early works of F. Brunelleschi, the strong influence of the art of Giovanni Pisano is felt.

F. Brunelleschi "Madonna and Child"
Returning to Florence, Brunelleschi continued to improve in sculpture, created several statues of wood and bronze: a statue of Mary Magdalene (burned down in Santo Spirito during a fire in 1471), a wooden “Crucifixion” in the church of Santa Maria Novella.

In Rome

He soon went to Rome, and there began to study the Roman or classical style, which at that time had been abandoned in Italy. Here, in Rome, the young Brunelleschi moved from plastic to building art. “He began to carefully measure the surviving ruins, sketch plans for entire buildings and plans for individual parts, capitals and cornices, and all their details. He dug up the parts and foundations that had been filled in, made these plans into a single whole, he was imbued with the spirit of antiquity; working with a tape measure, a shovel and a pencil, he learned to distinguish between the types and arrangement of ancient buildings and created the first history of Roman architecture in folders with his studies ”(P. Frankl).

Educational home

In 1419, the Arte della Seta guild commissioned Brunelleschi to build an Educational Home for Babies Left without Parents, which operated until 1875. It was, in fact, the first Renaissance building in Italy. She had a huge impact on the development of Italian and all world architecture. The construction was carried out at the expense of the charity of the Florentine oligarchs.
Until 1427, the work was supervised by the architect Brunelleschi himself - this was the first stage of construction.
The foster home was officially opened only in 1445. It was the first orphanage (orphanage) of this magnitude in Europe.
The foster home accepted homeless children, foundlings and provided them with the opportunity to integrate into society.

Coat of arms of the Guild Arte della Seta on the facade of the shelter
Photo by: Sailko – Own work, from Wikipedia
At first, nurses took care of the children. Then the boys were taught to read and write, and in the future they received knowledge according to their abilities. Girls were taught sewing, cooking and other skills necessary for a future housewife. Upon graduation, the institution provided them with a dowry and gave them the opportunity to get married or enter a monastery. In the 1520s, a special extension was added to the southern part of the building for pupils who did not choose either marriage or a monastery.
Today, the Orphanage is still home to the most important charitable organizations in Florence. There are two nurseries, a motherhood school, three nurseries and one women's shelter, UNICEF offices. The orphanage is a national center for childhood and youth.

Shelter architecture

The facade is a portico 70 m long, consisting of nine semicircular columns. Inside it is decorated with frescoes. In the bosom of the vaults there are glazed tondos (a round-shaped picture or bas-relief) made of blue tiles with reliefs depicting a baby in swaddling clothes by Andrea della Robbia (circa 1490). Only a few of them are authentic, the rest are copies of the XIX century. Above each arch is a rectangular window with a triangular pediment.

Tondo
In the center of the building is a square courtyard surrounded by an arcade (a series of arches of the same shape and size) with a raised vault. The arches rest on columns.
The architecture of the Orphanage in Florence is interesting because for the first time it combines columns and load-bearing arches. The building retains a clear sense of proportion. The height of the columns is equal to the distance between them and the width of the arcade itself: this correct ratio forms a cube. Brunelleschi combined classical Roman, Romanesque and late Gothic architecture in his designs.

Basilica of San Lorenzo and Old Sacristy

Simultaneously with the construction of the Orphanage, Brunelleschi in 1420 began work on the Old Sacristy of the Basilica of San Lorenzo, the construction of which was completed in 1428. This composition was exemplary for the Renaissance. Funds allocated for construction Medici- an oligarchic family, whose representatives from the 13th to the 18th centuries. repeatedly became the rulers of Florence. They are best known as patrons of the most prominent artists and architects of the Renaissance. Representatives of their family were buried here.
The Sacristy of San Lorenzo is a spacious square building covered with a dome. On the east side there is an altar in the form of a small low room, but subordinate to the large one. The clarity and simplicity of Brunelleschi's architecture is the main feature of his talent. Donatello made decorative elements - reliefs.

Facade of the Church of San Lorenzo
The sacristy was being built, and on the other side were the remains of the old church of San Lorenzo, which had not yet been demolished. This early Christian basilica determined the shape of the new church. That is, the path to Renaissance architecture went through the revival of ancient architecture. Antique in proportion, silhouette and design of the capitals, the columns easily carry weight, arches are thrown over them, the whole space is divided with mathematical clarity - everything pressing, everything separating is avoided. A simple ornament, partly invented by Brunelleschi himself, makes an imprint of lightness, harmony, the mood of this church building - the naive joy of being.

Interior of San Lorenzo

Dome of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore

Almost simultaneously with the construction of San Lorenzo, Brunelleschi began the construction of a dome over the cathedral of the city - Santa Maria del Fiore (1420-1436). The dome is an octagonal lancet arch of the Gothic type. The architect of the cathedral is Arnolfo di Cambio, the campanile of the cathedral was built by the great Giotto.
The dome of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore (or simply Duomo) is still the tallest building in Florence, its height is 114.5 m. the building overshadows all the Tuscan lands to heaven, ”wrote the Italian scientist, humanist, writer, one of the founders of new European architecture and the leading theorist of Renaissance art, Leon Battista Alberti, about him.
The dome had to be erected at a great height, which then seemed impossible. Brunelleschi proposed to make a light 8-sided dome of stone and brick, which would be assembled from “lobes” and fastened at the top with an architectural lantern. He himself volunteered to create a range of machines for climbing and working at height - this showed his engineering abilities.

Dome in section
The octagonal dome with a diameter of 42 m was built without scaffolding resting on the ground; it consists of two shells connected by 24 ribs and 6 horizontal rings. Rising above the city, the dome, with its upward aspiration and flexible elastic contour, determined the characteristic silhouette of Florence, and by its contemporaries it was perceived as a symbol of a new era - the Renaissance.

Palazzo Pitti

Luca Pitti is a wealthy merchant. He wanted to ruin the Medici and almost did it, but due to his weakness of character, he could not outplay the deft diplomacy of the Medici. He wanted his palace to be a monument to his victory over the Medici and Florence. The palace had to be so large that the largest palace in Florence could be placed in its courtyard. But Pitti began to have financial difficulties. The owner of the palace died in 1472, without having completed his enterprise.

Patio
The courtyard remained open at the back, and received a facade only a hundred years later (in 1558, architect B. Ammanati). But the palace did not turn out the way Pitti intended it, although it is the largest of the palazzos in Florence, an outstanding architectural monument. It is located on the sloping Pitti Square. The building served as the residence first of the Grand Dukes of Tuscany, then of the Italian kings. Currently, it is one of the largest museum complexes in Florence (the Palatine Gallery, the Gallery of Modern Art, the Silver Museum, the Porcelain Museum, the Carriage Museum and the Costume Gallery are located here).
Filippo Brunelleschi died in 1446.

Andrea Cavalcanti "Sculptural portrait of Filippo Brunelleschi"
Photo credit: shakko – Own work, from Wikipedia